Pre and Protohistory of South Asia - PDF

Lecture 004 Lecture 005 Pre and Protohistory of South Asia Introduction to Mesopotamian Civilization Geographical Setting Mesopotamia- land between the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris in modern Iraq and Syria Abundant water supply due to the Eup...

Lecture 004 Lecture 005 Pre and Protohistory of South Asia Introduction to Mesopotamian Civilization Geographical Setting Mesopotamia- land between the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris in modern Iraq and Syria Abundant water supply due to the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, provided a unique setting for development of state level societies during the third millennium BCE Region bounded by the desert on its west, mountains on the north and east and by the Gulf (Persian Gulf) on the southeast Vast trough created the thrust of Arabian Shield in the west and the formation of folded Zagros Mountains and its filling in by the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris creates a distinct geographical area Western side of the Mesopotamian region lies the Levantine Sea a sub-basin of Mediterranean Sea, which is bounded on the three sides by the Anatolia on north, modern Syria, Lebanon and Israel on east and Sinai Peninsula and Egypt on south  Geographical Setting Finkelstein (1962) traces the origin of the term ‘Mesopotamia’ as the Greek place-name coined during the time of Alexander and meant for a ‘designated more or less strictly delimited administrative district, the name itself was translated from the term already current in the area – probably in Aramaic – and apparently was understood to mean the land lying “between the (Euphrates and Tigris) rivers” “mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words “meso(s),” meaning between or in the middle of, and “potamos,” meaning river During the peak of last Ice Age the sea levels were around 100 m lower Sea levels started to rise around the beginning of Holocene and the present coastline formed around 5000-4000 BCE. Historically recorded that the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris drained into the Gulf independently and did not join as of present times The region to the southeast of the present day confluence of the Rivers Euphrates Sea levels rose further 1-2; reached up to the ancient city of Ur, as the historical and Tigris and further north-north west is a texts record this city as a port vast flat land due to which the braided pattern of river flow is generated The land of Babylonia is located between the latitudes marked by the modern After the receding of sea level to the present Ramadi and Baghdad, consisting of vast alluvial plains.The vast plains located day levels, the entire region to the southeast of between the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris is beyond the rain fed agricultural zone the confluence developed into a marshy land and supported by a vast network of irrigation networks consisting of several river islands, lakes, waterways, supporting a variety of wild life, The topography represented by the River Euphrates is a vast flat plain, slow moving birds, fowls, fish species river in contrast to the rapidly flowing and deeply incised River Tigris; hence plains of Euphrates more suitable for agriculture Geographical Setting Rapidity of River Tigris did not facilitate irrigation in comparison to Euphrates, and due to its deep incised landscape, until the invention of water lifting system during first millennium BCE, it did largely aid the agricultural practices, mainly through irrigation Map showing possible joint courses of Rivers Euphrates and Multiple views showing the Mesopotamian delta during 7th c. BCE, Tigris and ancient locations of River Tigris based on fourth century BCE and 20th c. CE meanders and location of sites Geographical Setting Constant shifting of river courses. evidences of ancient abandoned habitation as described by scholars, ‘in the middle of nowhere’ Even though the city-states located in different parts of the Mesopotamia and politically divided, “…city-states of Babylonia were united by their environment, common problems, and solutions, promoting the growth of a common culture.” Surrounding regions of Mesopotamia have also abundant mineral resources, especially, “…stones, metal ores, high quality woods…” Evidences of trading in raw materials from the Palaeolithic times, gradually evolved into long distance trade triggering the emergence of complex societies, which vied to control the trade networks. Map showing possible joint courses of Rivers Euphrates and Tigris and ancient locations of River Tigris based on meanders and location of sites Evidence for earliest semi-sedentary life Verhoeven (2004) proposes the following phases in the evolution from Epi-Palaeolithic to domestication in Levant: germination in the Kebaran; development in the early Natufian; retreat / dormancy in the Late / Final Natufian; growth in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN); florescence in the Early- and Middle Pre- Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB); further development in the Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB); dispersal in the Final Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) and Pottery Neolithic (PN) Defined by a changing succession of ruling bodies from different areas and cities that seized control over a period of thousands of years. Important inventions/contributions - concept of time, math, the wheel, sailboats, maps, astronomy and writing Evidence for earliest semi-sedentary life Kebaran Epi-Palaeolithic Evidenced from Kebara Cave in Mt. Carmel, Kebaran phase of Epi-Palaeolithic (Verhoeven 2004) can be sub- divided into: Early Kebaran (20 – 18 ka), Late Kebaran, including Nizzanan (18 – 14.5 ka), Lithics from Wadi Sayakh Geometric microliths from Ain Miri Geometric Kebaran, including Mushabian and Ramonian (14.5 – 12.8 ka) Sites of this phase can found extended in the regions of Euphrates to Southern Sinai and Mediterranean to Saudi Arabia, broadly classified into lowland and highland sites Mediterranean area Steppe and desert zone Microliths from Neve David, Mt. Carmel Microliths from Ma’leh Ziq Evidence for earliest semi-sedentary life Kebaran Epi-Palaeolithic Settlements consisted of smaller to medium sized ones, varying from 100 m2 in the arid area to 1000 m2 in the coastal areas Habitations were mainly of huts or tents, covered with branches, hides, with also evidence for stone structures Lithic industry consisted of chiefly microliths, represented by micro burins, micro gravettes, trapeze rectangles, bladelets Complemented by the earliest appearance of grinding and pounding tools, such as bowls, mortars and bowls made of basalt Grinding and pounding tools are found restricted in the sites along the Mediterranean coast Evidence for earliest semi-sedentary life Kebaran Epi-Palaeolithic Site of Galilee dated to 19 ka brought to light the evidence of several wild plant remains including wild barley Direct evidence of human processing of wild barley is also obtained from the starch grain remains retrieved from the grinding stones Animal remains found from this phase include fallow deer, gazelle and ibex Kebarian phase largely consisted of hunter-gatherers with an ‘egalitarian social structure’ Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian Distinct micolithic industry was discovered from Shukbah Cave in Wadi Natuf by R.P. Alex Mallon and later excavated by Garrod in 1928 Natufian phase can be further sub-divided into: Early Natufian (15 – 13.5 ka), Late Natufian (13.5 – 12.7 ka), and Final Natufian (12.7 – 11.5 ka) Distribution of site of early Natufian phase is found extended in the entire Levant and from the middle Euphrates to Negev region Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian Density of sites in northern and central Israel and northern Jordan, coinciding with the forest zone of Mediterranean region, avoiding mostly the coastal area Settlements are comparatively large (semi-sedentary) and seasonal sites in the Mediterranean area, while the hunter- gatherers and contemporary non-Natufian site are in the drier areas Habitants of Natufian phase constructed semi-permanent to permanent settlements varying from 15 m2 to more than 1000 m2 Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian Architecture consisted of oval structures and semi- terranean ones, with the diametre varying from 7 to 15 m during the early Natufian and 5 – 7 m during the late Natufian Structures were built of stones with the provision of hearths at the centre and occasionally with post holes Evidence of clustering of household structures indicating the concept of villages could be observed from the site of Mallaha Other habitation areas include cave sites for carrying out special activities and the terraces for domestic activities Evidence for possible storage areas in the form of pits and bins has been found from larger settlements Use of plaster could also be noticed from one of the walls and what could be the possible roofing constructed using organic materials Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian Lithic industry mostly consists of flakes, Bone bi-points Bone point bladelets, plenty of microliths (dominated by Bone beads lunates), retouched notches, denticulates, borers and awls picks and sickle blades, with the Hand stone evidence of sickle sheen clearly Ground slab indicates that they were used for cutting the Bone sickle handle wild cereals pounding and grinding stones including Mortar Pestle mortars and pestles made of basalt, limestone and sandstone presence of bone industry and the art objects of shell indicating artisanship Bone industry consists of hunting and fishing tools, hide working tools, and basketry tools Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian Bone anomalies at Abu Hureyra due to activities related to food processing Carrying loads = Deformities bones of upper spine; pitting on the vertebra Pounding grain = Development of strong muscles in upper arm; reflected in bulging of humerus Grinding = Deformities in vertebra, knee and shin bones; bones of big toe Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage The toe is hyperflexed and damaged; the spine shows bony growths of the vertebrae; the leg, pictured with the femur (thigh bone) at the top and the tibia (shin bone) below it, has a buttress along the shaft of the femur and bony growths at the knee Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian Tooth anomalies due to eating and weaving Tooth wear = very severe; due to eating coarse flour due to hand grinding on stones abraded the teeth Deep groves on teeth = Pulling canes due to weaving Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian Abu Hureyra evidences First occupants were pre-Neolithic people who lived primitively and did not farm. Early Neolithic people of the second occupation gradually came to cultivation of crops, domestication of animals and such crafts as pottery and basket making Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian double burial from Raqefet Cave, Mt. Carmel (13,700-11,700 BP) Adult and an adolescent, head of adolescent removed later Natufian burials = Pit, successive pits often at the same place; chiselling bedrock to have desired pit; lining the pit with thick layer of green plants, aromatic flowers and bright colours Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian Subsistence-wild plant species, absence of domesticated plant species, and wild animals. The wild plant species consist of barley, rye, lentil, nuts, fruits and scrubs Wild animals represented from the habitation are gazelles, which dominate the faunal collection along with other animals like ibex, goat, waterfowl and fish Verhoeven (2004) observes that “…Natufian society was "egalitarian": they were (so-called "complex") hunters and intensive collectors who in some areas (the Mediterranean zone) lived in villages for extended periods of time.” Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen (1989), observes that “…the faunal evidence, together with dwellings, a few underground storage features, numerous graves, huge quantities of flint artifacts, the proliferation of ground stone objects, art objects, and rich worked bone industry, found in the large and medium-sized sites and largely or entirely absent from small sites, provides a basis for distinguishing between “base camps” and “seasonal or transitory camps.” Sedentary Hunter-Gathering Stage Natufian-Ornaments and Jewellery Jewellery consists of beads and pendants manufactured from limestone, basalt, greenstone, malachite, bone and teeth and a variety of molluscs, in particular, of dentalium shells Art objects are also found from the Natufian sites, in particular gazelle or cattle carved out of stones and bones, human representation (?), geometric forms on limestone slabs, large fish, limestone slab with meandering pattern Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPNA) Transitional Stage transition from the late Natufian to sedentary Neolithic agricultural subsistence pattern emerged around 13.5 – 11.5 ka, marked by the climatic changes around 11.5 ka size of the settlements with evidence of this transition vary from ‘...small ephemeral hunting and gathering stations to somewhat more sedentary camps relying upon the intensive harvesting of wild cereal.’ settlements of PPNA varied from ‘…small encampments (up to 100-150 sq m) to medium-sized hamlets (ca. 2000-3000 sq m) and only rarely to large villages up to 1.5 ha in extent.’ PPNeolithic Important Sites Pre-Pottery Neolithic PPNA Dates: 10.2 – 9.4 ka in the Southern and Northern Levant region with regional variations: Settlements comparatively large ranging from 2 – 5 ha, and located on the boundary regions between the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian vegetational belts First time the formation of tells or mounds could be noticed due to continuous occupation for a longer period Tell Mureybet Jericho  Asikli Hoyuk Pre-Pottery Neolithic PPNA Household architecture consisting of round or oval on plan, with often semi- subterranean ones, built of mud or sometimes plano-convex mud bricks, with few evidences of stone foundation of such architecture Internal architecture of houses indicated multiple partitions or rooms, presence of hearths both inside and outside the houses, provisions for storage in the form of storage pits and bins, emergence of imposing structures as in the case of a tower at Jericho Regional variability in the form of smaller sites in Southern Levant and larger sites, with religious architecture in nature surrounded by smaller sites, some with semi-subterranean habitations in Northern Levant Lithic industry during this period is marked by Khiam arrowheads, sickle blades, small lunates, axes grounding and pounding tools, mortars, grinders, pestles proliferate during this period along with a large variety of seeds and fruits evidence for domestication is found in the form of weeds that are typical of domesticated varieties and sickle gloss on stone tools rituals and practices reminiscent of religious activities could be found Jericho  Abu Hureyra Pre-Pottery Neolithic PPNB Sub-divided into four sub-phases in Southern / Northern Levant consisting of Early PPNB datable to 9.5 – 9.3 ? ka / 9.6 – 8.5 ka; Middle PPNB or Classical PPNB datable to 9.3 – 8.3 ka / 9.3 – 8.5 ka; Late PPNB datable to 8.3 – 7.9 ka / 8.5 – 8 ka and Final PPNB or PPNC datable to 7.9 – 7.5 ka / 8 – 7.5 ka Settlements were large along the rivers in particular Settlements in southern Levant were also large often varying in sizes from 7 – 12 ha, while the smaller settlements of the sizes ranging from 0.1 – 0.5 ha are found in the steppe and near the coast, which are interpreted as ‘foraging sites of farmers, or hunter- gatherer encampments’ Gobekli Tepe Pre-Pottery Neolithic PPNB Household architecture is much elaborate now when compared to the previous PPNA period, which consists predominantly of rectangular ones with multiple rooms, single and double storeyed Medium of building material include pise, stone, mud-bricks or a combination of all these materials New feature emerges in the form of application of lime or gypsum plaster for pits, walls, floors and sparingly for decoration of human skulls Cayonu Increase in domesticated animal bones coincides with the decrease in wild ones, clearly indicating the less preference for hunting. The large presence of grinding and pounding tools including mortars, grinding slabs, pestles, indicate the widespread use Jericho Neolithic Mesopotamia Pottery Neolithic sites are found both in southern and northern Levant with dates ranging from 7000 – 6650 and 8050 – 6450 BP respectively Settlement pattern - mostly on the river valleys and marked by small temporary settlements Architecture of this period consists of rectangular multi- roomed structures, along with a few evidences of circular ones too Lithic industry consisted of scrapers, borers, burins, retouched flakes, blades along with occasional presence of stone arrowheads Material culture consisted of grinding slabs, mortars, pestles, grinders, which become more common during this period Neolithic Mesopotamia Items of adornment and personal ornaments also become common during this period, along with artifacts like bone awls, spindling whorls Appearance of pottery is marked by the examples of coarse undecorated pottery during Early Pottery Neolithic and fine decorated ones during the Later Pottery Neolithic Subsistence economy is now clearly marked by the exploitation of domesticated plants and animals with an agro-pastoral way of living Clear distinction of pottery based material cultures and styles could be noticed now, e.g. Hassuna, Samarra and Halaf in northern Mesopotamia; Yarmukian, Jericho IX and Wadi Rabah in southern Levant  Neolithic Mesopotamia Tell es-Sawwan Burials with different patterns of burial goods Figurines, alabaster vessels, latter indicating Walled settlement long distance trade and hence representing exotic varieties Evidence of emergence of stratified society and hierarchy Burials Neolithic Mesopotamia-Southern Region Ubaid Culture Ubaid culture represented by a distinct variety of ceramic tradition in the southern Mesopotamia; earliest settlement Tell Oueili Pottery originated - mid-late seventh millennium BCE lasted for 2500 – 3000 years starting from ‘mid-late seventh to late fifth-early fourth millennia BCE’ distinguished by the typical ‘black-on-buff painted ceramic style’. Neolithic Mesopotamia-Southern Region Ubaid Culture Late 6th and early 5th mill. BCE-Ubaid ceramics proliferates and spread to vast distances; also mark emergence of larger settlements, buildings and central temple, eg. at ERIDU In Ubaid 4, the temple reaches monumental proportions with the addition of niches and buttresses Neolithic Mesopotamia-Southern Region Ubaid Culture Appearance of model boats from sites like Eridu and Ur may indicate their widespread prevalence as modes of communication in the areas criss-crossed by the numerous water channels Communication networks with the aid of boats through the river channels could have facilitated spread of cultures towards the north & south into the Persian Gulf region Ubaid 4 period marks the appearance of stamp seals started to appear with various linear patterns along with representation of human and animal forms, which has been interpreted as administrative mechanisms Smaller settlements and groups of communities largely self- reliant and producing their own requirements like pottery, household articles; copper appears Larger settlements saw emergence of specialised craft activities and develop such skills as full time professions, the outcome of which were exchanged through a system of barter  Tell Abada, Ubaid 2 Mesopotamia Development of architecture-PN to Ubaid Tepe Gawra, Ubaid 4 Yarim Tepe Sabi Aybad Halaf culture Tell es-Sawwan, Early Ubaid Early Pottery Neolithic, Sabi Abyad Neolithic Mesopotamia-Southern Region Eridu Eridu is at present found at Abu Shahrein, situated at a distance of 20 km south-south-west of the ancient site of Ur in Iraq Settlement was a prominent Ubaid period town as is also indicated by the profuse quantity of Late Ubaid pottery from the surface Single roomed mud-brick structure with an offering table and pedestal over a platform, which has been identified as the edifice of worship of Enki, the god of waters and wisdom Incipient temple architecture at Eridu grew with the city and population, and several alterations and additions were made it Location of the altar remained the same in all the later period expansions, thereby retaining the religious value attached to the temple Neolithic Mesopotamia-Southern Region Eridu Final phase of the temple consisted of a central nave flanked by side chambers This plan of temple became a standard plan of all other temples indicating the role of the priesthood in the overall development of state Excavations brought to light nine levels of temples, all built one above the another, the Temples I – V of the Uruk period, Temples VI to VIII of late Ubaid period, Temples IX – XI of early Ubaid and Temples XV – XVII of pre-Ubaid period Temple XVI Temple VII  Mosaic pegs on temple columns and wall decoration made of clay, with alabaster and colored stone petals  Ophidian figurines – first appear in late Samarran levels; later become characteristic feature of Ubaid Period Neolithic Mesopotamia-Southern Region Eridu Temples and palatial buildings were constructed of mud bricks Normal households were constructed of reeds at sites like Ur, Uruk and Ubaid Settlements in northern Mesopotamia present evidence of mud brick architecture in a major way when compared to the southern Mesopotamia Other important evidences from Eridu include a vast necropolis having around 800 – 1200 burials Graves contain both individual as well as family graves, with burial goods like pottery, tools and personal jewellery, and rarely with pet animals like dog Surrounding plains of Eridu were lush green fields, which supported the cultivation of major crops, suitably supported by the irrigation canal networks that assumed immense importance in the later period Development of a canal network fully aided the agriculturists, but also divided them based on the proximity of their lands to the canals  Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Uruk and Jemdet Jasr Periods Uruk period corresponds to the second half of fourth millennium BCE in southern Mesopotamia; also marks Integration Era; Sumerian end of Ubaid Period Stein and Wattemaker (1990) suggests the following: shifting ecological conditions; local warfare between competing Mesopotamian Tell Awayli, 4000 BCE city-states; problems of scale and control over large areas and the pursuit of conflicting economic and social strategies by urban centers and their hinterlands The colonization of Mesopotamian alluvium was made possible by the adaptive cultural subsystems such as irrigation agriculture Best examples of such an adaptive cultural subsystem are the fashioning of ‘baked-clay sickles and shaft- holed axes’ in southern Mesopotamia, which in other regions were fashioned out of stone, wood or metals Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Uruk (Warka) Evidence for the emergence of state level society Ubaid Period (4200 BCE): smaller settlement, irrigation, temple remains, craft activities; by 3500 BCE, settlement increases in size to 10 ha or 25 acres with 2000 population Evidence for population increase in the southern alluvium due to three possible factors: 1) normal population growth, 2) migration of agriculturalists from the north, 3) settling down of nomads and pastoralists from the desert fringes The size of the settlement grew to 300 ha with numerous temples, elite habitation areas Population increased dramatically in the southern Mesopotamia during the Uruk period due to the increased exploitation of irrigation agriculture  Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Uruk (4th mill. BCE) Alabaster cult Cylinder seal, priest king vessel, known as surrounded by herd of feeding Warka vase cows Mass produced bevelled rim pottery Jebel Aruda, Sumerian outpost on Euphrates, 3500-3400 BCE Sumerian battle formation and leader depicting victory of Eannatum of Lagash Sumer (Kengir) in southern Mesopotamia (South central Iraq)– first civilization Collection of city-states, most of them with thick defensive walls because the city-states were often at war with one another, first united by Etana of Kish Major cities included Eridu, Uruk, Ur, and Lagash. Uruk was one of the largest cities Invented new technology First to use the wheel Wagon- a transportation revolution for farming and trade Developed a number system based on 60--this explains why we have 60 seconds in minute and 60 minutes in an hour. Used a 12 month calendar with a 7 day week Astronomers studied the stars an mapped the first set of constellations Early writers wrote the earliest known literature called the Epic of Gilgamesh, which tells the tale of the struggle between man and the Gods, earliest texts, language called emegi Created architectural structures such as the dome, the column, and the arch Sumer in southern Mesopotamia – first civilization Government organized around one king, men dominated the household, and their religion believed in some kind of afterlife Culture had social classes formed when people began doing different jobs—groups of people with similar backgrounds, wealth, and ways of living City became the center of trade, religious, and social life Polytheistic religion Writing developed- pictograms, cuneiform written on wet clay tablets Named Uruk by the Akkadians, Unug by the Sumerians, Erech in the Bible and Orchoe by the Greeks, the city was founded in the fifth millennium BC and survived into the first millennium AD Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Monumental Art as propaganda Ziggurat at Ur Relief depicting naked captives of neighboring city state Legitimation of overt use of force  Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Clay Token Earliest clay tokens date back to 9th mill. BCE Clay envelopes, with clay tokens with numerical markers Mesopotamian Weights and scale pans Weight system not standardized Strongly contextualized  Brocade style, cylinder seal, sacred herd and temple Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Banquet style for women Seals - oldest seals probably not used for trade, found in Syria and Turkey 7th to 6th millennia BCE; by 5th millennium BCE, first clay sealings possibly related to trade or ownership. Combat style for men  Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Proto-Cuneiform - 3500- 2800 BCE influenced Behistun Inscription of Darius I, proto-Elamite in Iran and 522-486 BCE was the foundation of Cuneiform writing system Trilingual - Old Persian, Elamite, in Mesopotamia Babylonian (Akkadian) Cuneiform (cuneus = wedge) - term first used in 1700 CE for writing used in Mesopotamia  Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Clay tablet and clay envelopes For official communication and treaties Medical text Nippur late 3rd mill. BCE Ebla Archives 2500/2400 BCE-2200 BCE Ebla Library 15,000 texts administrative, literary, religious, economic, political Man being led to a god by a goddess, Seal of governor, under Ur-Nammu Chalcolithic Mesopotamia Sun god, Water god, Ishtar (goddess of war, love, fertility) Mathematical Treatise, Sippar 1800 BCE 2900-2350 (2371) BCE - Early Dynastic Period, Sumerian Monarchies, at least 2 dozen major cities, warring states, writing, Royal cemetery at Ur (2680-2450 BCE) This king list names kings from before the flood to Sin-Magir of Isin, 1827-1817 BCE Major City States (Early Dynastic Period) Carved chlorite vessels with Indus zebu, and Central Trade networks of carved chlorite vessels Asian/ Iranian motifs Cylinder seal, Mesopotamia - with long necked mythical animals Narmer Tablet - Egypt with long necked mythical animals Queen Puabi’s male attendants wore, one gold earring, and headbands or necklaces with Harappan beads from Akkadian burials at Ur, gold, lapis and carnelian beads (long carnelian 2200-2100 BCE beads are from the Indus Valley)  Ur- burial procession of Queen Puabi circa 2400 BCE Ur - burial of King and later Queen Puabi  Helmet of Mes-kalam-dug Royal Cemetery of Ur, circa 3500 BCE made from a single sheet of 15 karat gold Queen Puabi’s gold flower headdress and carnelian, gold and lapis lazuli bead cape and belts Queen Puabi’s burial had 3 attendants in the burial chamber, one male, five soldiers on the ramp, 5 grooms, one male wardrobe attendant and 10 female attendants wearing elaborate headdresses, two were carrying a harp and a lyre Lapis seal of a female attendant with female ornaments Shell seal of a warrior with male artifacts Lapis seal of a harp player - gender not known Akkadian During the third millennium BC a close cultural symbiosis took place between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, who lived in the middle of the plain – the area around and south of modern Baghdad. Many of the civilisational achievements of Mesopotamia are the product of that symbiosis. Formed the first united empire where city-states of Sumer were brought under one ruler Akkadian language replaced the Sumerian and became the main one through much of Mesopotamia’s history 2350 (2371) - 2200 (2150) BCE-FIRST EMPIRE, Akkadian Period, Sargon of Akkad (Agade), son of a priestess and pastoral-nomad, north central Mesopotamia, Semitic speaking rulers Seal of a Meluhhan interpreter Standardized cylinder seal style Naram Sin stelae, found in Susa Elamite capital where it had been taken by the victors.  Localization Era LOCALIZATION ERA: breakdown of trade and political stability 2200 - 2000 (2120) Guti Period (2159 BCE Agade was destroyed) invasions by tribes from the Zagros, Syria, & Iran possible aridification around 2200 BCE Neo-Sumerian Period: 2113-2000 BCE 3rd Dynasty of Ur (Ur III)- Golden Age, but major environmental damage leading to increased salinity in soils Ur III Dynasty Ur Nammu - founding ruler, probably from Uruk - new legal code, huge ziggurats - palace vs temple politics Shulgi - successor attempts to unite state and temple Babylonia Came into power when King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC) created an empire out of the former kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad. Empire rose and fell many times Gets its name from their capital city, Babylon- probably the most famous city in Ancient Mesopotamia because of its regular mentions in Jewish and Christian religious writings Impressive architecture and laws and government – code of Hammurabi Tower of Babel (11BC), Hanging gardens of Nebuchadnezzar II 2000-1800 BCE Isin-Larsa Dynasties (Rim-Sin (1822- 1763 BCE), Larsa ruler was an Amorite) NEW INTEGRATION ERA 1800 (1894) -1600 BCE Old Babylonian Period - 1st Dynasty, (Hammurabi (1792- 1750 BCE) Babylonian ruler was an Amorite)  Assyria- northern part of Assurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE), hunting lions Mesopotamia Situated in the Upper Tigris River in modern day Iraq, Kuwait, Syria and Turkey, capital at Ashur status underwent many changes; though sometimes it was an independent state, it also fell to the Babylonian Empire, and later to Mittani rule Had a powerful military empire that came to rule a large Assyrian empire, including Ancient Egypt, Phoenicia, Persians and civilization– 2600 BC- Hittites 605 BC Main cities of the middle period were Ashur, Kalhu (Nimrud) and Nineveh originally spoke and wrote Akkadian before the easier to use Aramaic language became more popular Were the first to manufacture metal wheels, which was much more durable and therefore able to be used in war. The core of the Assyrian army was their war- chariots. Were also the first to use camels in war first in the area to develop iron weapons first army to have a separate engineering unit, which would set up ladders and ramps, fill in moats, and dig tunnels to help the soldiers get into a walled city After its fall in the late 600s BCE, Assyria remained a province and geo-political entity under various empires until the mid- 7th century CE First organized library in Nineveh 7th Century Assyrian King Ashurbanipal built his Head of a woman, dating to the Akkadian period luxurious palace on the banks of the Tigris River, the (c. 2334–2154 BC), found at Assur main water source for the king and his many subjects in  Arts Contributions to civilization 1.Due to the expansive size of their empire, the Assyrians gained access to many resources including stone and iron. The Science popularity of iron tools led to the creation of massive palaces. 2.One of the unique characteristics of Assyrian art is their relief carvings. 1.Were able to predict lunar eclipses. 3.They created elaborate relief carvings in stone which exhibited very extensive detail. The carvings often held images of 2.Several cuneiform tablets list series of lunar eclipses and mark time between successive events. battles and major events of war. 3.Inherited the Sumerians' astronomical traditions and many of their myths and legends surrounding 4.One example of detailed Assyrian carvings is the lamassu. The lamassu was a winged lion or bull with the head of a human. the skies. Lamassu were carved into the entrance of the palace. 4.Developed their own astronomical culture and passed it on to the Greeks and eventually to our 5.They were intended to ward off evil, looming over foreign ambassadors and allies. modern world. Miscellaneous Mathematics Assyrians had created many of the inventions we now use in our everyday lives. 1.Discovered that there was 360 degrees in a circle Here is a list of the most important inventions that the Assyrians made: 2.Invented longitude and latitude. 1.Antidepressants 2.Postal system Medicine 3.Masonry dam a) Was created on the Atrush River b) Water was channeled into the capital of Assyria 1.Citizens of ancient Assyrian cities like Nineveh sought doctors (called ashipu) for help in dealing with 4. Library their ailments that stretched from migraines to cancer. a) Gathered knowledge of their ancestors while working there Iron Weapons 2.They all followed a detailed process of diagnosing the disease then treating it with remedies delivered in various forms. 3.Assyrian medical texts discovered in modern-day Iraq and written in cuneiform show that ashipus kept detailed patient history records. 4.Ancient medical tablets verify that ashipus delivered equivalently beneficial and rather advanced health care when compared to today’s treatments options. 5.Additionally, these medical tablets served as medical journals and were stored in ancient Assyrian libraries.Aspirin was discovered in 1853 and a few years later started being used to treat headaches. 6.Ashipus crushed adaru-poplar seed to treat patients suffering from headaches. Literature 1.The Assyrians were the first people to use libraries 2.Used clay tablets to communicate 3.The Babylonian-Assyrian writing, as at first discovered in its classical forms, appears at a hasty glance like a wilderness of short lines running in every conceivable direction, each line at one end and sometimes at both ends, spreading out into a triangular mass, or wedge. 4.The Assyrians were devoted to history, and the bulk of their literature may be described as historical.