Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics PDF

APPLIED VETERINARY GYNAECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS Dr. Pradeep Kumar M.V.Sc., Ph.D. (pursuing) International Book Distributing Co. APPLIED VETERINARY GYNAECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS Dr. Pradeep KUmar M.V.Sc., Ph.D. (pursuing) Division of Animal...

APPLIED VETERINARY GYNAECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS Dr. Pradeep Kumar M.V.Sc., Ph.D. (pursuing) International Book Distributing Co. APPLIED VETERINARY GYNAECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS Dr. Pradeep KUmar M.V.Sc., Ph.D. (pursuing) Division of Animal Reproduction Indian Veterinary Research Institute Izatnagar, Bareilly (U.P.) International Book Distributing Co. (Publishing Division) Published by International Book Distributing Co. (Publishing Division) Khushnuma Complex Basement 7, Meerabai Marg (Behind Jawahar Bhawan) Lucknow 226 001 V.P. (INDIA) Tel.:91-522-2209542,2209543,2209544,2209545 Fax: 0522-4045308 E-Mail: [email protected] First Edition 2009 ISBN 978-81-8189-218-8 @Publisher No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Composed & Designed at : Panacea Computers 3rd Floor, Agrawal Sabha Bhawan Subhash Mohal, Sadar Cantt. Lucknow-226 002 Tel.:0522-2483312,9335927082,9452295008 E-mail: [email protected] Printed at: Salasar Imaging Systems C-7/5, Lawrence Road Industrial Area Delhi -110 035 Tel.:011-27185653,9810064311  Perfection is accomplished not by doing extraordinary things, but by doing ordinary things extraordinarily well. "This page is Intentionally Left Blank"  Dedicated to my beloved centenarian grandfather Shri Babujan Prasad (12.06.1906 - till date) whose blessings have brought me here upto... "This page is Intentionally Left Blank"  PREFACE This book has been written for the purpose to cover the practical and clinical aspects of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics. The author has tried to prepare this book in a unique manner. The matter has been presented in a very simple language and lucrative manner so that one can read this book in one breath. In many books, very exhaustive and huge informations are given but these are very boring task to read for undergraduate students and clinicians. The aim of the book is to tell a scientific and technically sound precise story instead of presenting a data base encyclopaedia on the subject. Therefore the materials has been arranged accordingly and the supplementary informations or more detailed explanations are given in the boxes which can be consulted at once or return to after the principal points have been grasped. For increasing the interest and to give the information of new advances in the field of Veterinary Gynaecology, the author has made his every possible effort. For this, 'Interesting Facts', 'Clinical Pointers', 'Do you know?' 'Points to Remember' etc. have been incorporated in the boxes in between the matter. My main motto in compiling information in this book is to provide relevant information in a simple and interesting way so that matter should not appear difficult to understand by an average undergraduate students. A number of illustrations and photographs have been included to make each chapter meaningful. At the end of each chapter, 'observations' and' exercise' have been given which will help a clinician in testing his/her acquired knowledge and a student in preparing for examinations and viva-voce. It is hoped that this style of writing will encourage the use of this book for the final year B.v.Sc & A.H., students and Veterinary clinicians. This book also cover clinical cases of cattle and buffalo in an interesting way with new concepts. Wherever it becomes necessary to point out the old concepts of treatment, I did and highlighted the new concepts of treatments. Thus this book gives an information about latest trend of treatments and explain the disadvantages of adopting old trend of treatments. In this book, various interesting and clinically important chapters have been included which are generally not given in the text books available in the market. For example, pregnancy diagnosis in small ruminants by 'recto-abdominal palpation', early pregnancy diagnosis in cattle by 'milk ejection test' etc. These are very-very simple and reliable techniques for diagnosis of pregnancy. Generally pregnancy diagnosiS vii in small ruminants requires X-ray and ultrasound because only abdominal palpation is not confirmatory diagnosis. However, use of these sophisticated methods are not feasible in the field conditions, whereas 'recto-abdominal palpation technique' gives 90-100 % accuracy without use of any sophisticated instrument. Likewise the author has tried to give as many such informations which can be applied in Indian field conditions. Therefore author thinks that this book is a readymade matter on Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics for final year undergraduate students of B.V.SC. & A.H., field veterinarians and academicians. This book is also useful for various competitive examinations and interviews. This book has been divided into three parts. In the part I from chapter 1 to 17 are designed to help the final year students, beginners and clinicians to understand the anatomy and physiology of reproduction, gynaecological examinations and their applications to diagnose the clinical problems. In part 11, chapters 18 to 28 emphasize the application of basic concepts of obstetrical cases and their management. In this part, author has tried to explain the basic principles of obstetrics, which are generally over-looked in most of the books available in the market. For example 'how to apply rope on the legs and head of foetus', 'how to prevent the ilUler wall of uterus and birth canal from the teeth and hooves of the foetus', 'what should be the direction for traction of rope in different stages' etc. Separate obstetrical cases, their incidences, causes and treatments have not been discussed in detail. Foetotomy and caesarean section have been described in detail. In part Ill, chapters 29 to 46 have been devoted to the therapeutic management of gynaecological problems. This part describes some of the problems that are commonly encountered in the field. The aim of writing this part is to at least provide a coherent overall therapy guide, create a stimulus and direction for greater in-depth study on particular chapter, and contribute a useful compilation of existing practical therapeutic knowledge for the veterinary undergraduates, clinicians and academicians. Antimicrobial agents are the most frequently used and misused drugs in veterinary practice. A rational approach to antimicrobial therapy entails choosing the proper drug to be administered to the particular animals after considerations of potential benefits and risks. Prerequisites to rational therapy include a diagnosis, understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease and viii pharmacology of the drug and the establishment of therapeutic objectives. It is the purpose of this part to describe an approach to rational treatment of infections, which cause infertility in cattle and buffaloes. Part III also includes effect of homoeopathic medicines on the female genital tract. Hahnemann (1814) advocated their use in animals and so Veterinary Homoeopathy has a long tradition. At the end of this book, 'Glossary' and 'Appendix' have been given which will help the veterinary graduates in preparing for various competitive examinations, viva-voce examinations and interviews because these have been collected and arranged in a very lucid manner. The author encourages constructive comments and valuable suggestions, addition, alteration and correction for any typing error for improving this book in the next edition. PRADEEP KUMAR ix  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS "Timely help albeit small will ever be greater than the universe. I would like to thank all known and unknown hands who directly or indirectly gave their valuable contributions in gestation and birth of this book. In preparing this book, I have been greatly aided by suggestions received from many scientists including Dr. M.H. Akhtar, Dr. M.R. Ansari, Dr. R.P. Pandey, Dr. G.P. Roy, Dr. A.P. Singh and Dr. C. Singh. "One who directs the path of progress is angelic." Words are inadequate to express my deep sense of indebtedness to Dr. G.P. Roy, for instilling in me a spirit of hope, struggle, determination and affection. I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to Dr. Jitendra Kumar Singh for giving ideas to the use of homoeopathic drugs in bovines. I am extremely delighted in extending my thanks to Dr. Rahul Arya, Dr. Neeraj Srivastava, Dr. V.K. Bharti and Dr. Braj Bhushan Bachchoo for their constant encouragement and helping in proof- reading of the manuscript. My friends and seniors Dr. Sanjay, Dr. Praveen, Dr. Shantanu, Dr. Nirbhay, Dr. Sunil, Dr. Asthana, Dr. Nishant, Dr. Nirala, Dr. Ajeet, Dr. Kaushal, Dr. Mithilesh, Dr. Dheeraj, Dr. Jeevan, Dr. Zeyaul and many others deserve sincere thanks for their moral support and valuable suggestions during writing of this book. "Where emotions are involved, words cease to exist". I admit my inability to put into words, the depth of gratitude and respect. I owe a lot to my parents for the sacrifices made by them at the cost of their comfort and happiness to bring me up to this stage. Last but not the least, I thank the Almighty for blessing me with indomitable will-power, courage, strength and stamina to accomplish this arduous task. x  CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments 1. Study of female genitalia in slaughter house specimens 3 2. Comparative anatomy of female reproductive tracts 9 3. Per-rectal palpation of female genital organs 20 4. Oestrus detection in cattle and buffalo 30 5. Behavioural signs of oestrus in mare, ewe, doe and bitch 38 6. Detection of oestrus in bitch by vaginal cytology 43 7. Gynaecological examination of vagina 47 8. Technique of intra-uterine therapy 49 9. Collection of genital discharge 52 10. Examination of cervico-vaginal mucus sample 54 11. External and per-rectal pregnancy diagnosis in cattle/ buffalo 57 12. Early pregnancy diagnosis in cattle by "Milk-Ejection Test" 68 13. Differential diagnosis of pregnancy in bovine 70 14. Pregnancy diagnosis in small ruminants 73 15. Biological and chemical methods of pregnancy diagnosis 77 16. Care of the postpartum dam 82 17. Care of newborn 85 18. Pelvices of different domestic animals 95 19. Pelvimetry of domestic animals 102 20. Presentation, position and posture of foetus 106 21. Caudal epidural anaesthesia 116 22. Uses of obstetrical instruments 124 23. An approach to a case of dystocia 132 24..Evidence of foetal life 140 25. Vaginal delivery by using mutation and force traction technique 144 26. Techniques of foetotomy 159 xi 27. Techniques of caesarean section in farm animals 172 28. Diagnosis and management of uterine torsion in farm animals 180 29. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of anoestrus cow 193 30. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of cystic ovarian degeneration 199 31. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of repeat breeder cows 208 32. Principles of antimicrobials therapy 216 33. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of post-partum infections in bovines 221 34. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of endometritis in bovines 230 35. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of septic puerperal metritis 237 36. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of pyometra 243 37. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of retention of placenta 248 38. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of vaginal prolapse in in bovines 258 39. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of prolapse of uterus in bovines 271 40. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of foetal mummification 276 41. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of foetal maceration 283 42. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of hydramnios and hydrallantois 287 43. Artificial induction of lactation in infertile bovine 293 44. Hormonal drugs acting on the reproductive system 296 45. Homoeopathy in female reproductive disorders 307 46. Drugs commonly used in bovine reproductive disorders 318 GLOSSARY 327 APPENDICES 349 INDEX 360 xii "This page is Intentionally Left Blank"  Chapter 1 Study of Female Genitalia in Slaughter House Specimens OBJECfIVES : To know the normal shape and size of different genital organs of different species which help in differentiating the normal and pathological specimens. MATERIALS REQUIRED: Preserved or fresh female genital organs of different species, tray, scissors, forceps, BP handle & blade, Scales, Vernier's Calliper, Hand gloves, weight box and balance. METHOD: Place the numbers of genitalia in normal position in a tray. Examine all the genitalia by gloved hands only. Dilate the vulva with the help of forceps and observe the external urethral orifice and suburethral diverticulum. Differentiate the external urethral orifice and suburethral diverticulum by passing the A.1. gun. AI gun passes into external urethral opening and ultimately goes to urinary bladder while in suburethral diverticulum, AI gun could not be passed. Hold the cervix (hard structure) between the index and middle finger of left hand, and with the help of the thumb, palpate the external os of cervix. With the help of index, middle finger and thumb, palpate the whole external surface of the cervix to know whether it is hard/ firm or flaccid. Palpate body of the uterus. Palpate whole surface of the left horn as well as right horn with the help of fingers. 3  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Palpate the fallopian tubes by stretching the mesosalpinx. Catch the ovary and fix between the index and middle finger and palpate its whole surface with the help of thumb for the presence of follicles (elevated soft fluid filled structure) corpus luteum (elevated hard structure) and corpus albicans. Dissect the cervix with the help of BP blade and scissors longitudinally and observe the annular rings. Dissect the body of uterus and horns and observe the partition between two horns. Count the number of caruncles and its arrangement in ruminant. Intercomialligaments Caruncular sites Left uterine tube ~r--- Uterotubal junction Right ovary Body of the uterus --,--.,..----"-lfl-Hl_ Broad "gament Cervix -""-------i:~.,i., Vagina ~fS'o-- Ducts of epoophorl.--+-1---- External urethral orlflce t-"!r"'r-- Minor vestibule gland Vestibule " l( i¥-r--'---- Glans clitoridis Fig. 1.1 : The reproductive tract of a cow, opened dorsally through the caudal half of the right horn of the uterus. 4  Study of Female Genitalia in Slaughter House Specimens Increasing age and parity result in larger size of the cervix. The true bifurcation of horns is found at the junction of horns with the body of uterus while false bifurcation is located further forward at the site where both horns are connected by two intercornual ligaments. The ventral intercornual ligament is stronger than the dorsal intercornual ligament. Cows have larger ovaries than heifers. Ovaries, which do not contain functional structures such as the corpora lutea and Graafian follicles, are almond shaped. Presence of developed corpora lutea in the ovary results in marked distorsion in its shape. A 'yellow' corpus luteum is either developing or regressing. Wrinkles on vulva are present in the cows while they are absent in buffaloes. Buffalo vagina is shorter as compared to that of cow. Measure the length and diameter of all parts of genitalia with the help of measuring scale and thread as mentioned below and make a comparison among different genitallia and with that of normal. (a) Vulva: Length From ventral commissure to external urethral opening. Height Distance between ventral and dorsal commissure. (b) Vagina: Length Distance between external urethral opening and fornix. (c) Cervix: Length From external os to internal os. Width External diameter of middle portion. Thickness Actual thickness of the wall. Circumference Measure externally (d) Uterine horns: Length From internal bifurcation to apex. i.e. ovarian end. 5  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Thickness - Actual thickness of the wall. Circumference - Measure externally (e) Fallopian tubes: Length From uterine extremity to infundibulum. Thickness - Actual thickness of the wall. Circumference - Measure externally. (f) Ovary: Length From anterior to posterior extremity. Width Greatest diameter between lateral and medial borders. Thickness - From attached border to free border. Weight Cut the ovary and take the weight on balance. Various phases of corpora lutea related to various stages of estrous cycle Estrus to middle of the OBSERVATIONS: Vulva Length (cm) Height (cm) Vagina Length (cm) Cervix Length (cm) Width (cm) 6  Study of Female Genitalia in Slaughter House Specimens Thickness (cm) Uterine body Length (cm) Thickness (cm) Uterine horns Left Right Length (cm) Thickness (cm) Circumference (cm) Fallopian tubes Length (cm) Thickness (mm)........................ Circumference (cm) Ovary Length (cm) Width (cm) Thickness (cm) Follicles Present/Absent Present/Absent Corpus luteum Size of projected portion of CL Height (mm)........................ Width (mm)........................ EXEROSE: 1. How the caruncles remain arranged in uterine horns ? Ans. - 2. What is the total number of caruncles in different species? Ans. - 3. What is the colour of mature corpus luteum in cow? Ans. - 4. What is the colour of corpus albicans in cow? Ans. - 5. During PM examination, how & what conclusion can be made by examining the ovary regarding the number of pregnancy / parity carried out by that cow in her life? 7  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Ans. - 6. In which animal (Zebu cattle/Exotic cattle) vulvar lips are bigger and more prominent? Ans. - 7. In which animal (Zebu cattle/Exotic cattle) cervix is two to three times bigger than other? Ans. - 8. The ovaries of which animal (Zebu cattle/Exotic cattle) are larger? Ans. - 9. In which animal (Zebu cattle/Exotic cattle), assessment of corpus luteum by rectal palpation is comparatively difficult & why? Ans. - The opportunity for doing mischief is found a hundred times a day and of doing good, once a year. - Voltaire. 8  Chapter 2 Comparative Anatomy of Reproductive Tracts The organs of female genital system are ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina and vulva(see table) Ovaries: These are two oval bodies one on each side, situated slightly above to the middle of the pelvic inlet and are attached to the broad ligament by a fold of peritoneum called mesovarium The size of ovary is highly variable from animal to animal. The average lengtll of ovary of cow is 2-3 cm; width is 2cm. and thickness is lcm. The ovaries of ewe and doe are less than half the size of those of a cow while the ovaries of mare are two to three times larger than those of a cow. The ovaries of the sow are slightly larger than those found in the ewe. Each ovary has two borders, two surfaces and two ends. The surfaces (lateral and medial) are convex and irregularin appearance. The ovary is attached with the mesovarium by one border and the free border is convex. For unknown reasons, the two ovaries do not function equally in most domestic species. According to an opinion the blood supply to an ovary might influence the amount of gonadtropins reaching the ovary which in turn command the ovarian function. In ruminants, presence of rumen in left side perhaps restricts the blood supply to the left ovary. Therefore, left ovary is less active than the right ovary. In the ewe, 55 to 60% of ova come from the right ovary and in the cow, 60-65% of the ova come from the right ovary. In the sow, left ovary is most active, 55 to 60% of the ova come from the left ovary. The mare is also a left ovulator with approximately 60% of the ova come from the left ovary. 9  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Horn at uterus oYlll'y Labia valvae--:I!r 'Ib"----'Oitoris ~------V~~~we Fig. 2.1: Female genitalia of a cow. (Courtesy ofGhosh,R.K.1995. Primary Veterinary Anatomy. Current Book International) Horn. # \ - - - Flloor of vagilUl a-:...--Urinary meatus' Fig. 2.2 : Genitalia of a sow (Roof of vagina and vulva removed). (Courtesy of Ghosh, R.K. 1995. Primary Veterinary Anatomy. Current Book International) 10  Comparative Anatomy of Reproductive Tracts Different shapes of the ovaries are described in different species: Cow, She buffalo, ewe & doe - Almond-shaped Mare - Bean-shaped (kidney-shaped) Sow - Resembling cluster of grapes (berry-sha ped) Function: Oogenesis (Exocrine) Secretes oestrogen, progesterone, oxytocin. and relaxin (Endocrine). Horn of uterus ~--Br08d lilJllment --tHr--....--H\..--E~terMI urelhral orifice Fig. 2.3 : Female genitalia of a mare (Courtesy of Ghosh, R.K. 1995. Primary Veterinary _t\natomy. Current Book International) Fornix EXternal 05 Vagina Urinary mealus Fig. 2.4 : Female genitalia of a bitch (Courtesy of Ghosh, R.K. 1995. Primary Veterinary Anatomy. Current Book International) 11  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Uterine tubes: The uterine tubes are also called oviducts or fallopian tubes or salpinges. These are paired and convoluted tubes extending from ovaries to uterus. Each has a length of about 20-30 cm. and diameter about 2 to 3 mm. in most farm species. Each fallopian tube is divided into three parts : a) Infundibulum: It is a funnel-shaped structure located at the ovarian end. b) Ampulla: It is the middle part of fallopian tube. c) Isthmus: It is the constricted portion of fallopian tube which lies close to the uterus. Function: (i) Collection or reception of ova (infundibulum). (ii) Transport of ova. (iii) Fertilization of ova (at ampullary-isthmic junction). Uterus: It is a thick hollow muscular organ consisting of two horns, a short body and cervix. It is normally situated in the pelvic cavity in non-pregnant females. It is related to the rectum above and urinary bladder below. It is attached dorsolaterallyto the pelvic cavity by broad ligament through which the blood vessels and nerves passes, called mesometrium. Each horn is about 25 to 40 cm in length and 1.5 to 5 cm in width but tapering towards the cranial end (cow). In the sow, doe, ewe and cow, the uterine horns comprise about 80 to 90% of the total length of uterus while in the mare, they comprise about 50% of the total length of uterus. Both the horns are joined by dorsal and ventral intercornual ligaments. The endometrium has mushroom like non-glandular projections called carunc1es( ruminants) These caruncles are arranged in four rows viz. two dorsal rows and two ventral rows. 12  Comparative Anatomy of Reproductive Tracts The inter-caruncular spaces contain many blood vessels and uterine glands. These caruncles are convex in shape and about 70-120 in number in cow. Type of uterus Four basic types of uteri are found in animals: Simple uterus: When a uterus has a pear-shaped body with no uterine horns, it is called simple uterus. eg., human being and other primates (Fig. 2.7). Bicornuate uterus: When a uterus has a small uterine body and two long uterine horns, it is called bicornuate uterus. eg., sow, bitch, queen, cow, ewe and doe (Fig. 2.5). Bipartite uterus: When a uterus has a prominent uterine body and two uterine horns that are not as long and distinct as in bicornuate type, is called "bipartite uterus. eg., mare (Fig 2.6). Duplex uterus: When a uterus has two uterine horns each with a separate cervical canal which opens into vagina, it is called duplex uterus. eg., rat, rabbit, guinea pig and other small animals (Fig. 2.7). SOW BITCH CAT Fig. 2.5 : Bicornuate Uterus DUPLEX SI""PLE Fig. 2.6 : Bipartite Uterus Fig. 2.7: Duplex and Simple Uterus 13  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Fusion of the uterine horns of the cow, doe and ewe near the uterine body give the impression of a larger uterine body due to false birfurcation than actually exists. Therefore some authors classified these uteri as bipartite uterus. Blood supply Utero-ovarian artery - Fallopian tubes and anterior part of uterine. horns. Middle uterine artery - Posterior part of horns and anterior part of body of uterus. Caudal uterine artery - Posterior part of body of uterus and anterior part of vagina. Function: Transport of sperm towards the fallopian tubes. Implantation of zygote. Nourishment of embryo during early stage by secreting uterine milk. Protection of foetus. Production of a hormone like substance PGFp which has luteolytic effect. Cervix : It is a caudal part of uterus. It is a thick-walled sphincter like organ and 5-10 cm long in most farm species. It has a thick muscular wall capable of contracting to close the passage or capable of relaxing at oestrus or parturition time. The lumen of the cervix is tortuous, because it is composed of many folds which fit together. It has transverse ridges known as annular rings in cow, doe and ewe. It projects into the vagina like a knob and has a central opening called external os. Anteriorly, the cervix opens into the body of uterus called internal os. Function: It acts as sperm reservoir. 14  Comparative Anatomy of Reproductive Tracts It helps in sperm transport. It helps in selection of viable sperm thus preventing the transport of non-viable and defective sperm (filtration of sperm). It secretes mucus during oestrus period. It acts as a barrier against ascending type of infections. It forms cervical seal during gestation/ pregnancy. Vagina: The vagina is a highly elastic musculo-membranous tube located within the pelvis above the urinary bladder and below the rectum. It is cranially attached to the uterus and caudaly to the vulva. It is about 25-30 cm. long in cow and mare and 10-15 cm long in sow, doe and ewe.. It serves as a sheath for the male penis during copulation. The luminal space around the cervix is called fornix. The external urethral orifice is the landmark junction of vagina and vulva. i.e. vagina is extended from the cervix to the external urethral office. The cow is unique in possessing an anterior sphincter muscle in addition to the posterior sphincter. At the floor of vagina, there are two ducts along the length of the tube between the muscular and mucus layers, called canals of Gartner which open on either side of the external urethral opening: These are the remanants of wolffian (mesonephric) ducts. Function: It acts as a copulatory organ of females. It serves as an excretory duct for the secretion of cervix, endometrium and oviduct. It serves as the birth canal during parturition. Vulva: The vulva or external genitalia consist of the vestibule and the labia. The vestibule is that portion of the female duct system which is common to both the reproductive and urinary systems. 15  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics The vestibule is extended from the external urethral orifice to the exterior. The vestibule is 10-12 cm in length in the cow and mare, half that length in the sow and one-quarter that length in the ewe and doe. The vestibule is homologous to the penile urethra in the male. The vestibular glands or Bartholian glands (two almond shape) located under the mucus membrane in the posterior part of the vestibule, are active during oestrus and secrete a lubricating mucus. These glands keep the vulva of the cow moist during oestrus. The vestibular glands are homologous to the bulbourethral glands or cowper's gland of the male. A hymen (transverse ridge) is located at the junction of vagina and vestibule which is well defined in the ewe and mare, but ill defined in the cow and sow. The labia consist of the labia minora and labia majora. The labia minora is homologous to the prepuce in the male and is not prominent in farm animals. The labia majora is homologous to the scrotum in the male - is that portion of the female system which is visible externally. In the cow the labia majora is covered with fine hair up to the mucosa. The external opening of vulva is in the form of a slit bounded by two labia which meet at upper and lower commissure. The upper commissure is acute and separated from anus by a short distance. The lower commissure is elongated and bears a tuft of hairs. The clitoris, homologous to the glans penis in the male, is located in ventral commissure about lcm inside the labia. In the mare during oestrus, frequent contractions of the labia (winking) expose the erected clitoris. Broad ligament : It is formed by double fold of peritonium with some connective tissue and muscle fibres in between them. It provides passage of the nerves and vesseis to the uterus. 16 T a ble: c omparative A natomy 0 f t h e Femae I G entta. IOrrgans. Animal Cow Ewe Sow Mare Bitch Cat Ovary Berry-shaped Kidney-shaped with Oval. Slightly Oval. Slightly Shape Almond - shaped Almond-shaped (Ouster of grapes) ovulation fossa Flattened Flattened Weight of one ovary (gm) 10-20 3-4 3-10 40-8a 1-8 1-3 Mature Graafian follicles Diameter (nun) 12-19 5-10 8-12 25-70 2-4 1-2 Ovary which is the more active RIght Right Left Left -- -- Mature corpus luteum Shape Spheroid or ovoid Spheroid or ovoid Spheroid or ovoid Pear-shaped Spheroid Spheroid Diameter (nun) 20-25 9 10-15 10-25 2-5 1.5-3 Maximum size attain~d (days from ovulation) 10 7-9 14 14 5-14 5-14 Regression starts (days from 14-15 12-14 13 17 - - ovulation) Uterine tube Length (cm) 25 15-19 14-30 20-30 4-7 3-5 Uterus Type Bocornuate Bocornuate Bocornuate Bipartite Bicornuate Bicornuate Length of horn (cm) Length of body (cm) 35-40 2-4 10-12 1-2 40-110 5. 15-25 15-20 10-14 1.4-2 6-10 1.5-2 Numbers of carwlcles 70-120 carwlcles 88-96 carwlcles Slight longitudinal Conspicuous Longitudinal Longttudinal Longitudinal folds Folds Folds Cervix Length (cm) 8-10 4-10 10-23 7-8 1.5-2 1-1.5 Outside diameter (cm) 3-4 2-3 2-3 3.5-4 5.-1.5 4-6 Cervical lumen Shape 2-5 Annular rings Annular rings Corkscrew-like Conspicuous folds Irregular Irregular Vagina Length (cm) 25-30 10-14 10-23 20-35 5-10 -- Hymen Ill-defined I Well-developed Ill-defmed Well-developed Ill-defined Ill-defined Vestibule Length (cm) 10-12 2.5-3 6-8 10-12 2-5 5-1.5 All data vary with age, breed and parity and one are only estimates.  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Different portions of broad ligaments are attached to different structure of female genitalia and have been named accordingly. Mesovarium - Ovary Mesosalpinx - Fallopian tube Mesometrium- Uterus EXERCISE: 1. What are the different types of uterus in farm animal? Ans. - 2. What do you mean by corpus luteum spurium and corpus luteum verum. Ans. - 3. What do you mean by ovulation fossa? Ans. - 4. Which artery supplies major blood to the uterus? Ans. - 5. Do all domestic animals (intact females) ovulate over the entire surface of the ovary ? Ans. - 6. Is the cervix remain open at all the time? Ans. - 7. In which species, fornix is absent? Ans. - 8. What is the landmark junction of vagina and vulva? Ans. - 9. What is the peculiarity of cow's vagina? Ans. - 10. What is the "canal of Gartner" ? Ans. - 11. What is the 'glands of Bartholin' and its function? Ans. - 12. In which species, clitoris is well developed ? Ans. - 13. What is difference between bicornuate uterus and bipartite uterus? 18  Comparative Anatomy of Reproductive Tracts Ans. - 14. Which ovary is more active in cattle and why? Ans. - 15. Which ovary is more active in mare and why? Ans. - 16. Write the homologous organs of the male Clitoris Labia minora Labia majora Vestibule Vestibular gland Only those who dare to fail greatly can ever achieve greatly. 19  Chapter 3 Per-rectal Palpation of Female Genital Organs Per-rectal examination is the only practical diagnostic method permitting direct examination of genital organs of a cow, buffalo and mares. However in small animals genital organs are examined via abdominal palpation. MATERIALS REQUIRED: Thin full arm plastic gloves, crate, apron, gumboots, soap, water, towel and lubricant. PROCEDURE AND PRECAUTIONS: 1. Nails should be properly trimmed and rasped. 2. Finger rings, wrist-watch or kadas should be removed to avoid injury to rectal mucosa. 3. Wear protective clothings, gloves and gumboots. 4. Apply lubricant over the glove. 5. Restrain the animal properly in a crate. 6. Hold the tail of animal resting on its back. 7. Clean the perineal and vulval region with water. 8. Lubricate the anal sphincter by putting index finger and dilate it. 9. Now put all fingers with index fingers making a cone shape of the hand and insert it for the examination. 10. Remove the faeces (back-racking) without removing the hand out of the rectum to avoid rectal ballooning by sucking of air in it. 11. If ballooning occurs, reduce it by gentle pinching the rectal floor at its anteriormost folds. 20  Per-rectal Palpation of Female Genital Organs 12. Do not examine during peristaltic wave of rectum and/ or when the animal is straining or tenesmus is present. 13. Avoid force during examination. 14. Insert hand up to pelvic brim. 15. Locate the cervix as a firm tubular structure approximately 25- 35 cm from the anal sphincter. Fig. 3.1 : Palpation of the uterus (diagrammatic) which can be scooped up by the hand as it lies in the abdominal cavity. Fig. 3.2 : Retraction of a uterus lying well within the abdominal cavity by means of the false bifurcation. 21  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Fig. 3.4 : Indirect retraction. The end Fig. 3.3 : Cranial view of the pelvic of the uterine hom is approached from inlet of an artificial cow with a beneath the broad ligament on the side reproductive tract in an of the uterus corresponding to the approximately normal position. The hand used by the examiner. From examiner's left hand is grasping and beneath the broad ligament, the fingers raising the cervix. are turned medially to find the free portion of the ipsilateral horn. Fig. 3.6 : Indirect retraction. The Fig. 3.5 : Direct retraction may be uterine horn is cradled in the fingers accomplished if the ventral and palpated, progressing caudally intercornual ligament is directly until the index finger meets the accessible to raise and uncoil the intercornualligament. tract. 22  Per-rectal Palpation of Female Genital Organs Fig. 3.7 : Palpation of the free Fig. 3.8 : A pregnancy of portion of the uterine horn approximately 75 days'. The opposite the hand of the pregnant right horn rests against examiner. the prepubic tendon. Fig. 3.9: Palpation of the left ovary Fig. 3.10: The right ovary of a cow, fixed between the fingers and demonstrating a corpus luteum. palpated with the thumb. (Courtesy of Wolfe, F.D. and Moll, H.D. 1999. Large Animal Urogenital Surgery for all figures of this 23 chapter.)  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics 16. Hold the cervix between thumb and index finger and examine its physio-pathological status including external os. 17. Examine the body of uterus which is in continuity of cervix. 18. Anterior to the body of uterus, there is false bifurcation of uterine horns attached with intercornualligament. If needed, retract the organ for examination (see Fig. 3.5) 19. Put middle or index finger between the two uterine horns and locate the intercornualligament. 20. Palpate both the uterine horns one by one by digital pressure from base to tip to know the physio- pathological conditions like its symmetry, tonicity and for content (like pus) (see Fig. 3.5). 21. Ovaries are located by the side of tubular organ-laterally almost near to the tip of uterine horn or at the level of uterine bifurcation {see Fig. 3.9). 22. Hold the ovary between middle and index finger and palpate by thumb for presence or absence of functional structure over the ovary (see Figs 3.9 & 3.10). 23. Fallopian tubes are normally not palpable except in pathological condition. However, ovarian bursa may be examined by rotating the two (middle and index) fingers on the broad ligament at the site between ovary and fallopian tube. The empty uterus usually contracts in response to palpation. Since reflex contractions of the uterus impede palpation, so it should be palpated before attending to the ovaries. The diameter of the uterine horns can be measured by comparison with finger's diameter. Palpation of cervix: Finding Diagnosis Symmetrical enlargement Diffuse ' inflammation Recent calving Abortion Symmetrical enlargement with pain - Septic condition Asymmetrical enlargement Abscess Injury Scar 24  Per-rectal Palpation of Female' Genital Organs External os is large and show step like appearance - Second degree cervicitis External os is large and show clear step like protrusion - Third degree cervicitis Palpation of uterus: Commonly used terms for characterizing uterine tone and condition of uterine tissue: Estrus tone - A turgid, contracted uterus that is often curled during palpation. Dioestrus (normal) - A relaxed muscular uterus. Oedematous - Somewhat turgid uterus but without muscular contraction; may be palpable for a few days after oestrus. Flaccid - A flexible, soft, usually thin-walled uterus that does not contract in response to palpation. Thickened (doughy) - A pathological condition, indicating thickning of the endometrium and myometrium. Fluctuant - Uterus with intraluminal fluid. Firmness - Chronic inflammation or neoplasia. Longitudinal folds - Involuting uterus. The following keys or indications can be used to recorJ the results of palpation of the uterus in prescription. Key Size of uterus UI Uterus can be gathered up within the hand; horns about the thickness of a finger. UII As above, but the horns about the thickness of two fingers. UIII As above, but the horns about the thickness of 3 or 4 fingers. UIV It is thicker than human arm and greater curvature of the horns is still within reach. UV Uterus cannot quite be covered by the hand and part of the greater curvature of the horns is out of reach. UVI Uterus is much bigger than the span of a hand and the greater curvature is quite distinctly out of reach. 25  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Symmetry of uterus: Key Symmetry of uterus S Both horns of the same size (symmetrical) As The horns are of different size (asymmetrical) As+++ The right horn is much bigger than the left. +As The left horn is somewhat longer than the right. Consistency and contractibility of uterus : Key: Cl Uterus slack and not very contractile. CII Moderate contractibility. CIII Strong contractibility. Palpation of ovary : Vesicles can be felt on the bovine ovary at all stages of the reproductive cycle. A vesicle with a thin wall, 1.5 cm. in diameter (sometimes up to 2.5 cm. diameter) and accompanied by pronounced contractibility of the uterus will be mature Graafian follicle of oestrus. Mature Graafian follicle is frequently found towards the end of first half of the oestrous cycle i.e. first wave of follicle formation. At this stage either ovary also bears large corpus luteum, which is not usually present during oestrus. A cavity up to 1cm deep on the surface of the ovary marks the site of ovulation (providing there are also external and internal signs of recent oestrus). Between the 2nd and 5th (6 th) days of the cycle, there are neither vesicles nor solid structures (corpus luteum). This appearance can be confused with an inactive ovary. For this, re-examine the animal few days later. A small, soft, periodic corpus luteum can be felt from the 5th day of the cycle onwards. Most CL have a papilla or crown like projection or neck above the surface of the ovary. Corpus albicans are small and very firm structure which can be differentiated from fluctuating structure of Graafian follicles. 26  Per-rectal Palpation of Female Genital Organs Results of ovarian palpation' can be recorded according to the followiqg keys or indications in the prescription. Shape of the ovary- can be shown in a drawing, in which a vesicle is depicted as empty, while a corpus luteum is shaded. Size of ovary : Key Size Pe = Pea B Bean Ha = Hazel nut Pi Pigeon's egg W = Walnut He Hen's egg D Duck's egg G Goose's egg The abbreviations employed for various structures of ovary. LO Left ovary RO Right ovary DF Developing follicle AF = A tretic follicle TF Tense follicle SF Soft fellicle OVD Ovulatory depression SDCL Soft developing corpus luteum FDCL Fully developed corpus luteum FCL Firm corpus luteum HCL Hard corpus luteum PCL = Persistent corpus luteum CO Cystic ovary CCL Cystic corpus luteum LC Luteal cyst OBA Ovario-bursal adhesions 27  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics OBSERVATIONS: 1. Cervix Location (pelvic/ abdominal) Condition (normal/ inflammed) External os (open/ close) Length (cm) 2. Uterus Uterine tone Condition of uterine tissue Size Symmetry Consistency and contractibility........................................ Abnormality, if any 3. Oviduct Palpated Yes/No 4. Ovary: Left Right Size Follicle Corpus luteum Tentative diagnosis: EXERCISE: 1. Why uterus should be palpated before ovary ? Ans. 2. Why back racking should be done without removing hand from the rectum? Ans. 3. Where ovaries are located during per rectal examination? Ans. 4. What indicate the longitudinal folds on the uterus? Ans. 5. A doctor makes a sketch-diagram and uses abbreviation on a prescription after per rectal examination. What does indicate each sketch-diagram ? 28  Per-rectal Palpation of Female Genital Organs Sketch diagram Description..., ~~S~ G. ~ Ul S calli cJ. 8:t A[) C9~ ~ utili: sell ~ (:J, D UJ se IllI ;D) ~oJ IV U." 29  Chapter 4 Oestrus Detection in Cattle and Buffalo OBJECTIVE : To know different methods used for detection of oestrus which is essential for artificial insemination at proper time for optimum conception rate. MATERIALS REQUIRED: Teaser, trained dogs, glass slide, a pair scissors, arm-sleeves, gumboots, soap, towel etc. DIFFERENT METHODS: 1) By behavioural signs: Restlessness Bellowing frequently Spontaneous sinking of the loin Reduced appetite Fall in milk yield Frequent micturition (few drops of urine every 3-5 minutes) Mounting on the other animals (early heat) Accept mounting by other animals (mid heat) Mucus discharge flows as a string from vulva to the floor and breaks (early heat) Mucus discharge hangs from the vulva to hock and then breaks off (mid heat) The mucus string hangs only 25 to 30 cm long (late heat) Loin reflex or Tolerance reflex: When the skin of lumbar and sacral vertebral region is held, all the animals will sink their back, but the animal in oestrus raises its tail to one 30  Oestrus Detection in Cattle and Buffalo side of the vulvar lips in addition to sinking its back. This is called loin reflex. If the animal is not in heat, it raises the tail above vulvar lips, not one side of the vulvar lips (see Fig. 4.1). In buffaloes, the skin is kneaded from lumbar region to the base of the tail repeatedly without lapse of time between kneadings and if she is in heat, raises the tail to one side of the vulvar lips. This is called "Tail Reflex". Fig. 4.1: Tolerance reflex: When the lumbo-sacral region is massaged, the cow in oestrus will sink its back and raise its tail to one side. (Courtesy of Rosenberger, G. 1997. Clincal Examination of Cattle Verlag Paul Parey. Berlin and Hamburg.) Clitoris massage reflex: When ventral vulvar lips are massaged gently, the animal in heat bends and raises its back repeatedly simultaneously contracts the abdomen with raising the tail to one side of the vulvallips. Note: Most of the buffaloes get excited on this test. Hence this test should not be performed for the detection of oestrus in buffaloes. {.m.~. '@ ,'" ' The external signs of oestrus which are mentioned above, not necessarily each and every cow show all signs simultaneously. Hence, for confirmation, more or less apparent external signs necessitate to check the genital system by rectal examination and vaginal examination. 31  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Early oestrus - Clear, thin and copious, flows stringy from vulva to the ground Mid oestrus - Clear, less copious and stringy, hangs upto hocks Late oestrus - Clear, thick, scanty and non sticky After ovulation - Yellowish white Metoestrus because of nr"";:P1c\{'P of blood 2. By per-rectal examination: Following changes are found in the oestrus cow/buffalo Cervix - Relaxed so that the tip of thumb can be inserted into os Tonicity of uterus - Tonic & turgid Tubularity of uterine horn - Round or flat Consistency of uterine horn - Meaty Mature Graafian follicle - Bulged & Firm - Early heat Moderately flat and soft- Mid heat Soft - late heat No evidence of mature corpus luteum 3. By vaginal examination: Vulval oedema and disappearance of wrinkles. Entire part of vulvallips light pink Early heat Entire vulvallips dark pink Mid heat Entire vulvallips cyanotic Late heat 4. By laboratory diagnosis: Laboratory diagnosis of oestrus requires expensive equipments, the procedure is time consuming and it does not give a clear-cut result in every case. Therefore such methods are unsuitable for routine use. The only laboratory method suitable for use in cattle practice is measurement of the electrical resistance of vaginal mucus. Values less than 40 ohms are characteristics of oestrus. 32  Oestrus Detection in Cattle and Buffalo 5. Bya teaser bull: In a large farm, use of teaser bull for detection of heat is the most reliable and successful method. Parading the teaser bull twice daily in the herd. 6. By a trained dog: Some pheromones are used to communicate information concerned with reproduction called sex pheromones. The external genitalia and urine contain these pheromones. When a dog is trained with cow's vaginal fluid, then the dog can detect oestrus cow (87% accuracy). This inter-species detection of pheromones helps in identifying oestrus in a herd where artificial insemination is to be used. DETECTION OF SPLIT OESTRUS: In split oestrus, the animal show behavioural oestrus twice within a period of 3 to 6 days. The first oestrus is generally non-ovulatory while the second oestrus is ovulatory. It is common in winter. DETECTION OF MID-CYCLE OESTRUS: Animals having large follicle and regressed CL on either ovary are considered standing oestrus while those having fully developed CL co-existing with palpable ovarian follicle (10 mm. in diameter) and showing heat symptoms are considered or diagnosed as mid-cycle oestrus. Temporary Engorgement of Teat (TET) : TET has relationship with occurrence of oestrus in buffaloes. It is a peculiar phenomenon exhibited by majority of the buffaloes prior to the onset of real heat. The proestrus behaviour is used by most animal owners as an important tool for detection of incoming oestrous. Duration of TET phenomenon is of 3 days. 7. By fern pattern of cervical mucus: Principle: Sodium and potassium ions / colloids in the mucus when dried, take the shape of fern leaf at high oestrogen levels. Procedure: Take a 18" long glass tube attached to a syringe or use AI gun and disposal sheath. 33  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Pass it in the cervix and aspirate the mucus and collect in a test tube (or cut a piece of hanging cervical mucus from the vulva with a pair of scissors.) Take a drop of cervical mucus on a glass slide and spread it evenly. Dry it in air or gently warm over the flame. Examine the slide under low power (10 X) microscope and note the crystallization pattern. Characteristic fern-like patterns (crystallization pattern) are visible under the microscope. Different fern patterns are exhibited at different stages of oestrus. These patterns are absent in the mucus drawn during luteal phase and from pregnant animals. Fig. 4.2: Lykascope Typical fern pattern Atypical 'ern pattern Nillype Fig. 4.3 : Showing different types of fern patterns. 34  Oestrus Detection in Cattle and Buffalo However, pregnant animals which exhibit symptoms of oestrus, show crystallization pattern in cervical mucus. The fern pattern can be classified into three types (see Fig. 4.3). Typical - Clear fern leaf-like appearance. The branches are well marked and have bright and thick boundaries. Atypical - Mixed type appearance. Fern branches remain discontinous and are not well cut out into further branching. Nil type - No fern like appearance. Interpretation : Early heat: Fern patterns are scattered and are small in size. Branching is thin and fine. Mid heat: Arborization or crystallization is visible through out the smear. The branches are well marked and have bright and thick boundaries. Tertiary to quaternary or quinquinial branching is observed. This type of pattern is generally referred as "typical". Late heat: Crystallization is not typical. Fern branches are discontinuous and not well cut out into further branchings. There is an increased infiltration of lymphocytes in the smear also. In some animals cervical secretion shows fern like pattern even from few days before the actual oestrus to some days after its end. Animals with weaker oestro.genic activity may have thin, scattered and irregular types of crystallization pattern in their cervical mucus. There is no vulvar wrinkle in buffaloes as in cow. During oestrus in buffaloes, discharge is thin and not copious as in cow. Pregnant animals can expel mucus discharge, but it will be more thick, be and its will be like a club'. I Crystoscope: (see Fig. 4.2). It is the first field tool for determining optimum time of insemina tion. It is developed by Scientist of I.V.R.I. It is available in the market withdiferent names (Lykascope etc.). 35  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics It is based on fern pattern of cervical mucus. Procedure: Put the dried slide in the slide gasket of the Lykascope. Shift the red button to switch on the light system. See the slide through eyepiece. Match the fern pattern from the lykascope calender. Interval between two heats is 7-8 days - Acute endometritis Interval between two heats is 10-11 days - Mid cycle heat Interval between two heats is 13-17 days - Endometritis Interval between two heats is 23 to 37 - 45 days - Embryonic death Interval between two heats is 42-45 days - Missed heat or silent heat Interval between two heats is 2-3 days - Split heat Interval between two heats is 4 to 8 days - Follicular cyst s continuousl In non-pregnant large domestic animals, inflammation of the endometrium due to bacterial infection can result in significant synthesis and release of PGF2(l leading to premature luteolysis and shortening of the oestrous cycle. Thus short oestrous cycle in large domestic animals are pathognomonic sign for uterine infection. OBSERVATIONS: Date.................... Case No. Age of animal Signs of heat............... ,............... ,................ ,................ Loin reflex (present/ absent)............................................. Clitoris massage reflex (present/ absent)............................... 36  Oestrus Detection in Cattle and Buffalo Tail reflex present/absent Nature of vaginal discharge.................................... Length of vaginal discharge.................................... Fern pattern...................................................... Colour of vaginal mucus membrane....................... Finding of per-rectal examination. Cervix....................... Uterus....................... Ovary....................... Diagnosis EXERCISE: 1. What do you understand by 'loin reflex', 'tail reflex' and' clitoris massage reflex' ? Ans. 2. How can a trained dog detect heat in cows ? Ans. 3. How will you diagnose 'mid-cycle heat' by per-rectal examination? Ans. 4. What do you understand by TET? Ans. 5. Why cervical mucus of oestrus cow get crystallized? Ans. 6. What are the differences between 'typical' and 'atypical' fern pattern ? Ans. 7. What are the different methods of preparation of teaser bull ? Ans. Technology generation is not useful unless it is user-friendly. 37  Chapter 5 Behavioural Signs of Oestrus in Mare, Ewe, Doe and Bitch Mare: Vicious temperament Frequent micturition Brownish yellow discharge from vagina The tail head is often raised and the clitoris is exposed by frequent "winking" of the vulva (sometime called "winking of clitoris") The vulvar mucus membrane is congested and become orange or scarlet in colour During oestrus, the mare turns her back to the stallion and stands quietly with tail raised to one side Ewe and Doe: Restlessness Anorexia Homosexual behaviour is exhibited occasionally in goat but not in sheep Frequent and peculiar type of bleating which is a good sign of heat in doe Drop in milk yield Swelling of vulva Shaking of tail continuously is also a good sign of heat in doe Oestrus doe prevents other doe to approach or attract the male. Signs of oestrus are more clear in does than ewes Ewes display a strong ram-seeking behavioural pattern 38  Behavioural Signs of Oestrus in Mare, Ewe, Doe and Bitch Ewes that are not in oestrus usually urinate when a ram approaches whereas oestrus ewes do not. The urination by ewe is a non-contact communication that gives a clue to rams about the oestrus status of the ewe under field conditions. The ewes avoid disturbance by signaling (urination) that they are not sexually receptive. Rapid side-to-side or up-and-down tail flagging is a good sign of heat in doe that can be detected in the absence of a buck. This behaviour probably serves to spread odours from her vulva to nearby males. A common method of heat detection for a small herd of doe is to rub a rag (small piece of cloth) on the buck's scent glands and store it in a tightly closed container or jar. The jar is opened and presented to the doe each day. If the doe is in oestrus, she will show great interest in the jar. As heat progresses in a doe, a variable amount of transparent mucus is visible in the cervix and on the floor of the vagina (can be seen by speculum examination). This mucus later turns cloudy and finally cheesy white at the end of heat. Conception is best when a doe is bred at the stage in which her cervical mucus is cloudy. SOW: Restlessness Mounting on other animals Lordosis Vulvar swelling Pink red colour vulva Mucus discharge occasionally Low-pitched growl Onset of frequent tail wagging is the most useful trait for detecting the onset of oestrus To ensure adequate expression of heat in gilts and sows that are to be mated, they should be housed near (but not too close) to the mature boars. Housing opposite to boars with a 1.0 metre or more wide corridor between the two pens appears suitable. 39  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Back-pressure test or riding test or lordosis is most efficient and practical method of oestrus detection in the sow. The efficiency of this test is greatly enhanced if the females are adjacent to boars (at the place where they receive intense boars stimulation). Separation from boars by as little as 1 metre can reduce the efficiency of the test. Intense olfactory, auditory and visual stimuli from the boar facilitate the standing response of oestrus females to pressure on their back. The oestrus females which are kept very close to boars by a wire-mesh only receive continuous and intense stimulation from the boars, those females reduce the standing response to the "back-pressure test". Therefore, males should be kept opposite to the females pen at a distance of 1 meter wide corridor. But during the back-pressure test, the male should be kept adjacent to the females where they receive boar stimulation (i.e only separated by a wiremesh wall). The attendant should quietly approach and apply hand pressure or sitting pressure gently but firmly on the mid region of back of the female. It is useful to massage the flanks of the females manually prior to applying pressure to the back. Bitch: The vulvar discharge becomes less haemorrhagic, even colourless than pro-oestrus period. The vulvo-vaginal swelling is maximum and soft. During the pro-oestrus period, the bitch remains attractive to the dog but she does not stand for him and generally attacks him if he attempts to mount her. During oestrus period, her attitude changes and she shows signs of courtship towards the male. When a male attempts to mount, most oestrus bitches will deviate the tail from the midline and stand to be bred. Tail turning reflex: When the perineum of the oestrus bitch is massaged, even the bitches of poor libido usually respond with tail movement and keen bitches may adopt an exaggerated standing posture with very marked deflection of the tail. 40  Behavioural Signs of Oestrus in Mare, Ewe, Doe and Bitch EXERCISE: 1. What are the characteristic symptoms of heat in doe? Ans. 2. What are the typical symptoms of heat in mare? Ans. 3. What is the typical symptom of heat in sow. Ans. 4. What indicates an ewe by urinating when a ram approaches to her? Ans. 5. Where is buck's scent gland situated? Ans. 6. How will you detect heat in a herd of doe without using teaser? Ans. 7. What is the colour of vaginal discharge of bitch during proestrous period? Ans. 8. What is the colour of vaginal discharge of a bitch during heat? Ans. 9. Why does a doe keep flagging her tail during oestrus? Ans. 10. In which stage, a doe should be bred for better conception rate? Ans. 11. What should be the location of boar's and sow's pen? Ans. 12. Why does an oestrus sow show standing response to back pressure? Ans. Efficiency is the capacity to bring proficiency into expre9Sion. - Swami Chinmayananda 41  Chapter 6 Detection of Oestrus in Bitch by Vaginal Cytology OBJECfIVE: To manage a successful breeding between a bitch and a stud dog. PRINCIPLE: The principle of vaginal cytology is simple. The vaginal epithelium is sensitive to levels of oestradiol and it changes from a bistratified cuboidal epithelium to a stratified squamous epithelium of greater than 30 cell layers. Thereafter these cells slowly mature, keratinized and fall in vaginal lumen (exfoliate). MATERIALS REQUIRED: Slides, blunted glass pipette with rubber bulb or sterile cotton-swabs, isotonic saline solution, stain (Leishman's or methylene blue or Giemsa), microscope etc. PROCEDURE: (A) Sample collection: Pipette method : Take lml isotonic solution int? the pipette. The pipette is inserted into vagina. Squeeze bulb of the pipette several times to mix the vaginal discharge with isotonic solution. Suck the vaginal discharge and withdraw the pipette. Take a small drop of fluid from the pipette on the slide. Tip the slide vertically to allow the drop to run down the length of the slide. Blot the excess fluid from the end of slide and air dry. Swab method: A cotton swab is moistened with saline solution. 42  Detection of Oestrus in Bitch by Vaginal Cytology Insert the speculum into the vagina. Insert the cotton swab in the vagina and twist a full turn to pick up a sample of cells. Withdraw the swab. Place the swab on the slide and roll it over the surface of slide. Dry in air. (a) Anoestrus (1 & 2) (b) Pro-oestrus (2, 3 & 5) (c) Eary oestrus (3,4 & 5) (cl) Oestrus (3, 4 & 5). Percentage of anuc1ear (e) Metoestrus (2 & 6) (f) Late metoestrus (1 & 2) Fig. 6.1 : Photomicrographs of exfoliative vaginal cells during various stages of the reproductive cycle. The smears have been stained with a modified Wright-Giemsa stain. (Courtesy of Noakes, D.E. Parkinson, J.T. and England G.C.W. Arthur's Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics). 1. Para basal 2. Small intermediate 3. Large intermediate 4. Anuclear keratinised. S.RBC 6. Neutrophilis 43  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Pro-oestrus Oestrus Early Vaginitis Cell type Anoestrus Early Late Early Late metoestrus pyometra -- - - - Para basal I (i) +.. + + - - - ++ ± S~~II- -t. I'01 Intermediate +++.. + - - + + ± Large intermediate '8 I ± ++ I+++!+++ I I - - ± I Anuclear keratinised 00°1 - ++ ,i + + +.... ++ + ! i ± - - Red blood 10° 0°1 + i ++ + ++ - ! - ± ± :::Phll~] ~s:~[- - -. +++ + ++++ Fig.6.2 : Changes in the types of cell and their relative numbers, in vaginal smears from the bitch during the stages of the oestrous cycle. (Courtesy of Noakes, D.E. Parkinson, J.T. and England G.C.W. Arthur's Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics). Note: Swab method is somewhat more uncomfortable for the bitch and also deeper cells come in the sample. This causes confusion during interpretation. (B) Slide Staining: (Leishman's staining) Fix the smear for several seconds in methyl alcohol, then dry in air before staining. Pour the Leishman's solution on the slide for 1 minute. Dilute the stain with equal volume of distilled water and leave it for 10-15 minutes. Wash the slide with distilled water. Dry it and observe under oil immersion lens (100X). Interpretation : Different types of cells are found in vaginal smear due to desquamation of epithelial cells during pro-oestrus and oestrus (see Fig. 6.1 & 6.2 photographs). These are- (i) Parabasal cell : It is round cells with relatively large nucleus. (ii) Small intermediate cell: It is larger than parabasal cells but have relatively small nucleus. (iii) Large intermediate cell: It is larger and irregular than small intermediate cell but have relatively small nucleus. 44  Detection of Oestrus in Bitch by Vaginal Cytology (iv) Anuc1ear keratinised cell: It is irregular in shape and have either very small or no nucleus. Thus, we see that as the epithelial cells mature, their nucleus to cytoplasmic ratio gradually decline. (v) RBC. (vi) Neutrophils. Female Old World monkey have a "sex skin" (perianal skin). Under the influence of oestrogen the "Sex skin" becomes hyperaemic and swells. Oestrogen levels increase at the time of oestrus making their posterior bright red. This serves as a visual signal to male, "announcing" the optimum time for copulation. OBSERVATIONS: Date:................... Case No............................ Age................................. Breed............................... Nature of vaginal discharge serosanguineous/clear Condition of vulva swollen/tu rgid/both Reaction to male attract/receptive/non-receptive Finding of vaginal smear............... ,............. "'.................. EXERCISE: 1. Desquamation of epithelial cells occurs during pro-oestrus and oestrus period. Give reason. Ans. 2. Mature epithelial cells die and get converted into anuclear keratinized cells. Give reason. Ans. 3. Neutrophils remain absent during late pro-oestrus and early oestrus. Give reason. Ans. 4. RBCs are seen in large numbers during early pro-oestrus and decrease over time throughout pro-oestrus and oestrus. Give reason. Ans. 45  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics 5. In which stage of oestrous cycle of bitch, maximum numbers of keratinized cells are found ? Ans. 6. Collection of vaginal discharge by pipette method is better than swab method. Why ? Ans. 7. Neutrophils again appear in late oestrus and early metoestrus. Give reason. Ans. 8. Which one is the least mature epithelial cell in vaginal smear? Ans. 9. Which one is the fully mature epithelial cell in vaginal smear? Ans. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed and some to be chewed and digested. - Bacon. 46  Chapter 7 Gynaecological Examination of Vagina OBJECTIVE: To know the physiological and pathological condition of vagina. MATERIALS REQUIRED: Vaginal speculum, liquid paraffin, soap, water etc. PROCEDURE: Restrain the cow in a crate or trevis. Clean the vulva and adjacent parts with cotton dipped in normal saline or antiseptic solution. Lubricate the sterilized vaginal speculum with liquid paraffin or soap water. Insert the speculum through the vulva into vagina while keeping the jaws of speculum closed to avoid injury. Turn the handle of vaginal speculum either downward or upward and open the jaws. Use torch to observe the anterior part of vagina and outer part of cervix. Note the finding like discharge, vaginitis, abscess, tumour, cervix (open or closed), cervicitis etc. Remove the speculum in an open fashion. INTERESTING FACTS Speculum examination is totally contra-indicated in pregnant animals and in animals suffering from severe vaginitis and other painful conditions. Vaginal examination, AI or intrauterine treatment is contraindicated when the vulvar lips are wet or soiled. 47  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics OBSERVATIONS: Date:................ Case No............................ Species.............................. History.............................. Condition of vagina NonnaVSwollen Colour of mucus membrane Nature of discharge Abnormal condition, if any. Cervix Closed/Open Diagnosis........................... Treatment Rx 1. 2. 3. 4. EXERCISE: 1. How will you confirm that animal is in oestrus during examination of vulva? Ans. 2. Removal of vaginal speculum should be in anopen fashion. Give reason. Ans. 3. Vaginal speculum is inserted in a closed fashion. Give reason. Ans. 4. How painting of cervix of an anoestrus cow is performed? Ans. 5. Write the composition of LugoY s iodine. Ans. It does not take much strength to do things, but it requires great strength to decide on what to do. - Elbert Hubbard. 48  Chapter 8 Technique of Intra-uterine Therapy OBJECTIVE: To introduce the drugs into the uterus to overcome the infection in various disease conditions. MATERIALS REQUIRED: Obel's apparatus, catheter, syringe, cotton, saline, pipettes, etc. PROCEDURE: Clean vulva and perineal region with the dry cotton. Insert the left hand in the rectum and remove the faecal material by back racking. Spread vulva apart and insert the instrument (catheter or Obel's apparatus) up to fornix. Hold the cervix between two fingers through rectal wall and keep thumb on the external os. The catheter is initially inserted pointing upwards at an angle of about 300 to avoid entering into the external urethral opening and is then moved horizontally until it is engaged in the external os of the cervix. Entry into the external os is accompanied by a characteristic 'gritty' sensation. Thereafter, introduce the catheter through convoluted cervical canal by manipulation of the cervix through rectal wall. Place one finger over the internal os of the cervix, so that the tip of the catheter can be palpated when it passes the cervical canal. As soon as, the catheter is passed, the drug should be pushed through syringe into the body of uterus not in uterine horn. In this way, drug is equally distributed between the two uterine horns. 49  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics The recto-vaginal method of intrauterine medication requires considerable practice for success. Obstruction in passing catheter by vaginal folds can be minimized by pushing the cervix forward. By doing this, vaginal passage becomes unfolded. After passing catheter in the cervix, no forward pressure should be exerted on the catheter with the right hand because uterine wall is friable and easily penetrated if the catheter moves suddenly. The most common fault during intra uterine therapy is twisting of cervix in the left hand which occuludes uterine horns. or as tetracycline, etc., when given intrauterine, affects the length of oestrous cycle. The irritant intrauterine infusions given during days 3 to 9 of the cycle (oestrus day 0) may significantly shorten the time for the female to return in oestrus. The infusions at oestrus or mid-diestrus does not affect oestrous cycle length. The infusions on days 14 to 17 of the cycle (oestrus day 0) prolong the luteal or oestrous OBSERVATIONS: Date:.................... Case No. Species Age of animal History of animal Problems of animal................................................. Drug chosen for IV............... :,................................ EXERCISE: 1. Write the commonly used intrauterine drugs, their indications and doses? Ans. 50  Technique of Intra-uterine Therapy 2. Intrauterine therapy is contraindicated in case of acute puerperal metritis. Give reason. Ans. 3. Why the DIS (dilute iodine solution) does not affect the oestrous cycle length when given intrauterine during oestrus and mid- diestrus? Ans. 4. How does the 015 shorten the length of oestrous cycle when given intrauterine during days 3 to 9 of the cycle? Ans. 5. How does the DIS lengthen the length of oestrous cycle when it is given intrauterine during days 14 to 17 of the cycle? Ans. Books are the treasured wealth of the world, the fit inheritance of generations and nations. - Bacon. 51  Chapter 9 Collection of Genital Discharge OBJECTIVE: To examine the genital discharge to have an idea about different types of infections, severity of condition, diagnosis and its treatment. MATERIALS REQUIRED: Catheter, pipette, cotton gauze, syringe and sterilized bottle. METHODS: A. By back racking - After inserting the hand into rectum, slightly lift the uterus and cervix upward and massage in backward direction. Thereafter, massage backwardly to the vagina through rectal wall which will result in flow of cervical mucus through the vulvar lips. Collect the discharge in a wide-mouthed sterilized test tube. Cut the discharge with the help of scissors when it remains hanging. B. By catheteI;/pipette : Introduce the catheter into vagina (anterior part) or cervix or from where genital discharge has to be collected. Suck the mucus with the help of syringe which remains attached to the other end of catheter or pipette. C. Tampon method: Take a sterile gauze tampon of about 1 g. and attach a string to it. Insert the sterilized gauze tampon into the vagina. Leave the tampon in the vagina for 20 min. 52  Collection of Genital Discharge Remove the tampon from the vagina by pulling the string. Place it in a sterilized bottle containing saline. EXERCISE: 1. Which stage of oestrous cycle is the most appropriate time for collection of genital discharge? Ans. 2. Enlist the different methods of collection of vaginal discharge ? Ans. The true meaning of life is to plant trees whose shade you do not expect to sit. 53  Chapter 10 Examination of Cervico- Vaginal Mucus Sample Examination of cervico-vaginal mucus sample help in the assessment of physio-pathological condition of female genital organs. 1. Colour Transparent - Normal (in oestrus period). Scanty reddish colour discharge - Metoestrus phase Opaque or transparent with flakes - Mild infection White or yellow colour - Metritis/ pyometra 2. Consistency Thin watery - Early oestrus Viscous and ropy - Mid heat Thick - Late heat 3. Odour - Normally, genital discharge is odourless. However, foul smelling odour generally indicates severe metritis with systemic involvement with possible retention of foetal membrane or some foetal parts in the uterus. It is usually found in case of post- parturient disorder. 4. pH : The pH of genital discharge can be recorded by an ordinary pH indicator paper or using pH meter. The normal pH of genital discharge ranges from 6.S to 7.4. A higher pH indicates presence of infection. S. White side test: Take 1 ml. cervical mucus in a sterilized test tube. Add 1 ml 5% sodium hydroxide solution to it. Heat the mixture upto its boiling point. Interpretation : Dark yellow colour - Clinical metritis 54  Examination of Cervico-Vaginal Mucus Sample Yellow colour - Subclinical metritis No colour - Normal 6. Microbiological examination :The discharge is sent for isolation and identification of organisms and for antibiotic sensitivity test. OBSERVATIONS: Date:.................. Case No.................... Species..................... Breed....................... Physical examination : Colour................... Consistency............................................ Nature (serousjmucusjmuco-purulent)............ Presence of blood Yes/No Odour................................................... pH....................................................... Microscopic examination Fern pattern Present/Absent Typical/Atypical RBC Present/Absent Protozoa Present/Absent if present, species......... White side te~t (Colour).......................... Bacteriological examination. Micro organism (s).................................... Most sensitive drug.............................. Diagnosis Treatment Rx 1. 2. 3. 55  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics EXERCISE: 1. What is the importance of White side test? Ans. 2. pH of vaginal discharge increases during infection. Give reason. Ans. 3. What is metoestrus bleeding? Ans. 4. What is pro-oestrus bleeding? Ans. Purity, patience and perseverance are the three essentials to success in life and abaue all Laue and Service. 56  Chapter 11 External and Per-rectal Pregnancy Diagnosis in Bovine OBJECTIVES: The main purpose of pregnancy diagnosis is to detect the non- pregnant ones so that time lost as the result of infertility is reduced significantly either by early breeding or treatment. To differentiate the pregnancy and abnormal conditions of the uterus. MATERIALS REQUIRED: Full hand sleeve, lubricant, soap, antiseptic solution, gumboots, animal crate, etc. A. EXTERNAL EXAMINATION: (a) Visual examination: Cessation of oestrous cycle after artificial/ natural insemination. Sluggish and docile behaviour. Fattening tendency particularly during early pregnancy. Gradual drop in milk yield (after 5 months) Gradual increase in body weight. Gradual increase in the size of the abdomen. Flanks become hollow and spine appears more prominent. The size of mammary glandsf udder begins to increase from about 5th months of gestation in heifers, while in older cows it is usually observed just 2-3 weeks before parturition. In few animals, a prepartum udder oedema and umbilical oedema is noticed. 57  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics (b) Abdominal ballotment : Abdominal ballotment of foetus on the right side of the animal can be done from ~ month onwards (Fig. 11.1). Press abdomen (Rt. side) by closed fist and release suddenly and apply the palm against the abdominal wall to feel the foetus which hits the palm. A 7th month foetus is felt very near to the ribs and 9th month foetus is felt near the udder. Therefore, abdominal ballotment should be performed at proper site as mentioned above. Fig. 11.1 : Rough estimation of the month of pregnancy by means of deep palpation of the flank, using clenched fists. (Courtesy of Rosenberger, G. 1977. Clinical Examination of Cattle. Berlin and Hamburg.) (c) Drenching cold water : Drenching cold water causes the foetal movement from ~ month onwards. In the early morning, the animal is faced towards north and cold water is drenched or the animal is allowed to drink cold water. Examiner should stand near the head of the animal. When sun-rays fall on the abdomen, the foetal movement can be well-appreciated in pregnant animal. 58  External and Per-rectal Pregnancy Diagnosis in Bovine (B) PER - RECTAL EXAMINATION (see Fig. 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5 & 11.6) : First month (Negative stage) - Both the uterine horns are symmetrical. Uterine horns are intrapelvic. Feel of uterine horn is normal. One of the ovaries exhibits CL. Cervix remains closed. Second month (31st to 60th days) or small sac stage: Uterus is usually intra-pelvic and palpable from all the sides. Uterus is tonic. Fig. 11. 2 : Rectal examination of the female genital system in the 70th day of pregnancy. (Courtesy of Benesch, F. and Wright, J.G. 2001. Veterinary Obstetries. Greenworld Publishers). Fig. 11. 3 : Rectal examination of the female genital system in the 90th day of pregnancy. (Courtesy of Benesch, F. and Wright, J.G. 2001. Veterinary Obstetries. Greenworld Publishers). Fig. 11. 4 : Rectal examination of the female genital system in the 110th day of pregnancy. (Courtesy of Benesch, F. and Wright, J.G. 2001. Veterinary Obstetries. Greenworld Publishers). 59  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Pregnant horn is 2-4 times enlarged. Slippery feel of foetal membrane when horn is palpated between fingers (double wall) from the 5 th week of pregnancy in heifers and from the 6th week in cows (placental palpation). Uterine wall thinner than normal due to increased diameter of uterine horn. Ovaries are at normal position and one of the ovary exhibits pregnancy CL or corpus luteum verum, which differs from periodic corpus luteum in not having a neck. Cervix is closed and normal in position. Corpus luteum verum is slightly longer in diameter (2.5 cm) and weight (6.5 gm) than the CL of oestrus cycle (CL spurium) which is 2.3 cm in diameter and 5.7 gm in weight. Third month (61st - 90th days) or large sac stage: Now, uterus hangs on the brim of pelvis and is palpable from only three sides. Uterus is tonic Pregnant horn is further enlarged. Thinning of uterine wall continues (very thin). Rebound effect is detectable. Ovaries are pulled forward. Cervix is stretchedf pulled forward. Heaviness is felt when cervix is bulled by examiner. Fourth month (91 st - 120th days) or Balloon stage - Uterus is abdominal. Thinning of uterine wall continues. Cotyledons detectable. Fluctuations can be felt. Fremitus (+) can be felt. Cervix is located beyond/ at pelvic brim (reason-due to increase in weight of uterus, so it is pulled forward). Ovaries are pulled forward and are out of reach i.e. in abdominal cavity. 60  External and Per-rectal Pregnancy Diagnosis in Bovine Fifth month (121 st - 150th days) or sinking stage. Uterus is sinking in abdomen. Foetus and fluctuations are felt. Cotyledons are bigger in size (3.5cm) Fig. 11.5 : Rectal examination of the female genital system in the last of 5th month of pregnancy. Neither placentomes, placental membranes nor foetus can be palpated. Fremitus (++) can easily be felt. Sixth to seventh month (15pt -210th days) : Uterus is entirely abdominal. Foetus sinks more deep in the abdominal cavity and is not palpable. But in the last of seventh month, foetus starts to come near the pelvic cavity and is easily palpable. Fremitus (+++) is strong. Pregnancy diagnosis is easy in heifers than cows. Early pregnancy diagnosis (35 th - 45 th days) by inexperienced clinician may results into abortion. Reason: Excess pressure applied during manipulation of the vesicles and embryo results rupture of amniotic vesicles and embryonic death. The most common cause of embryonic death is rupture of the heart or the vessels at the base of the heart resulting in into amniotic. 61  Applied Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Eight to ninth month (21pt - 270th days) : Foetus comes again nearer to the pelvic cavity. Foetal parts can be clearly felt. Fremitus (++++) is very strong. Size of the cotyledons increases to about tennis ball size (7 - Bcm.). Foetal bumps are felt when foetus is pressed in the abdominal cavity. Strong foetal movement is palpable. Fig. 11.6 : Rectal examination of the female genital system when pregnancy approaching term. (Courtesy of Benesch, F. and Wright, J.G. 2001. Veterinary Obstetries. Greenworld Publishers). Slipping of foetal membrane : Early pregnancy diagnosis (from 35 to 90 days) can be best performed by palpating foetal membrane. However slipping of foetal membrane occurs through out gestation from 35 days but in late stage of gestatio