Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1 PDF

***[Anatomy & Physiology: Exam 1 ]*** **[Physiology]** is the study of function. **[Anatomy]** is the study of body structures. **[Tissue]**- a group of similar cells and cell products that arise from the same region of the embryo and work together to perform a specific structural or physiologica...

***[Anatomy & Physiology: Exam 1 ]*** **[Physiology]** is the study of function. **[Anatomy]** is the study of body structures. **[Tissue]**- a group of similar cells and cell products that arise from the same region of the embryo and work together to perform a specific structural or physiological role in an organ. **[Organ]**- a structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function. **[Molecule]**- particles composed of at least two atoms. **[Organism]**- a simple, complete individual. ***[Levels of Organization]*** ***Atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and the organism*** **The Chemical (or Molecular) Level** - - **The Cellular level** - **The Tissue Level** - **The Organ Level** - - **The Organism Level** - **[Cellular Level ]** **Organelles- small bodies** - - - - **[Tissue Level]** **Tissues** are cells who share common form and function - - - - Types of cells in Nervous Tissue Neurons- transmit nerve impulses Glial cells- support and protect neurons **[Organ Level]** **Organs** are different types of tissues together to perform a function Example: heart- composed of muscle and connective tissue to give its shape An **Organ System** consists of related organs with a common function There are 11 organ systems in the body **[Types of Glands]** **Exocrine**- secrete substances through ducts (sweat glands) **Endocrine**- Release hormones into bloodstream (thyroid gland) **[The Organ Systems ]** **[Integumentary]** *Major organs* - - - - *Functions* - - - **[Skeletal ]** *Major organs* - - - - *Functions* - - - *Major organs* - *Functions* - - - **[Nervous ]** *Major organs* - - - - *Functions* - - - **[Endocrine]** *Major organs* - - - - - *Functions* - - - **Cardiovascular** *Major Organs* - - - *Functions* - - **Lymphatic** *Major organs* - - - - - *Functions* - - **Respiratory** *Major Organs* - - - - - - *Functions* - - - - **Digestive** *Major organs* - - - - - *Functions* - - - - **Urinary** *Major Organs* - - - - *Functions* - - - - **Male Reproductive** *Major Organs* - - - - - - - *Functions* - - **Female reproductive** *Major organs* - - - - - - - *Functions* - - - - An **organism** consists of a collection of organ systems. ***Homeostasis is the ability to maintain internal stability.*** **Metabolism**- Chemical processes that occur in the body **Catabolic**- energy-releasing decomposition aka breaking down **Anabolic**- energy-storing aka building up **Responsiveness** is the body\'s ability to detect and respond to changes which might represent an opportunity or threat. **Movement** is any motion, including movement of tiny subcellular structures, or movement inside cells or organs. **Growth** involves an increase in body size due to an increase in existing cells, number of cells or both. (In bone growth, materials between cells increase) **Differentiation** the development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state. Cells have specialized structures and functions that differ from precursor cells. **Reproduction** is the formation of new cells (growth, repair or replacement) or the production of a new individual. **Feedback system** Body is monitored and unmonitored Each monitored variable is termed a controlled condition ***Three basic components of a feedback system*** - - - A **receptor** is a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition (such as body temperature) The **control center** sets the range of values to be maintained- usually this is done by the brain The **effector** receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition **Negative feedback systems:** Reverses a change in a controlled condition Regulation of blood pressure **Positive feedback systems:** Strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the body\'s controlled conditions Normal child birth **[Anatomical terminology]** **Superficial anatomy** Locating structures on or near the body surface **Anatomical position**: hands at sides, palms forward **Supine**: lying down, face up **Prone**: lying down, face down **[Directional Terms]** **Superior**-towards the head (superior = skull) **Inferior**- towards the feet (inferior=floor) **Anterior**- front (toward the front of the body) **A before P in the alphabet** **Posterior**- back (towards the back of the body) **Ventral**-toward the belly **Dorsal**-toward the back (think dorsal fin) **[Directional terms ]** **medial=midline=middle** **Medial**-toward the midline **Lateral**-toward the side of the body **Proximal**-toward the nearest point **Distal**-toward the farthest point **Superficial**- toward the surface **Deep**-away from the surface **Ipsilateral**= on the same side Ipsi=same **Contralateral**= on the opposite sides of the body **Descriptive terms** **Visceral**-pertaining to a covering over an organ **Parietal**-pertaining to a covering against a cavity wall **Body Planes** imaginary line that cuts the body into sections **Section= SCT** **S=Sagittal (midline)** **C=Coronal plane (vertical)** **T= Transverse plane (horizontal)** Transverse = Top view **[Body Cavities]** Dorsal Cavity: Brain (cranial cavity), spinal cord (spinal cavity). Ventral Cavity: Heart (thoracic cavity), lungs, digestive organs (abdominal cavity). **[The Chemical Level of Organization ]** 26 elements in the human body 11 major elements Top 4 which make up 96% are Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Oxygen Structure of an atom Nucleus (contains protons and neutrons) **Atomic number = the number of protons** **Mass number= Total of protons and neutrons** *[The total number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons in its nucleus]* An enzyme is proteins made up of amino acids **Proton**-Positively charged, in nucleus. **Neutron**- No charge, in nucleus. **Electron**-Negatively charged, orbits nucleus. **Isotopes**- Atoms of the same element but with a different mass number **Ionic bonds** are chemical bonds formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. **Covalent bonds** are chemical bonds formed by sharing electrons. (Can be polar or nonpolar) **[Polar covalent bonds]** are formed by the unequal sharing of electrons between atoms. **[Nonpolar covalent bond]** atoms share the electrons equally; nonpolar covalent bonds are the most common types. **Valence**- An electron in an atom\'s outer shell that determines its chemical properties. **Octet rule**- Atoms with fewer than eight electrons in their outer shell try to lose, gain, or share electrons with other atoms to become stable. **Electrolyte**- large group of inorganic compounds including acids, bases and salts **Proteins**- amino acids, enzymes **Carbohydrates**- ribose, monosaccharides **Lipids**- steroids, glycerol, phospholipids [***Bases*** pH\>7] Proton acceptors example: baking soda, ammonia ***[Acids pH \< 7]*** proton donor example: citric acid Acidic levels depends on the number of hydrogen ions a particular acid will release **Exergonic**- reaction releases energy (usually in the form of heat) during catabolism of food OUT exit. (coffee/energy drinks) **Endergonic** (endo means within) reaction requires that energy be added. **ATP** is the source of energy for use and storage at the cellular level. Catalysts speed up a reaction by lowering activation energy needed for a reaction to occur. **Adenosine Triphosphate**- Full battery **Adenosine Diphosphate**- Low battery **Glucose is what your body runs on** Glucose is made out of plants **[Adhesion]**- Two separate things connecting like tape; two different substances being held together. (example: taping a ruler to the whiteboard) **[Cohesion]**- Like particles stick together, creating high surface tension. (example: water likes to grab onto other water molecules) 18\. Types of Reactions -Synthesis-Combining substances (A + B → AB). Decomposition-Breaking down substances (AB → A + B). Exchange- Parts of molecules switch (AB + CD → AC + BD). ***[Biomolecules]*** **[Proteins]**- Amino acids, enzymes. (enzymes, structure, transport, signaling) **[Carbohydrates]**- Ribose, monosaccharides (quick energy source, structural support) **[Lipids]**- Steroids, glycerol, phospholipids (energy storage, insulation, cell membranes) **[Nucleic Acids]**- Genetic information (DNA,RNA) ***7 major protein functions*** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ### ### **1.Carbohydrates** - - - ### **2. Lipids** - - - - ### **3. Proteins** **Prokaryotic cells** are simple cells that have no nucleus **Eukaryotic cells** are complex with a nucleus and subcellular structures (organelles) **Cell** is surrounded by **plasma membrane** **Cytoplasm** is within the cell **Nucleus** contains the genetic library of the cell Plasma membrane and organelle membranes are selectively permeable--allowing some things through, but preventing others from passing Membranes **Serous**- thin membranes lining closed body cavities, producing serous fluid. **Pleural**- membranes surrounding the lungs **Hypotonic solution**--Gains water, swell and possibly burst (lyse) **Hypertonic solution**--Loses water and shrivel (crenate) **Isotonic solution**--causes no change in the cell volume **Endocytosis** brings material into the cell **Exocytosis** releases material from cell **Simple Diffusion**- Movement of small, nonpolar molecules through the membrane. **Facilitated Diffusion**-Movement of larger or polar molecules through protein channels. **Osmosis**-Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane. **Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)** network of interconnected membranous channels called cisterns. **Rough ER**- parallel, flattened sacs covered with ribosomes (bumpy, like candy dots on paper) makes proteins **Smooth ER**- tubular ER lacking ribosomes (roads of new york city) **Nucleus**-Contains genetic material. **Mitochondria**- Energy production (ATP). **Ribosomes**-Protein synthesis. **Endoplasmic Reticulum**-Protein and lipid synthesis. **Golgi Apparatus**-Modifies and packages proteins. **Lysosomes**-Digestion of waste. **[Types of body fluids]** **Intracellular fluid**- fluid within the cells **Extracellular fluid**-fluid outside cells