ANPH111 Human Body PDF

4. ORGAN LEVEL – different tissues combine to form ANATOMY organs, such as the urinary bladder — study of the structures of the body...

4. ORGAN LEVEL – different tissues combine to form ANATOMY organs, such as the urinary bladder — study of the structures of the body 5. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL – organs, such as the urinary — means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the bladder and kidneys, make up an organ system parts of the body for study 6. ORGANISM LEVEL – organ systems make up an ism — involves structure of body parts, its microscopic organ organization, how each develops including its relationships and functions 1. SYSTEMIC ANATOMY — dwells on body systems such as skeletal and muscular systems 2. REGIONAL ANATOMY — reviews specific areas such as the head, abdomen, heart, or brain 3. SURFACE ANATOMY — study of external features like bony projections 4. ANATOMICAL IMAGING — utilizes different imaging samples like ultrasound and x-rays to evaluate internal structures — Chemical Level of organization deals with how — examines a living person through its internal different atoms like hydrogen and carbon interact structures to form molecules PHYSIOLOGY — Cell Level, which is the basic unit of organisms, we try — deals with processes or functions of living things as to correlate how a molecular substance affects a an ever-changing organism living organism. For example, our cells contain — to aid in predicting body’s responses to different nucleus that contains hereditary information. And stimuli and to understand how the body maintains though cells differ in structure and function, homeostasis. knowledge of these differences would greatly help — the science of body functions in grasping concepts of anatomy and physiology. — Moreover, there are subdivisions of physiology that — Tissues on the other hand are combined cells that focuses on different organizational level such as are similar. Their similarity in characteristics and cellular physiology and systemic physiology. For the surrounding materials determines its functions. As an human as a specific organism, the study is called overview, we have epithelial, connective, muscle Human Physiology. and nerve tissues. — Organ System pertains to group of organs working OF THE HUMAN BODY together to sustain a specific function. — There are six structural levels that our body can be — Organism Level as a living thing considered as a studied and these are chemical, cell, tissue, organ, whole, whether composed of only one cell such as organ system and organism. bacterium, or one that is made of trillions of cells 1. CHEMICAL LEVEL – atoms combine to form like us human. molecules 2. CELL LEVEL – molecules form organelles, such as the nucleus & mitochondria, which make up cells 3. TISSUE LEVEL – similar cells and surrounding materials make up tissues 1 ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY 2  CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE — since homeostasis involves complex mechanisms, — why do we share many characteristics with other these relations are also affected by different organisms? variables — (ex.) During temperature regulation, our body 1. ORGANIZATION produces sweats in attempt to lower down the body — living things are highly organized temperature caused by the external environment. — they have a specific interrelationship for it to Variables are conditions like volume, chemical perform functions essential for the living content, and in this case, temperature. Their values organisms to thrive may easily change and so does the response of the — any problems that affect its organization will organism. In the given example, sweating aids in greatly disrupt its function the regulation, maintaining body temperature near 2. METABOLISM the ideal normal value. If the temperature was the — all of the chemical reactions taking place in an variable, the sweating is considered as the organism homeostatic mechanism. — it includes the ability of an organism to break — most homeostatic mechanisms are governed by down food molecules, which are used as an the nervous system of the endocrine system energy source and raw materials to synthesize — note that homeostatic mechanisms are not able to the organism’s own molecules maintain body temperature precisely at the set — ability of the organism to use energy to point. Instead, the body temperature increases and perform functions essential to growth, decreases slightly around the set point, producing a movement, and reproduction normal range of values 3. RESPONSIVENESS — as long as the body temperatures remain within this — capability to react or adjust to whether a normal range, homeostasis is maintained stimulus or a change O STIMULUS 4. GROWTH — any disruption that causes a change in a — an increase in number or length controlled condition — in the human body, growth is an evidence — some stimuli come from outside the body, when bones become larger as the number of while others come from within bone cells increase 5. DEVELOPMENT THREE COMPONENTS OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS: — occurs when an organism changes through 1. RECEPTOR time — monitors the controlled condition and sends — changes happen before birth information (input) to a control center — though growth signifies 2. CONTROL CENTER development, differentiation also — receives the input, compares it to a set of embodies development values that the controlled condition should — DIFFERENTIATION have (set point) and sends input commands can be seen as a change in structure and (nerve impulses or chemical signals) to an function from a generalized to a effector specialized structure 3. EFFECTOR (ex.) following fertilization, generalized — receives output commands and produces a cells specialize to become specific cell response that changes the controlled condition types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. these differentiated cells form tissues and organs 6. REPRODUCTION BODY POSITIONS — ability to form new organism, giving possibility — descriptions of any part of the human body assume to tissue repairs and continuity that the body is in a specific stance call the anatomical position HOMEOSTASIS — the ability to maintain balance despite changes in the internal and external environment 3 O ANATOMICAL POSITION 1. SAGITTAL PLANE - body is upright — divides the body lengthwise into left and right - subject stands erect with head level sides - eyes facing forward — called a midsagittal plane if the section is - feet on the floor and directed forward made exactly at midline - arms at the side — often used in illustrations to reveal the organs in - palms turned forward the head or pelvic cavity O RECLINING BODY 2. FRONTAL / CORONAL P LANE PRONE POSITION – body is lying face forward — divides the body lengthwise into anterior SUPINE POSITION – body is lying face up (front) and posterior (back) portions DIRECTIONAL TERMS — often used in illustrations to show the contents of the abdominal and thoracic cavities 3. TRANSVERSE / HORIZONTAL PLANE — divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions — used by CT scanners to reveal internal organs PLANES OF SECTION THROUGH AN ORGAN O SUPERIOR - upper; toward the head o INFERIOR - below; toward the feet O MEDIAL - toward the body’s midline O LATERAL - away from the body’s midline O DISTAL - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part — Organs are often sectioned to reveal their internal structure O PROXIMAL - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part — LONGITUDINAL SECTION – a cut through the long axis O ANTERIOR - (ventral); toward the front of the body O of the organ POSTERIOR - (dorsal); toward the back of the body O — TRANSVERSE - a cut at a right angle to the long axis IPSILATERAL - on the same side of the body — OBIQUE SECTION - a cut is made across the long axis O CONTRALATERAL - on the opposite side of the body at other than a right angle O SUPERFICIAL - at or near the body’s surface BODY PARTS AND REGIONS O DEEP - away from the body’s surface — illustrates different regions in the body. This will help to PLANES properly identify specific area/s of a patient body to — Body planes divide the body, even organs, into be evaluated upon sections. The following illustrations will provide a O CENTRAL REGION good view of how bodily structures can be viewed. — consists of the head, neck, and trunk — TRUNK – can be divided into thorax (chest), abdomen (region between the thorax and pelvis), and pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips O UPPER LIMB — divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand — ARM – extends from the shoulder to the elbow 4  — FORARM - extends from the elbow to the wrist. — Determining exact location of possible problems O LOWER LIMB concurrent to different organ/s can be difficult. — divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot — For this reason, it was subdivided further into — THIGH - extends from the hip to the knee regions and quadrants. — LEG - extends from the knee to the ankle — It is also best to appreciate that some organs may ANTERIOR VIEW extend over multiple quadrants POSTERIOR VIEW BODY CAVITIES — body contains spaces—called cavities—that house the internal organs — the two major body cavities are the dorsal cavity ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS and the ventral cavity — One portion of the body that occupies a large area would be the abdominopelvic cavity 5  SEROUS MEMBRANES — lines trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities — filled with minimal fluid to lubricate its surfaces thereby reducing friction — basic unit of life / simplest organism — our cells have distinct parts; it constitutes our body with more than 100 trillion of it. — these cells determine form and functions of the human body. — through the advent of technology, many disorders can now be attributed to its cellular basis. — most of its size are from 10 to 15 micrometers. (for instance): ~ blood cell = 7.7 micrometers ~ ovum = 100 micrometers ~ nerve cells = extends from 0.1 millimeters to 1 meter long — cells may be the smallest units but they perform several important functions: FUNCTIONS OF THE CELLS 1. Cell metabolism and energy use - provides energy for muscle contraction and heat production. 2. Synthesis of molecules - Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. - The different cells of the body do not all produce the same molecules. 6  - Therefore, the structural and functional — According to Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011) cell characteristics of cells are determined by the membranes or plasma membranes are like types of molecules they produce. gatekeepers that manages which does and does not enter the cell (selective permeability) 3. Communication — its flexible barrier called lipid bilayer, separates the - Cells produce and receive chemical and inside and outside of the cell and controls the flow electrical signals that allow them to of substances. communicate with one another. — composed of a bilayer of phospholipids and - For example, nerve cells communicate with cholesterol with proteins ―floating‖ in the one another and with muscle cells, causing membrane. muscle cells to contract. — proteins function as membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes, or 4. Reproduction and inheritance structural supports in the membrane. - Each cell contains a copy of the genetic - Cholesterol within the phospholipid membrane information of the individual. gives it added strength and flexibility. - Specialized cells (sperm cells and oocytes) o Membrane channels - involved with the transmit that genetic information to the next movement of substances through the cell generation. membrane. o Receptor molecules - enables cell recognition CELL STRUCTURE and coordination of the activities of cells. It has a binding act that triggers muscle contraction (oxytocin) — this barrier permits exchange of extracellular substances (outside) and intracellular substances (inside) — Its external glycoproteins help identify the cell to other cells such as immune cells — participates in intracellular signaling by its receptor proteins. CYTOPLASM Most cells have three major portions, with the exception of — gel-like substance that fills the space between the the red blood cells. plasma membrane and the nucleus. o Plasma / Cell membrane, defining boundaries — consists of the intracellular fluid called cytosol and with gate-like properties. organelles. o Cytoplasm contains organelles and molecules  Cytosol - consists of water plus dissolved ions, o Nucleus, acts as the control center and contain a proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, ATP, and cell’s genetic information gases which provides the avenue for most CELL MEMBRANE chemical reactions to occur.  Organelles - considered to be the ―little organs‖ found inside the cytoplasm and are bound to perform different tasks in cellular metabolism. ORGANELLS ORGANELLES LOCATION FUNCTIONS Nucleus near the Cell’s control center center; contains DNA and Nucleoli; site for 7  RNA synthesis and NUCLEUS ribosomal subunit — large organelle usually found centrally. assembly — it carries the genetic material that contains cytoplasm Site of protein information for cell activities and cell division. synthesis — control the cell’s activities and cellular structure Rough cytoplasm Where many and produces ribosomes through its nucleoli. ribosomes — It has three distinct parts namely nuclear envelope, Reticulum attached; site of nucleolus and chromatin protein synthesis THREE DUSTINCT PARTS OF NUCLEUS: Smooth cytoplasm Site of lipid 1. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE synthesis; — outer part of the nucleus is covered by two Reticulum participates in layers detoxification 2. NUCLEAR PORE Golgi Apparatus cytoplasm Modifies protein — small openings found on the nuclear envelope structure and — just like cell membranes, these nuclear pores packages proteins regulates movement of different substances in secretory into and out of the cells vesicles 3. NUCLEOLUS cytoplasm — round structure that is made of the DNA, RNA Contains materials and proteins Vesicles produced in the cell; formed by the — responsible for making ribosomes which contains small units of RNA. Golgi apparatus; secreted by exocytosis cytoplasm Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell Mitochondrion cytoplasm Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of synthesis Microtubule cytoplasm Supports cytoplasm; assists — NON-DIVIDING CELL - the genetic material is in cell division and spread out in the form of chromatin, which forms components encompass the last part of the nucleus. of cilia and flagella — DIVIDING CELL - the genetic material is condensed Centrioles cytoplasm Facilitate the into structures called chromosomes. movement of — There are 23 pairs of chromosomes, which also chromosomes consists of DNA and protein, can be found in the during cell division human cells. Cilla on the cell Move substances surface over surfaces of RIBOSOMES (many) certain cells — made of RNA and proteins — formed by the nucleolus and were sometimes on the sperm Propel sperm cells associated with the rough endoplasmic reticulum cell surface — some are located within mitochondria, and some (one) are free-floating or termed as free-ribosomes extensions of Increase surface cell surface area of certain cells 8 — whether free-floating or associated with organelles, — present in larger numbers and is most highly ribosomes are involved in making new proteins developed in cells that secrete protein, such as — Functions of the ribosomes includes being those of the salivary glands or the pancreas associated with the Endoplasmic reticulum so they can synthesize proteins that are allocated for the plasma membrane. — The free ribosomes also synthesize proteins that are intended to be used in the cytosol. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM — a large membrane system that extends outward from the outer nuclear membrane throughout the cytoplasm O ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM — extends from the nuclear envelope and filled with ribosomes — synthesize glycoproteins and phospholipids that are then transferred into the plasma membrane, or secreted during exocytosis O SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM — endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes — where fatty acids and steroids are being made — detoxifies harmful substances and serves as a LYSOSOMES storage site for ionized calcium, which gets — have a number of digestive enzymes that break released as part of an intracellular signal for down ingested material and wornout organelles muscle contraction and the actions of some and release their components into the cytosol chemical messengers called hormones — it can digest the entire cells (autolysis) and carry out extracellular digestion — vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes — the enzymes within the lysosomes break down the materials in the endocytotic vesicle — for example, white blood cells phagocytize bacteria. Then enzymes within lysosomes destroy the phagocytized bacteria. PEROXISOME — small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide. GOLGI APPARATUS — Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and — flattened sacs that acts like a pathway for amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell processing proteins and lipids made by the — The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen Endoplasmic Reticulum peroxide to water and O2 — forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed — Cells active in detoxification, such as liver and proteins via exocytosis into extracellular fluid kidney cells, have many peroxisomes — forms membrane vesicles that ferry new molecules MITOCHONDRION to the plasma membrane — bean-shaped organelles — forms transport vesicles that carry molecules to — major structures to produce Adenosine other organelles, such as lysosomes. Triphosphate (ATP)-the main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell. — participates in the regulation of intracellular ionized calcium 9 — each mitochondrion is composed of a smooth outer — like tree-branches that holds organelles in place membrane and a folded inner membrane, which and aid them in changing shape contain numerous enzymes that are involved in — These protein elements consists of microfilaments, making intermediate filament and microtubules MICROFILAMENTS — small protein strands that provide mechanical support and generate force for movement — analogous to muscles in your body — anchor proteins within the plasma membrane and O ATP provide support for microvilli — main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell O INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT — cells with a large energy requirement have — protein strands that are larger than micro more mitochondria than cells that require less laments but smaller than microtubules energy — hold organelles in place and attach cells to one — For example, cells that carry out extensive another active transport, contain many mitochondria. O MICROTUBULES When muscles enlarge as a result of exercise, — long, hollow protein tubes that determine the mitochondria increase in number within shape and movement similar to the way bones the muscle cells and provide the additional ATP shape your body required for muscle contraction. — stiff components of cilia and flagella CENTROSOMES & CENTRIOLES — The outer membrane gives a mitochondrion its capsule shape — while the inner membrane folds (cristae) on itself to provide a surface on which the energy-releasing chemical reactions of the cell occur — It is on the cristae that cellular respiration occurs, where food (chemical energy) is converted into another usable form of chemical energy, ATP. — For this reason, the mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. — On the other hand, the fluid that fills the inside of O CENTRIOLES the membrane is termed as mitochondrial matrix. — are like mini-tunnels that were stacked — mitochondria also participate in the regulation of together by threes (microtubule triplet) and intracellular ionized calcium formed a cylindrical organelle composed of — They contain their own DNA and ribosomes, both of nine triplets which make them capable of reproducing — Putting a pair of these centrioles plus a themselves and making new proteins, but the main pericentriolar material will make up a source of the cell’s DNA is contained within its Centrosome largest organelle, the nucleus O CENTROSOMES CYTOSKELETON — made of networks of the following protein elements — found near the nucleus and will be later essential for cell division called Mitosis 10  — the pericentriolar material of the centrosome CEREBROSPINAL FLUID – fluid that surounds brain contains tubulins that build microtubules in and spinal cord non-dividing cells and form the mitotic spindle — As they move across cells and within the cells during cell division substances including gases, nutrients and ions are CILIA dissolved in the various fluids — hairy-like projections that propels materials across the surface SOLUTE – a substance that is being dissolved in — vary in number from hundreds to thousands various fluids — the respiratory tract is lined with cilia to trap foreign SOLVENT – fluid / gas in which solute is being materials such as dusts dissolved — aids in maintaining airways clear from – the amount of solute dissolved contaminants in given volume of solvent CONCENTRATION GRADIENT – the difference in FLAGELLA concentration of a substance between two — like a whip tail placing itself at the terminal end of a areas cell — usually appears singular like in the sperm cells DIFFUSION — allows cells to mobilize like again in the case of — process wherein solutes moves from an area of high sperm cells that travels its way to find the egg cells concentration to areas of low concentration — occurs in two conditions: (Cilia and Flagella are surface organelles that resembles projections on the surface that help cells move, beat or 1. the membrane must be permeable enough to vibrate.) allow passage of substances MICROVILLI 2. there must be a concentration gradient of the — folds of the cell membrane that greatly increase the particular substance across the membrane surface area of a cell because it will be the driving force for the — typically found in cells charged with absorbing process to occur nutrients—such as the intestines—microvilli can — diffusion is an important means of transporting increase a cell’s absorptive area as much as 40 substances through the extracellular and times intracellular fluids — substances, such as nutrients and some waste CELL TRANSPORT products, can diffuse into and out of the cell — movement of materials across cell membranes OSMOSIS — Since cells were known to be the basic unit of life, it — involves the diffusion of water down the requires to undergone several chemical processes concentration gradient through a selectively where coordinated movement are essential to permeable membrane maintain its functions — often happens when a particular substance can’t — some substances are needed to be shifted in and cross the membrane. In that situation, the water out of the cells and not the particles, moves in an effort to equalize the concentration TWO FLUID COMPARTMENTS: — is important to cells because large volume changes 1. INTERCELLULAR FLUID caused by water movement can disrupt normal cell — inside the cell functions — sample substances that can be found are — occurs when the cell membrane is less permeable, enzymes, glycogen and potassium ion selectively permeable, or not permeable to solutes 2. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID and a concentration gradient for water exists — outside the cell across the cell membrane INTERSTITIAL FLUID – fluids between cell within tissue OSMOTIC PRESSURE PLASMA – fluid within a blood vessel — the force required to prevent the movement of LYMPH – fluid within lyphatic vessel water across a selectively permeable membrane — a measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane 11 — can be measured by placing a solution into a tube 3. SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT that is closed at one end by a selectively permeable — involves the active transport of one substance, membrane and immersing the tube in distilled such as Na+, across the cell membrane, water establishing a concentration gradient — The diffusion of that transported substance CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTES down its concentration gradient provides the O ISOTONIC energy to transport a second substance, such — solute concentration outside the cell is the as glucose, across the cell membrane. same as that inside the cell O COTRANSPORT - diffusing substance moves in the — water concentration is also the same on both same direction as the transported substance sides of the cell, and the net movement of O COUNTERTRANSPORT - diffusing substance moves in a water is zero direction opposite to that of the transported O HYPOTONIC substance — solute concentration outside the cell is less than the concentration inside the cell ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS — water concentration outside is greater than — When substances are too large to be transported, that inside, and water flows into the cell cells would ingest these materials rather than O HYPERTONIC having it exchanged with ions. The cells forms a — solute concentration outside the cell is greater vesicle or a round, small sac through ATP and than the concentration inside the cell contractions of microfilaments enabling the — water concentration is greater inside the cell contents to be ingested. than outside, and water flows out of the cell ENDOCYTOSIS CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISM — involves ingesting material by forming a vesicle — Certain molecules just need a medium to bind to be from the plasma membrane transported inside the cell — the sac of ingested material buds off inside the cell and usually fuses with lysosomes o CARRIER MOLECULES - protein present in the cell membranes 1. PHAGOCYTOSIS that serves as a flexible gate that changes — cell ―eats‖ large particles such as bacteria, shape viruses, and dead cells — white blood cells and some other cell types 1. FACILITATED DIFFUSION phagocytize bacteria, cell debris and foreign — moves substances across the cell membrane particles from an area of higher concentration to an 2. PINOCYTOSIS area of lower concentration of that substance — cell periodically ―drinks‖ by forming small — because movement is with the concentration vesicles around droplets of extracellular fluid gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP — droplets may have small particles dissolved in is not required them as well. These vesicles fuse with 2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT lysosomes and release their contents — process in which energy is used to move 3. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS substances across a membrane against a — when hormones bind to receptors on the concentration gradient, that is, from lower plasma membrane, the hormone–receptor concentration to higher concentration complex is often ingested by endocytosis after — Substances must be highly-concentrated on the hormone has produced its effect side to have enough stimulation of the energy EXOCYTOSIS required — utilize membrane-bound sacs called secretory — ATP is the energy needed to assist in active vesicles to fuse with the cell membrane and finally transport release its content towards the extracellular space 12 — substances such as neurotransmitters, endocrine — ends when mitosis begins hormones, and digestive enzymes are secreted via exocytosis CELL DIVISION — Cells transport materials and make proteins as part of their normal functions. — They grow and, at some point, divide to produce new cells. — Cell division is the way your body grows and how it replaces worn-out cells and cells damaged by disease or injury. — Most of the cells in your body are somatic cells and divide through a process called mitosis. — Somatic cells are cells other than sex cells (sperm and egg). MITOSIS — During mitosis, one starting cell divides into two — the nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible identical cells. Each cell has exactly the same chromosomes and is pulled apart by the mitotic genetic makeup as the parent cell. spindle, a specialized structure made out of microtubules INTERPHASE — As a result of mitosis, each cell contains 23 pairs of — the cell grows and makes a copy of its DNA chromosomes. This make-up, which is — may take 20 to 22 hours, is followed by mitosis — identical to that of the starting cell, is called diploid. G1 PHASE PROPHASE — also called the first gap phase — each chromosome consists of two chromatids — growth phase in which proteins are synthesized joined at the centromere — the cell grows physically larger, copies organelles, and makes the molecular building blocks it will need METAPHASE in later steps. — chromosomes align at the center of the cell — cell performs the tasks for which it was created: carrying oxygen, secreting digestive enzymes, etc ANAPHASE — accumulates the materials it will need to replicate — chromatids separate at the centromere and its DNA migrate to opposite poles S PHASE TELOPHASE — DNA is replicated — the two new nuclei assume their normal structure, — the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in and cell division is completed, producing two new its nucleus daughter cells — also duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome — centrosomes help separate DNA during M phase G2 PHASE — another growth phase in which proteins are made — the cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles, and begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis 13 14  MEIOSIS dioxide in the lungs providing enough oxygenation — a starting cell undergoes two rounds of cell division in the body. to produce four cells 4. IT SECRETES — each cell has one-half the genetic material of the - All glands are made of epithelial tissue. The starting cell (only one set of chromosomes) endocrine glands secrete hormones, the — the two stages of meiosis divide the chromosome mucous glands secrete mucus, and our complement of the parent in half, a status called intestinal tract contains cells that secrete haploid digestive enzymes in addition to the pancreas PROPHASE I and the liver, which secrete the major portions — pairs of homologous chromosomes remain close of digestive enzymes. together in tight groups called tetrads 5. IT ABSORBS — the chromosomes may exchange pieces of DNA in - In the lining of the small intestine, nutrients from a process called crossing over our digested food enter blood capillaries and — Crossing over ―shuffles‖ the genetic material, which allows genetic variation from one generation to the get carried to the cells of our body next ANAPHASE I CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHILIAL TISSUE — the tetrads get pulled apart CELL SHAPE CELL LAYERS simple simple TISSUES - thin and flat - one lone layer — As the human body contains trillions of cells, these cuboidal pseudostratified cells further group together to form tissues. - cube-shaped - single layer but appears — these tissues were made from specialized cells that to have many due to were made during development and intended to cells’ nuclei are placed group together to perform specific functions at many levels PATHOLOGIST - a physician who examines tissues for columnar stratified changes that may indicate damage or disease - tall and thin - multiple layers THREE LAYERS OF CELL: transition 1. ECTODERM – outer layer - changes shape 2. MESODERM – middle layer - flat > cuboidal > 3. ENDODERM – inner layer flat DIFFERENTIATION – a process where cell form distinct SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHILIUM properties while they divide STRUCTURE EPITHILIAL TISSUE — single layer of flat, often hexagonal cells — covers body surfaces, forms glands, and lines body — the nuclei appear as bumps when viewed in cross cavities, hollow organs, and ducts and perform section because the cell are so flat FUNCTION — diffusion, filtration, some secretion, and some protection against friction several functions such as: kidney — LOCATION 1. IT PROTECTS UNDERLYING STRUCTURES. — lining of blood vessels and the heart — lymphatic vessels - Skin, for instance, is an evident model of how — alveoli of the lungs tissues provides protection. Other examples — portions of kidney tubules include oral cavity and the linings of the — lining of serous membranes of bod cavities (pleural, digestive tract. pericardial, peritoneal) 2. IT ACTS A BARRIER - It prevents from contamination of harmful molecules by not allowing infiltration of toxic microorganisms. 3. IT PERMITS PASSAGE OF SUBSTANCES - Diffusion allows exchange of oxygen and carbon 15 SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHILIUM — auditory tubes STRUCTURE — uterus — single layer of cube-shaped cells — uterine tubes — some cells have microvilli (kidney tubules) or cilia — stomach (terminal bronchioles of the lungs) — intestines FUNCTION — gallbladder — aids in secretion and absorption: — bile ducts - secretion and absorption by cells of the kidney — ventricles of the brain tubules - secretion by cells of glands and choroid plexuses — can enable active transport and facilitated diffusion — movement of particles embedded in mucus out of the terminal bronchioles by ciliated cells LOCATION — kidney tubules kidney — PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHILIUM — glands and their ducts STRUCTURE — choroid plexuses of the brain — lining of terminal bronchioles of the lungs — single layer of cells — surfaces of the ovaries — some cells are tall and thin and reach the free surface — some cells falls short in length giving the false idea that there are more than one layer — the nuclei are at different levels and appears stratified — cells are almost always ciliated and are associated with goblet cells that secrete mucus onto the free surface FUNCTION SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHILIUM — synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface STRUCTURE and move mucus that contains foreign particles — large, single layer of thin/tall, narrow cells over the surface of the free surface and from — some cells have microvilli (intestines) or cilia passages (bronchioles of the lungs, auditory tubes, uterine LOCATION tubes, and uterus) — lining of nasal cavity FUNCTION — nasal sinuses — movement of particles out of the bronchioles of the — auditory tubes pharynx lungs by ciliated cells — trachea — partially responsible for the movement of oocytes — bronchi of lungs through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells — secretion by cells of the glands, stomach, and intestine — absorption by cells of the intestine — mucus secretions - the mucus protects the lining of the intestine, and the digestive enzymes complete the process of digesting food. The columnar cells then absorb the digested foods by active transport, facilitated diffusion, or simple diffusion STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHILIUM LOCATION STRUCTURE — glands and some ducts — several layer of cells — bronchioles of the lungs — cells are cuboidal in the base layer and 16  progressively flattened toward the surface — mammary gland ducts — can be nonkeratinized or keratinized: — larynx - nonkeratinized (moist), surface cells retain a — portion of the male urethra nucleus and cytoplasm TRANSITIONAL EPITHILIUM - keratinized, cytoplasm of cells at the surface is STRUCTURE replaced by a protein called keratin, and the — STRETCHED cells are dead - cells change to a low cuboidal or squamous FUNCTION shape, and the number of cell layers decreases — protects against abrasion — NOT STRETCHED — forms a barrier against infection - five or more layers of cuboidal or columnar cells — reduce loss of water from the body that often are dome-shaped at the free LOCATION surface — KERATINIZED FUNCTION - outer layer of skin — accommodates fluctuations in the volume of fluid in — NONKERATINIZED an organ or a tube - mouth — protects against the caustic effects of urine - throat LOCATION - larynx — lining of urinary bladder - esophagus — ureters - anus — superior urethra - vagina - inferior urethra - corneas tissue not stretched STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHILIUM STRUCTURE — layers of cube-like cells FUNCTION — assist in secretion, absorption and protection LOCATION — lining of the ducts of sweat glands tissue stretched — esophageal glands CELL CONNECTION — parts of the male urethra — most epithelial cells and some muscle and nerve STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHILIUM cells are tightly joined into functional units by points STRUCTURE of contact between their plasma membranes — consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells called cell junctions — only the surface cells are columnar — deeper layers are irregular or cuboidal in shape CELL JUNCTIONS PERFORM DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS IN DIFFERENT FUNCTION TISSUES: — carries out secretion — protection 1. Tight junctions fuse cells together tightly to prevent substances from passing between the cells. In can — some absorption. LOCATION 17  be found in tissues with simple epithelia like those GLANDS that line the stomach, intestines, and urinary — made of glandular epithelial cells that secretes bladder, tight junctions prevent the contents of substances either in the surface or in the these organs from leaking out. bloodstream — these glandular epithelial cells form both endocrine 2. Some cell junctions hold cells together so that they and exocrine glands don’t separate while performing their functions: — some glands contain both endocrine and exocrine o ADHERENS JUNCTIONS glandular epithelium like the pancreas, ovaries, and - have a dense layer of proteins just inside testes the plasma membrane called a plaque that runs along micro laments to form a ENDOCRINE GLANDS belt or strap-like structure called an — ductless and secrete substance called hormones adhesion belt. directly into the interstitial fluid then to the blood - Two adjacent cells are joined by — ex. thyroid gland, pituitary gland transmembrane glycoproteins that insert EXOCRINE GLANDS into the corresponding adhesion belts. — secrete substances through tubes or ducts - This arrangement resists separation even — ex. sweat glands, salivary glands, and mammary when stretched. glands o DESMOSOMES - are like adherens junctions, but the plaque STRUCTURE OF EXOCRINE GLANDS: binds to intermediate laments and does O BASED ON SHAPE OF DUCTS not form a belt. Instead of two cells > SIMPLE – the duct ends directly into the secretory adhering along a belt, they adhere at portion specific spots. > COMPOUND – the duct ends into multiple o HEMIDESMOSOMES secretory branches - resemble half of a desmosome. - do not adhere adjacent cells but rather attach cells to membranes. 3. Gap junctions form channels that allow ions and molecules to pass between cells. This permits cells in a tissue to communicate and enables nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly among cells. O BASED ON SECRETORY UNITS > MEROCRINE GLAND – cells of the gland produce secretions by active transport or produce vesicles that contain secretory products, and the vesicles empty their contents into the duct through exocytosis 18  > APOCRINE GLAND – secretory products are O PLASMA CELLS stored in the cell near the lumen of the duct. a - small cells that develop from a white portion of the cell near the lumen contain secretory blood cell products is pinched off the cell and joins secretions - secrete antibodies that attack and produced by a merocrine process. neutralize foreign substances O MAST CELLS - are abundant along blood vessels - produce histamine, which dilates small blood vessels during inflammation and kill bacteria O ADIPOCYTES - found below the skin and around organs like hear and kidneys O WHITE BLOOD CELLS - like neutrophils that migrates to sites of infection ad eosinophils that migrate to sites of parasitic infection and allergic responses > HOLOCRINE GLAND – secretory products are stored in the cells of the gland. Entire cells are shed 2. EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX by the gland and become part of the secretion. The O COLLAGEN lost cells are replaced by other cells deeper in the - strong, flexible bundles of the protein gland. collagen, the most abundant protein in the body O ELASTIC FIBERS - stretchable but strong fibers made of proteins, elastin and fibrillin - found in skin, blood vessels and lung tissues O GROUND SUBSTANCES - is the stuff between cells and fibers - made of water and organic molecules (hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine) - supports cells and fibers, binds them together, and provides a medium for exchanging substances between blood CONNECTIVE TISSUE and cells — contains various cells, fibers and other substances — protects and supports the body and its organs — Connective tissue cells are named according to — one of the most abundant tissues their functions and suffixes are used to denote their function. TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE: NAMING CONNECTIVE TISSUES 1. CELLS O FIBROBLASTS SUFFIX MEANING - large flat cells that move and secrete -blast (germ) produce the matrix fibers and ground substance -cyte (cell) maintain it O MACROPHAGES -clast (break) break it down for - develop from white blood cells remodelling - eat bacteria and cell debris by phagocytosis 19 FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE: CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE 1. ENCLOSING AND SEPARATING OTHER TISSUES. LOOSE — Liver and kidneys were encapsulated to help - fewer Areola Connective fibers, more r them be separated from other tissues and Tissue Proper ground Adipos organs. More so, connective tissues divide structures such as muscles, nerves as well as substance e blood vessels from one another. Reticul 2. CUSHIONING AND INSULATING. ar — Adipose tissue cushions and protects the DENSE Dense, regular tissues it surrounds and provides an insulating – more collagenous Dense, layer beneath the skin that helps conserve fibers, less regular elastic Dense, ground heat. irregular collagenous substance 3. CONNECTING TISSUES TO ONE ANOTHER. Dense, irregular elastic — Connective tissues binds, supports and CARTILAGE Hyaline strengthen other tissues. For instance, tendons Supporting – semisolid Fibrocartilag attach muscles to bones while ligaments hold Connective matrix e Elastic bones together. Tissue BONE Spongy 4. SUPPORTING AND MOVING PARTS OF THE BODY. – solid matrix Compact — Connective tissues accommodate locomotion Fluid Blood while providing rigid support. Examples of Connective Hemopoieti Red Marrow which includes surfaces of bones and joints. Tissue c Tissue Yellow 5. STORING COMPOUNDS. Marrow — Storing energy through fat tissues and cells provides reserves for the body. Bones in addition, stores minerals such as calcium and phosphate. 6. TRANSPORTING. STRUCTURE — It transports materials throughout the body. — a fine network of fibers (mostly collagen fibers with a for instance, blood, delivers nutrients, few elastic fibers) with spaces between the fibers enzymes and essential nutrients. — fibroblasts, macrophages, and lymphocytes are 7. PROTECTING. located in the spaces — It protects the body by destroying invading FUNCTION microorganisms and eliminating cellular — loose packing, support, and nourishment for the debris. Protection from injury can also be structures with which it is associated sought from bones. LOCATION — widely spread throughout the body CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE — substance on which epithelial basement — Like epithelium, connective tissue is classified membranes rest according to its cells, extracellular matrix, and — packing between glands, muscles, and nerves appearance under the microscope — attaches the skin to underlying tissues — Unlike epithelium, most connective tissue has a rich supply of blood vessels. — Two major categories of connective tissue are embryonic and adult connective tissue — By eight weeks of development, most of the embryonic connective tissue has become specialized to form the types of connective tissue seen in adults. 2. ADIPOSE TISSUE STRUCTURE — little extracellular matrix surrounding cells — the adipocytes, or flat cells, are so full of lipid that the cytoplasm I pushed to the periphery of the cell FUNCTION 20 — packing material, thermal insulator, energy storage, and protection of organs against injury from being bumped or jarred LOCATION — predominantly in subcutaneous areas, mesenteries, renal pelves, around kidneys, attached to the surface of the colon, mammary glands, and in loose connective tissue that penetrates into spaces and crevices 2. DENSE REGULAR ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE STRUCTURE — matrix composed of collagen fibers and elastic fibers running in somewhat the same direction in elastic ligaments — elastic fibers run connective tissue of blood vessel walls 3. RETICULAR TISSUE FUNCTION STRUCTURE — capable of stretching and recoiling like a rubber — fine network or reticular fibers irregularly arranged band with strength in the direction of fiber FUNCTION orientation — provides a superstructure for lymphatic and — allows stretching of various organs (lungs, arterial hemopoietic tissues walls, trachea, bronchial tubes, vocal chords and LOCATION ligament) — within the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow LOCATION — elastic ligaments between the vertebrae and along the dorsal aspect of the neck (nucha) and in the vocal cords — also found in elastic connective tissue of blood vessel walls STRUCTURE — matrix composed of collagen fibers running in somewhat the same direction in tendons and SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE: CARTILAGE ligaments — semisolid matrix — collagen fibers run in several directions in the — specialized cells called chondrocytes, or cartilage dermis of the skin and in organ capsules cells makes up a Cartilage FUNCTION — When grouped together, these chondrocytes form — withstand great pulling forces exerted in the an island called lacuna direction of the fiber orientation due to great tensile — provides greater support for surrounding structures strength and stretch resistance — they are rigid, it goes back easily when compressed LOCATION — cartilage injuries take a long time to heal, there are — tendons (attach muscle to bone) no blood vessels within cartilage — ligaments (attach bones to each other) — dermis of the skin, organ capsules, and outer layer of many blood vessels 21 1. HYALINE CARTILAGE 3. ELASTIC CARTILAGE STRUCTURE STRUCTURE — collagen fibers are small and evenly dispersed in — similar to hyaline cartilage, but matrix also contains the matrix, making the matrix appear transparent elastic fibers — the chondrocytes are found in spaces, or lacunae, FUNCTION within the firm but flexible matrix — provides rigidity with even more flexibility than FUNCTION hyaline cartilage because elastic fibers return to — allows growth of long bones their original shape after being stretched — forms a layer sustainable to bear certain amount of LOCATION compression — external ears, epiglottis, and auditory tubes — provides rigidity with some flexibility in the trachea, bronchi, ribs, and nose — forms strong, smooth, et somewhat flexible articulating surfaces — forms the embryonic skeleton LOCATION — can be found in the ends of long bones, ribs, nose, larynx, and trachea — growing long bones, cartilage rings of the respiratory system, coastal cartilage of ribs, nasal SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE: BONE cartilage, articulating surface of bones, and the embryonic skeleton — solid matrix 1. BONE STRUCTURE — hard, bony matrix predominates — many osteocytes are located within lacunae — the matrix is organized into layers called lamellae FUNCTION — provides great strength and support — protects internal organs (brain) — provides attachment sites for muscles and 2. FIBROCARTILAGE ligaments STRUCTURE — joints of bones allow movement — collagen fibers similar to those in hyaline cartilage LOCATION — the fibers are more numerous than in other — all bones of the body cartilages and are arranged in thick bundles FUNCTION — somewhat flexible and capable of withstanding considerable pressure — connects structure subjected to great pressure LOCATION — intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, and articular disks (knees and temporomandibular joints) FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE 1. BLOOD STRUCTURE — blood cells and a fluid matrix FUNCTION — transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, nutrients, waste products, and other substances — protects body from infections 22 — involved in temperature regulation LOCATION — within the blood vessels — white blood cells frequently leave the blood vessels and enter the interstitial spaces SMOOTH MUSCLE STRUCTURE — tapered at each end — not striated — have single nuclei FUNCTION MUSCLE TISSUE — regulates size of organs — composed of elongated muscle cells called muscle — forces fluid through tubes fibers — controls the amount of light entering the eye — job of muscular tissue is to generate force, which — produces ―goose bumps‖ in the skin produces motion, maintains posture, and — under involuntary (unconscious) control generates heat LOCATION — three types of muscular tissue: skeletal muscle, — hollow organs: stomach and intestine cardiac muscle, smooth muscle — skin SKELETAL MUSCLE — eyes STRUCTURE — striated (banded) — cells are large, long, and cylindrical — multi-nucleated cell FUNCTION — generation of force during voluntary command LOCATION — attached to bone or other connective tissue NERVOUS TISSUE — transmits impulses to coordinate activities including involuntary controls because these specialized cells makes up the brain, spinal cord and nerves — consists of only two types of cells: neurons and neuroglia CARDIAC MUSCLE NEURONS STRUCTURE STRUCTURE — cylindrical and striated — dendrites — single nucleus — cell body — branched and connected to one another — long axon by intercalated discs — neuroglia (support cell), surrounds the neurons — contain gap junctions FUNCTION FUNCTION — responsible for conducting action potentials: — pumps blood electrical signals that assists in cell communication, — contracts involuntarily making them sensitive to different stimuli LOCATION — convert these stimuli into nerve impulses and — heart conducts to other neurons, to muscle fibers or even to glands — store information 23 — integrate and evaluate data — or cutaneous membrane — neuroglia support, protect and form specialized — provides covering of the external surfaces of the sheaths around axons body LOCATION — largest organ — brain, spinal cord, and ganglia — covers an area of about 2 square meters (22 square feet) and weighs 4.5–5 kg (10–11 lb.), about 16% of total body weight — multilayered organ that consists of two main parts: Epidermis and Dermis EPIDERMIS — made from keratinized stratified squamous epithelium INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM — the superficial, thinner portion of the skin — includes the skin, hair, oil and sweat glands, nails, — prevents water loss and resists abrasion and sensory receptors — thick skin MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM — Several distinct layers of keratinocytes in various 1. PROTECTION stages of development form the bulk of the epidermis — skin serves as the primary defense against offending microorganisms — provides a barrier against ultraviolet light and helps maintain fluid inside the body, thus preventing dehydration 2. SENSATION — receptors in the skin makes it possible for human organism to perceive pain, pressure as well as other sensation like temperature changes 3. VITAMIN D PRODUCTION — help synthesize calcium absorption, made possible by the skin’s sufficient exposure to early sunlight PRINCIPLE TYPES OF CELLS: 4. TEMPERATURE REGULATION O KERATINOCYTES — amount of blood flow beneath the skin’s — compromise ~90% of epidermal cells surface and the activity of sweat glands in the — produce the protein keratin and lamellar skin both help regulate body temperature granules 5. EXCRETION O MALANOCYTES — small amounts of waste products are lost — compromise ~5% of the epidermal cells through the skin and in gland secretions — produce the pigment melanin SKIN — susceptible to UV damage O LANGERHANS CELLS — participate in immune responses mounted against microbes that invade the skin and are easily damaged by UV light O MERKEL CELLS — contact the flattened process of a sensory neuron, a structure called a tactile disc — detect touch sensati