Anatomy Study Guide Final (1) PDF Study Guide

APK 2100c – Applied Human Anatomy - Final Exam Study Guide Chapter 1 Hierarchy of structural organization in the body Anatomical positions and terminology -describe in relation to other body parts -hands inferior to head -reference anatomical position for description & movement -palms always anter...

APK 2100c – Applied Human Anatomy - Final Exam Study Guide Chapter 1 Hierarchy of structural organization in the body Anatomical positions and terminology -describe in relation to other body parts -hands inferior to head -reference anatomical position for description & movement -palms always anterior (forward, not a neutral joint) to the dorsum of the hand -inferior to head -proximal=closer to trunk; distal=farther away from trunk -for appendances (distal and proximal) from trunk OR tubular structures (front end tube=proximal, things enter// back end=distal, things exit) -ipsilateral and contralateral also reference for motion ONLY at midline Regional terminology Body planes and sections -can look @ body region -e.g. section heart on diff planes, frontally like book -e.g. anterior/posterior of stomach & superficial/deep layers -sagittal sections/plana AKA median plane -divide into right & left (if equal, called mid-sagittal section), if uneven called para-sagittal (near or beside midline) -includes forward/backward motions (e.g. head nodding, elbow flexion) -frontal or coronal plane -front & back/anterior & posterior (sectioned) -motion happens side to side (w/ arms) -e.g. shoulder ab/adduction, lateral bending, hips coming in & out, wrists twisting -transverse OR horizontal plane -motion ALWAYS rotation -divide into superior & anterior section (top & bottom) -shoulder, trunk rotation -frontal section -can’t compare front to back because no depth, can compare right & left, superior & inferior -transverse section -can’t compare inferior/superior because cut along that plane, can compare right & left, front to back -midsagittal section -midline structure Chapter 2 What are the smallest living units in our bodies? -Cells -obtain and use nutrients, dispose of wastes, replicate/regenerate/repair 3 main structural components of ANY cell -plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm General structure of the plasma membrane – fluid mosaic model -protective barrier -layer of lipids (fats), prevent random stuff coming in (including water soluble stuff) -cellular communications (via receptor proteins) -regulates movement of substances in and out (membrane transport) -composition: lipids and proteins: phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, proteins (integral & peripheral) -phospholipids=make up most of lipids -cholesterol=in between phospholipids, next most prevalent, lipid based, prevents things coming across that are not lipid based -glycolipids=least ECF, sugar chains, identifies cell -proteins=integral=imbedded in one or both layers of bilayer; peripheral=not imbedded, but part of intracellular, having mobility, can detach from membrane -membrane lipids=phospholipids -amphipathic -dynamic arrangement Cilia vs. flagella vs. Microvilli -cilia=don't move cell, but move stuff along surface, made of microtubules -micro villa=has micro filaments/actin filaments inside -non-mobile, function to increase surface area because secretion/absorption, increase binding of receptors for transportation (more chances), vesicle access -microtubules help with movement=form flagella to move cell like in sperm General functions of the major organelles -the cytoplasm: cytosol & organelles -cytosol=jelly-like fluid in which all other intracellular elements are suspended -water, ions, enzymes -site of many chemical reactions -water based -organelles=specialized structure in a cell that have characteristic shapes and functions -inclusions=temporary sites of storage/structures -pigments, crystals of protein, carbs (e.g. glycogen), food stores (lipid) -9 basic organelles=mitochondria (double membrane), ribosomes (no membrane), endoplasmic reticulum (rough & smooth, has membrane), golgi apparatus/lysosomes/peroxisomes=has membrane, cytoskeleton (no membrane) -ribosomes -function in protein synthesis -made of proteins & ribosomal RNA (derived from nucleolus in nucleus then go in cytosol to function) -only when subunits come together can function -ER -network within the cytoplasm -network of membrane-enclosed cavities (flattened sacs or tubules) -Rough ER=aid in protein synthesis -has cisterns=pouches -ribosomes, NOT permanent feature, float around, then when read to dispose of protein attach -Smooth ER=making or breaking down fats (lipids) AND calcium storage ** (in some cells) -no ribosomes associated, NO protein synthesis’ -clinical application=lipid-based medicine, simply diffuse (b/c has plasma membrane) through cell membrane, then through membrane of smooth ER -nucleus is double membrane (outer has exovagination, grows outward towards rough ER) -golgi apparatus -like own ER structure -can accept vesicles on one side (each plasma membrane fuse to each other), when fuse, form pore, so inside one another -vesicle: has lumen, luminal contents go into Golgi -on opposite side, snip off in new vesicle -molecules made to be function (like factory) -+ options for vesicles once produced -exocytosis=secretory vesicle=fuse to PM, section -lysosomes -responsible for generalized digestion of stuff -e.g. endocytose through phagocytosis, molecules in phagosomes fuse with lysosome, lumens now continuous -has digestive enzymes to break down & release contents to be disperse (e.g. nutrients) -peroxisomes -peroxide bodies -removes toxic wastes by using special enzymes -similar to lysosomes EXCEPT specifically targeting toxins -use oxidase which works on free radicals, releases H2O2, BUT H2O2 toxic, so has to catalase to neutralize to H2O -mitochondria -2 membranes=smooth outer, convoluted inner for increased surface area -need lots for inner lining to pack in sites for ribosomes to make ATP (open protein chain), can make energy wherever want -cytoskeleton -elaborate network of rods running throughout cytoplasm -functions like bones, muscles, and ligaments do in an organism -support cell’s shape and produces movements -arms that reach out during phagocytosis are pseudopods=production happens through cytoskeletons -microfilaments=smallest, e.g. actin -intermediate filaments=e.g. myosin & keratin, robust, resilient, strong -microtubules=help form flagella & cilia for movement of cell -nucleus -2 bilayers fuse together to form window-like structure so things can get in/out -RNA used to form ribosomes are made in nucleoli -outer membrane exvaginates to for rough ER Chapter 4 Define “tissue” -has cells and extracellular matrix -extracellular proteins -cytoskeleton is proteins inside cell, extracellular proteins outside -ECM=things inside contribute to function -dictate consistency of tissue -e.g bones & blood (liquid tissue) -group of similar cells that are organized together to perform a specific function Define extracellular matrix -network of proteins and other molecules that surrounds and supports cells & tissues in body -structure and scaffolding, help attach to each other, communication, growth 4 basic tissue types and their one-word functions -epithelial (epithelium) tissue=covering, lining, glands (secretion) -connective tissue=support (e.g. blood & bone) -muscles tissue=movement -nervous tissue=control & communicate If given an image of a tissue, classify it as one of the 4 main types of tissue Special features of epithelium -cells arranged in continuous sheets (single or multiple layers) -cells are closely packed and held together (high cellularity) -little to no extracellular matrix -found a boundary between 2 environments -interface locations, if at covering or lining -covering & lining epithelium -covers outer surfaces=skin -lines inner surfaces=stomach -1 vs lots of layers (more=+ protection @ interface) -stratified=ALWAYS protective function -glandular epithelium -forms most glands of body=sweat, oil, milk, pituitary gland -secretion -general function (b/c interface) =protection of underlying tissue (lots of layers=stratified), secretion/absorption, diffusion/filtration (fast diffusion of gases, THIN/single layer e.g. capillary), sensory reception (e.g. skin/external) -special features: -high cellularity=lots of cells, little to no extracellularity -specialized contacts=junctions (facilitate function with adjacent cells) -polarity=apical & basal surface (one side of tissue diff than other side) -support by connective tissue=basement membrane -ALWAYS be underlined by connective tissue, find basal surface then CT under -avascular=no blood/capillaries -nervous innervation=has nervous structures present -regeneration=can repair itself well, e.g. burn tongue, skid knee Types of membrane junctions and their functional differences -tight junctions -w/ transmembrane proteins on each cell, coming & locking together to seal up cells -paracellular transport where things slip between cells -prevent intercellular transport -help form fluid barrier, only find tight junctions where there is fluid around & don't want it leaking between cells -sometimes cells don’t have TJs because need stuff to go through (paracellular transport) -tight junctions prevent this, found between cells forming an arety and bladder -desmosomes/anchoring junctions -not unique to epithelium, also in muscle -skin (hold skin together), heart (pulling muscle cells in heart) -hold cells together that are in tissue/organs that are subject to mechanism deformities (e.g. pulling, pressure, etc.) -pull cells together with intracellular proteins (intermediate filaments, very strong/resilient) imbedded in plaque (anchors in place, held together by intracellular fibers) -gap junctions -bridge between cells -gap allows communication to intracellular environment of each cell -when joined=coupled -if have particles going through=electrical coupling (e.g. Na+ ions) -metabolic coupling if glucose or ATP goes through Be able to name all types of epithelium based on descriptions (EX: one layer of flat cells: simple squamous) -single vs multi-layered (simple vs stratified) -smallest/flattest vs same size but square vs longer cells (squamous vs cuboidal vs columnar) -simple or stratified -simple squamous epithelium -single layer of flattened cells w/ disc-shaped central nuclei & sparse cytoplasm, simplest -allow passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in site where protection is not important, produces lubricating fluid serosae -kidney, air sacs lungs, heart lining, blood/lymphatic vessels, lining of ventral bod cavity (serosae) -nuclei lined up -fast diffusion -endothelium-line blood vessels -mesothelium=form serosae -fried eggs -simple cuboidal epithelium -single layer of cubelike cells with large spherical central nuclei -secretion & absorption -kidney, ducts/secretions glands, ovary -free space=apical surface -microvilli expected for faster secretion & absorption because ++ surface area -form tubules -simple columnar epithelium -single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei, some cells bear cilia, layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells) -absorption, secretion of mucus/enzymes/etc., ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action -nonciliated type lines of digestive tract, gallbladder, excretory ducts, ciliated variety of bronchi, uterine tubes, uterus -microvilli=absorption & secretion -goblet cells -nuclei lined up -pseudostratified columnar epithelium -single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching free surface, nuclei @ diff levels, may contain mucus-secreting goblet cells & bear cilia -secretion (mucus), propulsion of mucus by ciliary action -nonciliated type in male’s sperm-carrying ducts & large glands, ciliated variety lines trachea, upper respiratory tract -ALWAYS have CILIA*** -LOTS goblet cells -stratified squamous epithelium -thick membrane of ++ cell layers, basal cells are cuboidal or columnar & metabolically active, surface cells are flattened (squamous) in keratinized type, surface cells are full of keratin & dead, basal cells are active in mitosis & product cells of superficial layers  -protect underlying tissues subjected to abrasion -nonkeratinized type=moist linings of esophagus, mouth vagina; keratinized=epidermis of skin, dry membrane ** -keratinized=more protection + stratified (apical surface has keratinized layer, dead cells, no nuclei) -stratified cuboidal epithelium -two layers of cubelike cells -protection -ducts of sweat glands, mammary, salivary -secretory portion=tube (duct) -stratified columnar epithelium -several cell layers, basal cells cuboidal, superficial cells elongated & columnar -protection (b/c stratified), secretion (based on where tissue is located) -rare, in male urethra, some duct glands -glands -epithelia make and secrete product -secretions are aqueous fluids that contain proteins: -hormones, mucous, sweat/oils, bile & digestive enzymes, milk -endocrine glands=secretions=hormones, effector organs far away -exocrine glands=secretions flow onto body surfaces or cavities, act locally -unicellular exocrine gland=goblet cell (produce mucen, local, nasal cavity, vagina) -multicellular exocrine gland=secretory portion, units, glandular epithelium out through duct -epithelial membranes -cutaneous membrane=skin -mucous membrane=line OPEN cavities & organs, tubes of respiratory, digestive, reproductive, urinary systems -serous membranes=line CLOSED cavities, thoracic & abdominal (ventral) What is the most abundant and diverse type of tissue? -Connective Tissue -main categories=CT proper (fibers, extracellular), cartilage (chondrocytes), bone (osteocytes), blood (blood cells) **support What is the general arrangement of all types of CT? (Hint: how is CT diff from epithelium or muscle?) -few cells, lots of ECM -low cellularity -all Cts stem from a common embryonic origin -ground substance=density around fibers (e.g. plasma around blood) -fibers-long protein structures Describe the fiber types found in CT -collagen fibers -largest diameter (rope-like structures), strongest, function=tensile strength (bones) -elastic fibers -intermediate diameter (long, thin fibers), branches form networks, function=recoli -reticular fibers -smallest diameter, special collagen fibers, clustered, function=support -loose vs dense CT proper CT Types (not in study guide) -loose CT, areolar -found under ALL epithelium, most common -gel-like matrix w/ all 3 fiber types, fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, white blood cells -vascular -wraps & cushions organs, macrophages phagocytize bacteria, inflammation, holds tissue fluid -loose CT, adipose -matrix as in areolar but sparse -closely packed adipocytes (fat cells), nucleus pushed to side by fat droplet -highly vascularized -reserve food fuel, insulates against heat losee, supports/protects organs -under skin in hypodermis, around kidneys/eyeballs, abdomen, breasts -loose CT, reticular -reticular fibers in loose ground substance -soft internal skeleton, supports other cells -lymphoid organs -very vascular -dense CT, dense regular -parallel collagen fibers, few elastic, fibroblast cells -attaches muscles to bones/muscles, bone to bone, withstand tensile stress when pulling in one direction -tensons, ligaments, aponeuroses -minimally vascular -dense CT, dense irregular -irregularly arranged collagen fibers, some elastic, fibroblast cell, defense/fat cells -withstand tension exerted in many directions, structural strength -fibrous capsules of organs/joints, skin dermis, submucosa of GI tract -dense CT, elastic -dense regular tissue with ++ elastic fibers  -allow recoil of tissue following stretching, pulsatile flow of blood, passive recoil of lungs -walls of arteries, ligaments of vertebral column, walls of bronchial tubes -hyaline cartilage -like seaglass -collagen fibers, chondroblasts -support & reinforces, cushion -embryonic skeleton, costal cartilage -elastic cartilage=more elastic fibers, similar to hyaline -external year, epiglottis -spiderwebs -fibrocartilage=collagen fibers, rounded cells -tensile strength, absorb compressive shock -intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis -compact bone -hard calcified matrix -blood Types and differences between muscle tissues -skeletal=body -long cylindrical, multinucleate cells, striations -voluntary movement -attached to bones or in skin -nuclei peripherally to cell -striping perpendicular to long axis of muscle -one of largest cells in body -cardiac=blood -branching striated, uninucleate (same w/ skeletal muscle & osteoclasts), interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated discs) -contracts, propels blood into circulation, involuntary control -e.g. walls of heart -smaller, branches -myocytes -smooth=lots of stuff -spindle shaped cells w/ central nuclei, no striations, cells arranged closely to form sheets -propels substances or objects, along internal passageways, involuntary control -e.g. walls of hollow organs -high cellularity, no fibers, no striations -nuclei elongated like cigars (lots of nuclei because high cellularity) Be able to name and identify all types of muscle tissue if given an image Types of cells present in nervous tissue -main tissue: brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia -cell types: neurons & neuroglia (glial cells) -neurons=branching cells -neuroglia are nonconducting supporting cells -transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and effectors that control activity of effector organs Chapter 5 Why is skin considered an organ? -largest organ of body (rivaled with skeletal muscle) -composed of multiple tissue types working together to perform specific function (protection, temperature regulation, sensation, etc.) -integumentary system also includes accessory organs=hair, nails, oil/sweat glands Know all the layers of the skin -regions of skin=epidermis, dermis, hypodermis -layers of thin epidermis=(four layers, most of body) -stratum corneum-most superficial, layers of dead cels, flat membranous sacs filled with keratin, glycolipids in extracellular space -thick skin has thick stratum corneum -stratum lucidem -stratum granulosum=1-5 layers flattened cells, organelles deteriorating, lamellar granules & keratohyalin granules -stratum spinosum=layers of keratinocytes unified by desmosomes (connect cells), thick bundles of intermediate filaments of pre- keratin -stratum basale=cells reproduce, deepest epidermal layer, one row of actively mitotic stem cells -thick epidermal layers (five), palms, feet, fingertips (++ friction occurs) -stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, granulosum, spinosom, basale, dermis (loose areolar CT proper because immediately under epithelium) Is the hypodermis part of skin? -NO, adipose tissue with blood vessels General type of tissue associated with epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis -epidermis=keratinized stratified squamous (flat) epithelium -dermis=loose areolar CT proper -dermis=CT, very tough -also includes blood/lymphatic vessels, nerves -++collagen fibers -reticular layer of dermis=dense irregular CT proper -hypodermis=adipose loose CT proper Which parts of the integumentary system are vascularized? -epidermis=avascular -dermis& hypodermis=vascular Type of cells hair and nails are made of -nails=scale-like modification of epidermis, containing dead keratinocytes full of HARD keratin -hair=flexible of columns of dead keratinocytes full of HARD keratin General hair anatomy -arrector pili muscle=push skin up, gives goosebumps, involuntary (smooth muscles) -root lives in follicle, @ angle -types of hair=straight (@ angle, not straight out though), wavy, curly (growth of hair on one wide, ++ rounded) Sebaceous and sweat glands -sebaceous glands -located everywhere EXCEPT plantar/palmar regions (b/c no hair) -duct dumps into hair follicle -sebum=keeps hair/skin soft, protects against brittle hair/skin, protects epidermis from cracking, collects dirt -sweat glands -eccrine=palms, soles, forehead, “true” sweat, ducts open directly onto skin -apocrine=axillary, anal, genital areas, ducts open to hair follicle, milky sweat (foul odor), deep to reticular dermis Chapter 6 What organs make up the skeletal system? -bones, cartilages, joints -cartilages -perichondrium=dense CT membrane around hyaline & elastic cartilages, protective girdle NOT around fibrocartilage discs (abundant collagen makes tissue strong enough,+= compact, resist compression Classification of bones -temporal bone in between, flat sport & projection (zygomatic process) SO flat & irregular also scapular, spine but also flat Trabecular vs. compact bone (differences in microscopic anatomy and locations) -compact bone=dense, outer layer of bone tissue -internal=spongy/trabecular bone tissue -branch, spongy like -weaker, so need compact bone around it Gross anatomy of a long bone -in long bone epiphysis, no medullary cavity, filled with spongy tissue -heavily vascular, located in central canals of compact tissue BUT snake around in spongy tissue -endosteum w/ trabecular tissue & central canals -bone diaphysis -covering cartilage is perichondrium, CT proper, ++ collagen -periosteum cover entire bone, except where there is cartilage-have own perichondrium which fuses with periosteum to make smooth outer membrane -periosteum=dense irregular tissue proper -bone has collagen, so fibers of bone & periosteum connect by collagen fibers intermingling -only medullary cavity & epiphyses in long bones, spongy and compact bone in short, flat, irregular bones Periosteum vs. Endosteum -bone membranes -periosteum -thick membrane that covers external bone surface -muscle attachment & bone growth -not present at sites covered by articular cartilage -2 layers -superficial=dense irregular CT=__ collagen & diff directions because muscle goes out in different directions -deep layer=osteogenic=cellular, direct contact to bone, bone forming layer, active osteoblasts (form bone), osteoclasts (break bone done) -endosteum -thin, osteogenic membrane that covers/lines internal bone surfaces -locations: central canal of osteons, covering all spongy bone trabeculae (medullary cavity, epiphyses of long bones, inside short, irregular and flat bones) -++ thinner, w/ capillaries -also has osteoblasts & clasts Epiphyseal plate vs. Line -lengthening of bones involves 2 steps: cartilage grown on epiphysis side of epiphyseal plate AND replacement of cartilage by bone on diaphysis side -at adulthood, epiphyseal plates close and bone replaces all of cartilage leaving a bony structure=epiphyseal line -@ metaphysis, have growth plate or epiphyseal plate in developing bone piece of cartilage (hyaline) -diaphysis gets longer & pushes epiphyses away from each other because have cartilage growth on epiphyseal side & cartilage to bone on diaphysis side -@ certain age, cartilage stops getting signal to proliferate (~late puberty), SO bone takes over (plate to line) Chapters 7 & 8 Know the names and locations of ALL bones of the body -cranial bones (8)=occiptal, parietal (2), frontal, temporal (2), sphenoid, ethmoid (can be facial) -facial bones (15)= nasal (2), maxilla (upper jaw, 2), lacrimal bone (2), zygomatic bone (cheek bones, 2), palatine bone (2), inferior nasal concha (2), vomer, hyoid, mandible -middle ear (2 each)= malleus, incus, stapes -thorax=sternum, ribs -spine/vertebral column=cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacrum (5 fused), coccyx (set of 4 bones) -pelvis -anterior bone=pelvic girdle=ilium, ischium, pubis -posterior bones (pelvic spine)=sacrum, coccyx -upper arm bones (6)=humerus, pectoral girdle (shoulder)=scapula (2), clavicle (2) -lower arm bones (4)=ulna (2,line up with pinky), radius (2, line up with thumb) -hand (54 total, 27 each hand)=carpals, scaphoid bone, lunate bone, triquetral, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate, metacarpals (5 on each side), phalanges=proximal(10), intermediate (8 total), distal (10) -lower limb -2 each: femur, patella, tibia, fibula -foot (52 total, 26 per foot)=tarsus=calcaneus/heel bone, talus, navicular, medial cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, lateral cuneiform, cuboid bone & metatarsals (10), phalanges (28 total, 14 per)-proximal (10), intermediate (8), distal (10) You do not need to know all the bone markings you learned in lab, but a general familiarity with the major landmarks (e.g., medial malleolus) of the skeleton will be helpful to you on the exam Chapter 9 What is an articulation? -joint=articulation -the rigid elements of the skeleton meet at sites=articulations -e.g. cartilage, bones, teeth What are the structural classifications of joints? -classification based on: presence/absence of a synovial cavity (foramen, space present between articulated structures), type of CT binding bones together -3 classes: -fibrous joints=bones held together by dense collagen fibers -collagen fibers AKA ligaments (made form dense irregular CT proper), short & stiff that limit motion -cartilaginous joints=bones held together by cartilage -covered by perichondrium (dense irregular CT property), that can fuse with periosteum (made of dense irregular CT properties), hyalin or fibrocartilage -fibrous & cartilaginous joints lack synovial cavity -synovial joints ***=bones held together by ligaments -greatest amount, have synovial cavity What are the functional classifications of joints? -functional classification relates to type & degree of movement allowed @ joint -3 classes: -synarthroses=immovable joints (no motion) -amphiarthroses=slightly movable joints (some motion) -diarthroses=freely moveable joint (++ motion) **all synovial joints are diarthrotic because have synovia cavity, presence of free space gives room to move Components of a synovial joint -synovial cavity present=allows for movement @ articulation -ligaments old bones together -limit motion (excessive), dense regular -strong when pulled -collagen going in one direction -all synovial joints are diarthrotic **=freely movable -most joint of body are synovial joints -articular/synovial capsule 1. Fibrous layer=dense irregular CT proper, strong & allows flexibility because stretches in diff directions, meet articular/hyaline cartilage (not cover cartilage, has own perichondrium), fibrous layer=synovial sac, then fuse with bone (w/ periosteum), form pocket -continuous with periosteum 2. Synovial membrane=inner, deeper layer, loose type of CT, make synovium=highly vascular CT, synovium=filling up inner capsular space, fuse with O2 & nutrients from capillaries of SM--->give O2/nutrients and extract wastes from synovium--->lubricates & compresses joints=weeping circulation -covers any boy surface inside joint -reinforcing ligaments of synovial joints -dense regular tissue CT proper -band-like ligaments that strengthen joint -stabilize & reinforce strength of joint @ articulation, resist further motion/stretching -looser=more motion -capsular=thickened band in joint capsule -e.g. glenohumeral ligaments -extracapsular=outside join capsule (e.g. MCL/LCL) -intracapsular=inside joint capsule (ACL/PCL) -nervous innervation -blood supply Movements that occur at synovial joints (EX: flexion, extension, abduction, etc.) -movements: gliding, angular, rotation -synovial joints categorized based on shape of articulating bones -planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball-and-socket -plane joint -nonaxial movement (just sliding) -e.g. intercarpal joints -motion has flexion, hyperextension -hinge joint -uniaxial=one plane, forward & backward -e.g. elbow & interphalangeal joints -flexion, extension, hyperextension -@ ankle -plantar & dorsal flexion=bent axis, plane, flexion, hinge motion -pivot joint -uniaxial movement -true rotation, tranverse plane, vertical axis=rotation(internal & external rotation),hips & spine -e.g. proximal radioulnar & atlantoaxial joints -circular shape that sits in groove, encircling ligaments for rotation -condylar joint -biaxial, 2 panes, ab/adduct -**do not rotate, rotation diff from circumduction -flex & extend AND ab/adduct, take digits out and in (frontal motion/plane) -e.g. metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) & wrist joints -saddle joint -biaxial -e.g. carpometacarpal joints of thumbs -articular surfaces concave & convex -ab/adduction flexion & extension -ball & socket joint -multiaxial joint, do motion in all planes -circumduction -sagittal plane=flexion/extension/hyperextension -frontal=ab/adduction -transverse=rotation -e.g. shoulder & hip joints -elevation (lining body part superiorly) & depression (moving body part inferiorly) -e.g. mandible -protraction (moving body part in anterior direction), retraction, move posteriorly -e.g. mandible & pectoral girdle (rolling shoulders forward) -inversion=turning sole of foot medially, eversion=turning sole of foot laterally -talocalcaneal joints, intertarsal joint=gliding -associated with frontal plane w/ ab/adduction -dorsiflexion (lifting foot so superior surface approaches shin) vs plantar flexion (depressing foot elevating the heel) -happens at tibiotalar joint, ankle -knee=tibiofemoral joint -modified hinge joint -main action=flexion/extension and some med/lat rotation -bicondyloid joint Chapter 10 Which muscles have voluntary and/or involuntary control? Properties of muscle tissue -contractibility=ability to shorten and generate force -muscles only pull (shorten) -excitability=ability to respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals (nervous system) -extensibility=ability to stretch (beyond resting length) without being damaged -elastic=recoil to resting length -skeletal muscle function -movement, posture/joint stabilization, open/close body passageways, thermogenesis CT components of a skeletal muscle (epi, peri, endo) -sheaths of CT hold skeletal muscle cells tightly in parallel alignment, generate force as a whole -highly organized -plasma membrane @ muscle cell=sarcolemma -inside=nuclei -outside=tube of CT=endomysium, deepest layer of CT in skeletal muscle, in between cells, share endomysium with/ other cells because close together, cover individual cells -fascicle=groups of cells connected by endomysium, perimysium is CT around fascicle -epimysium (whole muscle)=CT sheath that surrounds perimysium & endomysium What is a tendon? -tendon=CT attachment of a skeletal muscle to a bone’s periosteum -usually long, skinny, cordlike -continuous with all 3 CT sheaths of a muscle beyond the length of muscle fibers -aponeurosis=broad, flat tendon Define origin and insertion -2 places where muscle attached to bone via tendon -origin=usually more proximal, less movement -insertion=usually more distal, + movement -direct=muscle cell sprouting out of bone, tendon present (ALWAYS) -indirect=distinct tendon (CT tissue)-->broad & big aponeuroses & more cord like tendons -not always direct attachment, varies, not related to O/I -trunk--->+ motion, not distal/proximal Microscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle · Sarcolemma and T-tubules · Sarcoplasmic reticulum Myofibrils and protein components – including arrangement into sarcomeres -nuclei inside sarcolemma, outside plasma membrane is endomysium -distinctly dark & light stripes because of overlapping elements of cytoskeletal elements -microfilament actin & intermediate filament myosin -myosin=thicker proteins=A band, ++ dark (and actin) -actin=make up I band, thinner=lighter -myofilaments (myosin & actin) make up myofibrils organelles -myofibrils=nonmembrane organelles, like ribosome, muscle fiber (cell) filled up with long, cylindrical myofibrils which push nuclei peripherally because so compact -each myofibril composed of series of sarcomeres=basic contractile unit of muscle (compose myofibrils in series) -sarcomeres attached to neighboring @ Z discs/band/line -zig zag of protein arrangements, see @ end of sarcomeres -in middle of sarcomere=M line (midline) -immediately on each side of M line is H zone (surrounds M line) -H zone important because have NO overlap of actin & myosin BUT lateral to H zone is overlapping of actin w/ NO myson=I band, shared with 2 adjoining sarcomeres, Z disc runs down middle of I band -A band=length of myosin, BUT also has actin overlapping -@ resting, myosin doesn’t reach Z disc -when pulling together, but farther apart, stay same length, when contracting=stay same length, if pulling=short, relax=all grow -look at Z disc first for bounds of sarcomere -when sarcomere contracts, tiny round heads of myosin grab to actin and yank to midline -everything shift inward SO Z disc ++ strong, lots of proteins holding sarcomeres together because contracting on either side of Z disc -actin=6 surrounding thin filament, thick filament=1 myosin in center of sarcomere -contract, overlap -myofibril proteins -contractile=sliding, gives tension, actin & myosin myofilaments -regulatory proteins=regulate if contractile proteins can contract, troponin & tropomyosin -troponin=complex set of proteins that function as unit, bind Ca+ -tropomyosin=long protein, fiber type, covers myosin binding sites on actin -structural proteins=holds everything in place to contract=titin (inside sarcomere), dystrophin (at ends of myofibril) -titin=suspends myosin in sarcomere, holds in place against gravity, coil, has elasticity function -dystrophin=anchor myofibrils to sarcolemma, large protein complex, attach to plasma membrane so WHOLE cell shortens -sarcoplasmic reticulum -covers myofibrils, tubule structures form network -has membrane, stores calcium away from myofibrils to prevent constant contraction -t tubule=sarcolemma starts going into cell -transverse across long axis in cell, tubes of sarcolemma that invaginate towards inner core of cell, most of calcium at terminal cisterns -triad=2 terminal cisterns, 1 t tubule, occur @ AI junctions, triad twice for every sarcomere -electrical signaling happens along plasma membrane, which tells sarcoplasmic reticulum by way of t tubule to release calcium on to myofibrils (don’t have plasma membrane), must be arranged, organized, triads for instantons calcium release so WHOLE muscle contracts together Neuromuscular junction components -3 main components: axon terminal, junctional folds of sarcolemma, synaptic cleft -synaptic vesicles full of neurotransmitters (e.g. acetal choline in skeletal muscles, ACh) -mitochondria producing energy necessary for exocytosis @ axon terminal -necessary for NMJ=axon terminal AND synaptic cleft=physical space (filled with ECF) between terminal and sarcolemma -leaving vesicles combined with ECF & diffuse down until reach sarcolemma, synaptic cleft then reaches receptors @ motor end plate -invaginates in sarcolemma fold @ motor end plate=junctional folds=increased surface areas for electrical coupling Chapter 11 If given a muscle name, be able to identify the limb compartment or general location of the body where you would find that muscle -circular=fascicles arranged in concentric rings, found around external body -e.g. orbicularis oculi/oris -convergent=origin is broad, fascicles converge toward tendon of insertion - -e.g. pectoralis major -pennate=short fascicles that attach obliquely to tendon that runs length of muscle -parallel=fascicles run parallel to long axis of muscle -fusiform=wide belly, tapers off, biceps brachii -straplike=all muscle cells run same length, sartorius Based on conventions of origins and insertions, be able to predict the action a muscle will have at a joint -agonist=prime mover, contracts to cause an action -antagonist=stretches and yields to effect of agonist -must be relaxes while agonist muscle is contracting or cancel out movements (helpful for posture though if contracting) -a muscle that crosses a joint acts at that joint -muscles only pull -the action of a muscle can be inferred by position of the muscle relative to joints crossed -hips & all joints superior -if muscle crosses anterior to joint=flex (e.g. shoulder joint, glenohumeral joint, @ finers) -if muscle crosses posterior to joint=antagonist to flexor, extend/hyperextend joint -knees & all joints inferior -if muscle crosses anterior to joint=extends/hyperextends -if muscle crosses posterior to joint=flexes (e.g. knee joint) -all joints -if muscle crosses sup/lat to joint=ABduct (e.g. hip (lateral) joint & glenohumeral joint) -if muscle crosses inf/med to joint=ADduct Chapter 12 What are the general effectors of the nervous system? -muscles and glands -tissues that produce a response to signals from the nervous system -association/integration=integration ALWAYS happen in brain/spinal cord, decide what to do/action plan with sensory information -action=motor output, motor neurons carry axons away from CNS where motor neurons have synapses=@ effector organs=muscles (all 3 types), glands (epithelial derived), sometimes adipose CNS vs. PNS components and functions (this is referring to that all-important chart that I kept harping on) -CNS=central, ONLY brain & spinal cord -PNS=ANYTHING outside CNS w/ nervous tissue -nerves (predominant), where find axons & ganglia=where find soma/cell bodies, part of collection of soma=ganglian -CNS=receive & output info, info sent through electrical activity -nerves=information highway -sensory system take info from somatic (skin, muscle, bone) or visceral (cardiac, stomach, liver, lungs) of body -has somatic (only skeletal muscle) & visceral (cardiac, smooth, glands, adipose)=automonic Define afferent vs. efferent -PNS, categorize nerves & axons based on direction going -if going towards CNS=sensory/AFFERENT division (sensory) -EFFERENT=carries motor commands from CNS to muscles & glands (motor) -interneurons=within CNS=association/integration Anatomy of a multipolar neuron -standard neuron=soma=body of neuron -houses nucleus & majority of organelles -attached to soma=axon (longest, singular process) -begins @ pinch @ soma=axon hillock, part of soma @ narrow point=axon -@ end of axon, processes=terminal arborization/branches -reason for one motor neuron can innervate several cells -larger branches=axon collaterals sae own terminal aborizaiton -@ soma, smaller processes= dendrites, highly branched, have bulbs, bring info to soma -have extra bumps/branches for increased surface area, ++ plasma membrane for more efficient method of receiving information, + areas for protein receptors (P.M all over neuron) -Schwann Cells cover axon (individual glial cells), bits of pieces of axons not covered -parts covered=interrupted membrane -nodes of Ranvier=interruptions where axons still present Structural and functional classifications of neurons -how many processes are attached to the some -bipolar=dendrite bring info towards soma, axon carrying electrical information away, associated with special senses -unipolar=still have functionality of dendrites -sensory arborization=@ end of process=dendrites, collect sensory information, come together to form singular tube structure-- >axon being Oligodendrocytes vs. Schwann cells -CNS Neuroglia=oligodendrocytes -myelin-forming cells help electrically insulate CNS axons -nodes of Ranvier are present -PNS neuroglia=Schwann cells -similar to oligodendrocytes but no processes/end feet -surround ALL axons in PNCS, but only some axons have a myelin sheath -nodes of Ranvier present along axon -one cell wraps around single axon & form myeline What is myelin? -myelin=multilayered lipoprotein sheath around axon -layers of myelin function to form barrier around cell, VERY TIGHT to electrically insulate region of axon -ions have to be moved across PM through facilitated diffusion or pumping action, secure insulation of axon to prevent ion transfer -concentric layers of plasma membrane from Schwann cells (PNS) or oligodendrocytes (CNS) tightly wrap segments of thickest axons with myelin Nerve vs. tract and nucleus vs. Ganglia -nerve=bundle of axons traveling together in PNS -ganglion=cluster of neuronal soma in PNS -fiber tracts=axons traveling together, bundle in CNS -some cluster together based on similar function in CNS=nucleus Define white matter and grey matter -gray matter predominately formed by cell bodies of neurons -predominately interneurons & motor neurons -soma cluster together based on similar function in CNS=nucleus -white matter predominately made from axons (some glial) Gross anatomy of a nerve (epi, peri, endo) -cable-like organs with parallel arranged axon -CT sheaths -0 nerves in CNS -actually group of axons traveling together in PNS, in CNS=tract -endoneurium=connective tissue thin sheath around myelinated axon -a bundle=fascicle, wrapped with perineurium (another CT sheath) -multiple perineurium covered fascicles wrapped together=epineurium –blood vessels run with fascicles, supply structures Five components of the reflex arc -reflex=rapid, automatic, motor response to stimuli -reflex arc=simple chain of neurons that cause reflexes -integration center ALWAYS in CNS (HAS to be present), BUT interneuron not always necessary Chapter 13 (focus more on structures/anatomical locations than on functions) Define rostral and caudal -directional terms come from animal -rostral=towards snout/nose -caudal=towards tail (bone) -humans have bent axis from spine to brain/nasal area -usually used in CNS Lobes and major sulci/fissures of the cerebrum -central sulcus unique because only sulcus that runs from longitudinal fissure to lateral sulcus, makes paretial & frontal lobes The meninges -protective coverings of CNS -connective tissue sheaths that surround the brain & spinal cord -dura matter=most superficial meninx=thick, tough, dense irregular CT proper -arachnoid mater=middle meninx -pia mater=deepest meninx -2 parts of arachnoid mater -membranous (flat) & fibrous (stringy), anchor to pia mater, space around strings=sub arachnoid space where CSF is -2 layers dura mater -periosteal (dense irregular CT proper, part of bone) & meningeal layer, some tissue, part of brain -fused together as double layer of dense irregular CT proper (++ thick) -in cranium with deep fissures, large sulci, 2 layers of dura matter separate, meningeal layer go into crevices-àbrain tissue -gap made=dural meanus sinus, functions like vein & cavity where CSF is deposited -falx cerebri=double layer meningeal dura mater that meet from each hemisphere in longitudinal fissure & tentorium cerebelli separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum The ventricles (right lat, left lat, 3rd, and 4th) and what parts of the brain they serve -cerebrospinal fluid-filled (CSF) spaces in the brain, CSF derived from blood plasma, no blood cells -continuous with each other & central canal -CSF made in each of main ventricles, then drains down into next one moving caudally -lined with ciliated ependymal cells -relate to ependymal glial cells, had cilia, simple ciliated variety of epithelium to help circulation -provide CSf to nearby brain regions -lateral ventricles buried within cerebral hemispheres, and CF in that ventricle serves their regions -for CSF to get out of ventricles=openings=apertures in 4th ventricle -3rd ventricle has hole which has brain tissue running through middle, fluid wrapped around tissue -interventricular foramina (2) allow tube like structure to drain CSF form lateral ventricles into third ventricle-à Thin tube=cerebral aqueduct, drains down Be able to identify: · The diencephalon (thalamus = relay…hypothalamus = homeostasis)=[predominately the thalamus, also includes hypothalamus, pineal gland, posterior commissure -brain tissue between right/left thalamus hold it together AND include hypothalamus, where pituitary gland is attached, posterior has pineal gland, part of epithalamus -hypothalamus forms the lateral walls of the 3rd ventricle , tucked between pons & optic chiasm · The midbrain -cerebral peduncles=composed of motor axons from cortex to the cerebellum (via pons) and spinal cord, ventral -cerebral aqueduct=passes through center of midbrain, 3 to 4th ventricle -corpora quadrigemina=nuclei that form4 bumps on dorsal midbrain -superior colliculi=visual reflexes -inferior colliculi=auditory reflexes · The pons=bridge, viewed ventrally as superficial, transverse fibers, functions as bridge between brain stem and cerebellum · The medulla oblongata (pyramids/olives) -key to homeostasis -continuous with superior aspect of spinal cord -for foramen magnum to inferior pontine border -pyramids=motor tracts that form bulges on anterior surface of medulla -motor axons form it -olives=nuclei that form bulges just lateral to pyramids=sensory relay station -olivary nucleus · The cerebellum and middle cerebellar peduncle -middle cerebellar peduncle=motor axons that are coming from pons, dividing into cerebellum (motor tract) -cerebellum=similar arrangement as cerebrum: 2 hemispheres, cortex=grey matter with folds=folia (outer layer), white matter=tracts=arbor vitae, deep grey matter/cerebellar nuclei, vermis=midline mass of cerebellum Gross anatomy of the spinal cord (grey vs. white matter arrangement, names of horns and columns) -conus meduallaris=end of spinal cord, sits inside L1/L2, last rib articulates with T12, 1 under spinal cord stops -spinal cord has as many segments of vertebra +1 -filum terminale=anchor SC in place, pia mater that forms string & anchors @ coccyx -surrounding filum terminal is cauda equina=collection of spinal nerves (PNS, CNS stops @ conus meduallaris) -gray=white matter same as brain but no cortex, 1 less layer -when dorsal & ventral roots meet=share same CT sheath=spinal nerve -dorsal root ganglion identify dorsal root with bulge -differentiate between ventral & dorsal, ventral doesn’t have ganglion Functional difference between dorsal and ventral roots, spinal nerves, and rami -ascending tract=axon carries info up to brain, sensory/afferent, dorsal roots -descending tract=axon carries info down from brain, motor/efferent info , ventral roots -dorsal roots=carry sensory info from PNS to spinal cord -ventral roots=carry motor info from spinal cord to muscles & glands -dorsal ramus=serves dorsal parts of trunk -ventral ramus=serves ventral parts of trunk & upper/lower limbs -spinal nerve emeges from spinal column through opening (intervertebral foramen) between adjacent vertebrae Chapter 14 What are spinal vs. cranial nerves? -cranial nerves=attached to brain & pass through skill foramina -differentiate because cranial produces a nerve that goes up through foramen magnum & exits through jugular foramen to come back out of head -spinal originates at spinal cord Organization of the spinal nerves (roots, spinal nerves, rami, plexuses) -each spinal nerve is attached to spinal cord by a ventral & dorsal root -each root forms from a series of rootlets which span the length of a spinal cord segment -lateral horns of gray matter present in T1-L2 -when spinal cord bifirbriatces-à rami (branch/arm) -2 rami for every spinal nerve (ventral & dorsal) -ventral roots carry only motor/efferent axons -dorsal roots carry only sensory/afferent axons -spinal nerves always mixed, including rami Which rami do and do not form plexuses? -ventral rami of all spinal nerves (except T2-T12) branch and join one anther forming an interlacing network of axons -primarily serve limbs -because of arrangement, if a single spinal nerve is damaged, it does not completely paralyze any limb muscle Know the selected nerves from each plexus Be able to identify all the cranial nerves in a picture Know the names, numbers, and basic functions (sensory, motor, both) of all cranial nerves -CN I=Olfactory -SENSORY, sense of smell -CN II=Optic -SENSORY, light, vision -CN III=Oculomotor -MOTOR, innervate four extrinsic eye muscles=superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique muscles & eyelid muscle -LR6SO4: lateral rectus innervated by CN VI, superior oblique innervated by CN IV -CN IV=trochlear -MOTOR, smallest, ONLY with dorsal point of attachment (all other have ventral points), innertvate superior oblique eye muscle -CN V=trigeminal -MIXED, largest -sensory=face for touch, temp, pain; motor=mastication (chewing) -CN VI=abducens -MOTOR, innervate lateral rectus muscle, abducts eye -CN VII=facial nerve -MIXED, sensory=info of taste, front 2/3 of tongue; motor=moves face -CN VIII=vestibulocochlear -SENSORY, vestibular branch=equilibrium, cochlear=hearing -CN IX=glossopharyngeal -MIXED, motor=swallowing, sensory=innervate posterior 1/3 tongue for taste -CN X=vagus -MIXED, longest, motor=swallowing, sensory=vocalization -innervated outside head and neck through autonomic nervous system NOT somatic/sensory -CN XI=accessory -MOTOR, innervate trapezius & sternocleidomastoid muscle that move head and neck -CN XII=hypoglossal nerves -MOTOR=moves tongue Chapter 15 Compare and contrast somatic motor with ANS -ANS=system of motor neurons (no sensory and no voluntary tissues) that innervate the smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands of body -autonomic (innervating visceral organs) activation or inhibition of the viscera VS somatic (sensory=excitatory/activation, responsible for voluntary body movements) Functional organization of the ANS (symp vs. para) -sympathetic -fight or flight, response to stresses (physical & emotional) -increased body functions that support physical activity -decreased digestive and urinary function -parasympathetic -rest and digest, conserve and restore body energy -decrease body functions that support physical activity -increase digestive & urinary function Where do you find the lateral horn of the spinal cord and what is located there? -Found in thoracic (T1-12) & upper lumbar regions of spinal cord (L1-L2) -contains preganglionic sympathetic neurons that are responsible for fight or flight response of autonomic nervous system Preganglionic vs. postganglionic neurons (compare and contrast sympathetic and parasympathetic) -preganglionic neuron=soma located in CNS  -sympathetic=lateral horn of thoracolumbar spinal cord, live from T1 to L2 -parasympathetic=brainstem or sacral spinal cord -postganglionic neuron=soma located in PNS Which part of the brain regulates autonomic tone? -one system will often be dominant at a time=autonomic tone=balance between them -only sympathetic system part of skin -hypothalamic regulates autonomic tone Be able to classify a body response as either sympathetic or parasympathetic -sympathetic -prepares body for stressful situation, increased heart rate, dilated pupils, rapid breathing -parasympathetic associated with relaxation and digestion -slow heart rate, constrict pupils, increased digestive activity Chapter 19 Identify the gross structures of the heart (internal and external) -External -R & L atria=receiving chambers, separated by interatrial septum -R & L ventricles=pumping chambers, inferior -coronary sulcus goes all around heart between atrium and ventricles, coronary sinus sits in it -anterior ventricular sulcus along interventricular septum -auricles=out pouches of atrium that help expand size -2 pulmonary arteries -4 pulmonary veins -Internal -atria -pectinate muscles=on anterior wall -crista terminalis=bridge of tissue along posterior lateral wall along ONLY right atrium -fossa ovalis -vessel openings -ventricles -trabeculae carnae -papillary muscles -chordae tendinae -AV valves -semilunar valves -atrioventricular valves & semilunar valves Layers of the heart wall -epicardium=visceral (inner most) layer of pericardium (simple squamous epithelium, folds over) -myocardium=cardiac muscle tissue -thick -endocardium=lines chambers and covers the valves -simple squamous epithelium, continuous with same tissue that lines blood vessels 3-layered sac surrounding the heart -fibrous pericardium=adheres to the diaphragm and roots of large vessels -parietal pericardium=adheres to inner surface of fibrous peri -visceral=epicardium Electrical conduction pathway through the heart Blood flow through the heart Chapter 20 Be able to distinguish an artery from a vein in a histological image (similar to the image in the lecture slides) -lumen of vein is larger and clear differences in thickness of the tunic media Tunica intima, media, and externa What is endothelium? -single layer of squamous endothelial cells that line interior surface of blood vessels & lymphatic vessels Differentiate between arteries, veins, and capillaries -arteries -carry blood away from heart -usually carry systemic/oxygenated blood -arteries get smaller as they branch and are located further from the heart -arterioles=lead into capillaries (beds) -capillaries -just large enough to allow single-file passage of RBS for easy oxygen transfer and pick up CO2 -endothelium & basement membrane -veins -always return blood to heart -usually carry oxygen poor blood in system -veins act as storehouse for blood=65% of blood is venous circulation, low pressure system -post-capillary venules to venules to veins What features of capillaries make them “leaky” compared to arteries and veins? -thin wall for absorption & diffusion and fenestrations (pores) Venous valves and skeletal muscle pump -veins are low-pressure system, so returning blood to heart takes specialized structures (skeletal muscle) -valves, similar to semilunar valves -located predominately in limbs -low pressure in limbs-àmove body part-àcompress veins-àblood squirt one direction because of valve -skeletal muscle pump -skeletal muscle contract and push blood up a vein -back flow prevented by valves, only proximal Chapter 22 Respiratory vs. conducting zone -conducting zone=respiratory passageways that carry air to the sites of gas exchange -also function to filter, humidify, and warm air -no alveoli present & gas exchange is not happening -respiratory zone=actual sites of gas exchange in the lungs wich contain alveoli -respiratory bronchioles -alveolar ducts Paranasal sinuses -air-filled cavities around and dumping into the nasal cavity -lined with respiratory mucosa… continuous with nasal cavity Difference between olfactory and respiratory mucosae -olfactory mucosa -2 types epithelial lining -roof of nasal cavity  -houses olfactory neurons/dendrites -respiratory mucosa -covers rest of nasal cavity -pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with glands in CT -goblet cells=mucous -serous cells=digestive enzymes, secrete enzymes that help with immediate digestion -cilia delivers partially digested foreign bodies to stomach for further breakdown General features of the: · Pharynx (3 divisions) -funnel-shaped passageway that connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx and esophagus -nasopharynx=posterior to nasal cavity, ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium - oropharynx (posterior to oral cavity)=non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium -continues with digestive system -laryngopharynx=posterior to larynx, part of digestive system, same tissue as oral cavity too -esophagus lined with stratified squamous epithelium · Larynx (true vs. false vocal folds) -intricate arrangement of 9 cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments, anchored ot hyoid bone supeieroly, continuous with trachea inferiorly -glottis=vocal folds + hole formed by separation -air flow àair-àexternal nares-ànasal cavity-àinternal nares-ànasopharynx--àlarynx-àfalse vocal cords-àtrachea -true vocal folds produce sound, false vocal folds protect airway Trachea (type and shape of cartilage, trachealis muscle, and tissue lining) o Downward continuation of larynx o Mucosal layer=pseudostratified ciliated epithelium Alveoli and respiratory membrane -alveoli=sacs of simple squamous epithelium (type 1 cells, pneumocytes) covered with capillaries -gas exchange @ any alveoli -respiratory zone -elastic, connected via pores, highly vascular -respiratory membrane -wall of capillary & basement membrane + wall alveolus Gross anatomy of the lungs and bronchial tree -primary bronchus goes to lung -secondary bronchi goes to lobe in lung -tertiary goes to each segment (5 per lobe) -each lung contains 10 bronchopulmonary segments separated by CT, supplied by tertiary bronchi, have diff blood vessels -lung lobules=smaller segments, fed by bronchioles in segment, feed chunk of alveolar sac -lung hilum & root=includes veins, arteries, bronchi, all touching, root passing in & out=hilum -pleurae=serous membrane made of simple squamous epithelium, 2 continue layers -visceral (touching lung), pleural space w/ serous fluid, then parietal pleura Chapter 23 Alimentary canal vs. accessory digestive organs -in series set of tubes from mouth to anus=GI tract/alimentary canal -mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine -salivary glands NOT part of tract=accessory digestive organs -accessory digestive organs release enzymes and fluids to help break down food, but food does not pass through -teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, gallbladder Abdominal quadrants and major organs found in each -urinary bladder only one area=hypogastric 4 layers of the GI tract wall -mucosa (mucous membrane) (most internal) -lining epithelium + lamina propria (basement membrane/CT tissue) -simple columnar epithelium is stomach -muscularis mucosae=twitch to dislodge things -submucosa=highly elastic CT with vessels and nerves -muscularis externa -circular (sphincter, squeeze/squinch to move) & longitudinal muscle (shortening) -responsible for peristalsis (involuntary movement for food transfer) & segmentation -serosa=outside, visceral peritoneum -simple squamous epithelium, no serous membrane What is peritoneum and mesentery? -peritoneum=serous membrane of the abdominopelvic cavity -visceral layer, parietal & peritoneal cavity from serous fluid -mesentery=double layer of peritoneum -fit around organs to be embedded in serous membrane -holds organs in place -stores adipose -route for vessels to/from organs Names and locations of the salivary glands -accessory digestive organ -parotid glands=largest, flat, cut through cheek -submandibular duct=long, submandibular foramen -submandibular gland=underneath mandibular angle -ducts of sublingual gland sit either side, ++ duct with openings @ sublingual fold & tongue fold Location and muscular composition of the esophagus -esophagus is collapsible muscular tube extending from pharynx to the stomach -mucosal lining=stratified squamous epithelium, non-keratinized, want to protect lining from abrasions -muscular lining=pull food back up with skeletal food -top portion of esophagus (1/3) is skeletal muscle-à next third + smooth-àall smooth -muscles of neck & pharynx contract to complete swallowing process Gross and internal anatomy of the stomach -widest part of alimentary canal -food temporarily stored (~ 4 hours) and churned into chyme -first site of protein breakdown -mechanically & chemically digest -esophageal hiatus=1st region=cardiac region -body=biggest chunk between cardiac region -stomach collapsed with nothing it, elastic fibers in CT structure (NOT epithelium) -lining=epithelium, mucus membrane has to crinkle up for stretching of CT because epithelium does not itself expand Divisions of the small intestine and its main digestive function -longest part of alimentary canal -site of most enzymatic digestion and most absorption of nutrients -bile secreted from liver -most digestive enzymes secreted by pancreas and deposited into SI -duodenum-àjejunum-àileum -villi w/ microvilli on top for ++ surface area for ++/faster absorption Gross anatomy of the large intestine and its main digestive functions -has goblet cells for mucosa, further into rectum to produce more mucus along rectum -received undigested food from small intestine -absorbs water & electrolytes -stomach & SI adds water, LI absorbs -passes feces out of GI tract -pull water out=solidify waste -anything left in lumen=unasbroable, must be taken out as waste-àreceived by large intestine -epiploic appendages=out pouches of serosa filled with fat -cecum=first pouch of LI -teniae coli=+ tense, lots of muscle tone, pinch & cause shape, longitudal muscularis externa -anus=transition of epithelium from internal to external -inside=simple columnar -outside=keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Gross anatomy of the liver and gall bladder -right & left hepatic ducts bring bile from liver -àcommon hepatic duct-àjoin with common cystic duct of gallbladder to become common bile duct -liver & gall bladder=accessory organs -pancreas has backup duct=accessory organ Gross anatomy of the pancreas -endocrine function=hormone production -exocrine function=digestive, enzyme Chapter 24 Location of the kidneys -right kidney sits lower in the abdominal cavity than left because liver pushed it down -superior lumbar region of posterior abdominal wall -kidneys pushed up against wall, ++ superior -lay deep to false ribs (less bony protection) Gross and internal anatomy of the kidneys -kidneys are retroperitoneal -renal fascia=bands help keep in place & support -fibrous capsule=dense, rubbery, serosa like, protect outer portion -perirenal fat surrounding kidney for cushioning -papilla drains urine-àminor calyx-àjoin together=major calyx-àrenal pelvis, catches urine from calyxes-ànarrow down to ureter Parts and location of nephrons -smallest functional unit of kidney, akin to sarcomere of skeletal muscle -renal corpuscle -made up of glomerus (fenestrated capillary system) & Bowmans capsule (turn into renal tubule) -renal tubuleàregions of tubules -collecting duct receives fluids from multiple distal convoluted tubes & nephrons -lower placed=long=juxtamedullary nephron -higher=shorter=cortical nephrons (vast majority of nephron type) Gross anatomy and locations of the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra (male vs. female) -ureters=smooth muscle in the walls move urine to bladder via peristalsis -leave @ L2, liquid drains down BUT also wall stretches + initiates peristaltic waves that help push urine down tube -urinary bladder -collapsible, muscular sac that stores and expels urine -inferior to peritoneal cavity, posterior to pubic symphsysi -male vs female urethra -female MUCH shorter than male VS male is LONG and has named regions Chapter 25 Primary vs. secondary sex organs (male vs. female) -sex organs=genitalia (all sex organs)=all parts inside and out -primary sex organs (gonads)=produce sex cells (gametes) -males=testes produce sperm -females=ovaries produce ova (eggs) -accessory sex organs=all other aspects of repro anatomy -nourish and transport the gametes (sex cells) -external genitalia-àintercourse Gross anatomy of the testes and epididymis Spermaticord contents -cordlike structure that runs from abdomen to testicle & connects testicle to scrotum -ductus deferences=coiled tube carries sperm from epididymis to urethra -testicular artery, cremasteric artery, nerves, lymphatic vessels -pampiniform plexus=tangle of veins near testicular artery, help in temperature regulation Pathway of sperm cells from testis to external urethral orifice Parts of the penis (root, shaft, glans) -male organ of sexual intercourse & discharge of urine -parts of penis -root= 2 crusa + 1 bulb -body (shaft)=glands penis (enlarged tip of shaft) & prepuse (skin cuff at distal penis) Parts of the uterus and uterine tubes -smooth muscle tube -contractile properties, lined by cilia -fimbriae NOT cilia or microvilli -macroscopic, lining is ciliated epithelia -ovum released from ovary, spit out to pelvic cavity -fimbria & cilia squish ECF around egg-àinfundibulum-àcilia & SM direct egg down ampullae & isthmus to lumen of uterus, fertilization occurs at ampula, sperm cells go to uterine tube, fertilize egg, embed in wall of uterus -uterus wall ++ SM  -perimetrium=outer, source membrane (extension of peritoneum) -myometrium=bulky, middle layer of SM -endometrium=mucosal lining of uterine cavity -function (shed) & basal layer (forms new functional layer) Gross anatomy of the vagina and vulva -functions to discharge menstrual fluid, allow for passage of baby during birth, receives penis/semen during sexual intercourse -endometrium that lines uterus body lumen continuous with epithelium of cervical canal -cervical mucous (thick) produced in canal between internal/external Os, can be discharged because constantly made -during ovulation (available for fertilization), fluid-àslippery-à allows semen & sperm cells go to eggs -vulva (external genitalia) -mons pubis=rounded fat pad over pubic symphysis -labia majora=adipose-filled, hair covered skin folds extending posteriorly and inferiorly from mons pubis -labia minora=thin, hairless skin folds which enclose vestibule (recess containing external urethral & vaginal orifices) -clitoris=erectile tissue located @ anterior margin of vestibule, covered most by prepuce of skin What tissue lines the vagina? -stratified squamous epithelium, non-keratinized line vagina (like mouth lining)