Anatomy Study Guide PDF

# Anatomy Study Guide ## Anatomy and Physiology Study Guide for Nursing Students ### Cardiovascular System #### Objectives 1. Functions of the cardiovascular system 2. Types of circuits 3. Types of blood vessels 4. Structure of the heart 5. Heart chambers 6. Heart valves 7. Blood flow 8. Electri...

# Anatomy Study Guide ## Anatomy and Physiology Study Guide for Nursing Students ### Cardiovascular System #### Objectives 1. Functions of the cardiovascular system 2. Types of circuits 3. Types of blood vessels 4. Structure of the heart 5. Heart chambers 6. Heart valves 7. Blood flow 8. Electrical conduction 9. Coronary arteries 10. Blood vessels 11. Key terms #### Notes Key points from this section... ### Topic: Cardiovascular System #### Blood Flow 1. Deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava goes into the right atrium (through the tricuspid valve) and into the right ventricle. From the right ventricle, blood flows through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs. 2. Oxygenated blood from the lungs flows through the pulmonary veins and into the left atrium and left ventricle through the mitral valve. From the left ventricle, blood flows into the aorta through the aortic valve and to the body. #### Blood Circulation An image showing the flow of blood in the body, including the heart, lungs, and various blood vessels. #### 1. Electrical Conduction 1. **SA** (Sinoatrial) Node: pacemaker of the heart. Impulse starts at the SA node. Beats: 60-100BPM. 2. **AV** (Atrioventricular) Node: Impulse travels from the SA node to the AV node. Known as the gatekeepers. Causes a delay so that the atrium can fully empty into the ventricles. Beats: 40-60BPM 3. Bundle of His: The impulse travels through the Bundle of His which branches out into the right and left branch bundles 4. Purkinje Fibers: The impulse travels to the Purkinje fibers. Beats: 20-40BPM #### 2. Coronary Arteries 1. Right coronary artery 2. Left coronary artery Coronary arteries supplies blood to the heart muscles. The heart needs oxygen-rich blood to function. Plaque formation is usually found in the coronary arteries. #### 3. Blood Vessels 1. **Artery:** Carries high-pressure blood from the heart to the arterioles. 2. **Arterioles:** Controls blood flow from the arteries to the capillaries through vasodilation and vasoconstriction. 3. **Capillary:** Allows the exchange of nutrients, gases and wastes between the blood and tissue fluid. 4. **Venule:** Connects capillaries to the veins. 5. **Veins:** Carries low-pressure blood from the venules to the heart. #### 4. Key Terms 1. **Cardiac Cycle:** A heartbeat, complete series of systolic and diastolic events. 2. **Cardiac output:** The amount of blood pumped by the ventricles per minute. Formula: SV*heart rate=CO 3. **Stroke volume:** The volume of blood discharged from the ventricle with every contraction #### 5. Key Terms 1. **Blood pressure:** The force that blood exerts against the inner walls of blood vessels. 2. **Systolic pressure:** Maximum pressure during ventricular contraction 3. **Diastolic pressure:** Minimum arterial pressure during ventricular relaxation. 4. **Blood pressure:** 120/80 5. **Blood volume:** SL ### Topic: Respiratory System #### Functions of the Respiratory System 1. Breathing 2. Gaseous exchange internally and externally 3. Removes carbon dioxide 4. Speech 5. Olfaction 6. Maintain acid-base balance 7. Maintain body heat #### Respiratory System An image showing the organs of the respiratory system, including the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, and alveoli. #### 1. Upper Respiratory Tract 1. Nose 2. Paranasal Sinuses 3. Pharynx 4. Larynx 5. Epiglottis #### 2. Lower Respiratory Tract 1. Trachea 2. Bronchi 3. Bronchioles 4. Alveolar duct 5. Alveolar sacs 6. Lungs #### 3. Organs of the Respiratory System 1. **Nose:** Filters, moistens, humidifies, and warms air; receptors for the sense of smell. 2. **Paranasal sinuses:** Air-filled cavities that surrounds the nasal passages. 3. **Pharynx:** Passageway for food and air (Nasopharynx, laryngopharynx and oropharynx) 4. **Larynx:** Air passageway, voice box, glottis (plays a role in coughing) 5. **Epiglottis:** A leaf-shaped flap that prevents food from entering the lower respiratory tract 6. **Trachea:** Located in front of the esophagus, tube running from the larynx and branches into right and left bronchi. Cleans, warms, and moistens incoming air. 7. **Bronchial tree:** Consists of right and left main bronchi, which divides within the lungs to form lobar and segmental bronchi and bronchioles. The bronchi are lined with cilia. 8. **Bronchioles:** Delivers air to the alveolar sacs 9. **Alveoli:** Site for gaseous exchange 10. **Lungs:** Right lung is divided into 3 lobes. The left lung is divided into 2 lobes. The right lung is larger than the left lung. The lungs are located from the clavicle to the diaphragm. 11. **Pleurae:** Produces lubricating fluid. ### Gastrointestinal System #### Objectives 1. Functions of the gastrointestinal system 2. Structures of the gastrointestinal system 3. Digestive processes 4. Mouth 5. Esophagus 6. Stomach 7. Small intestines 8. Large intestines 9. Digestive enzymes #### Notes Key points from this section... ### Topic: Gastrointestinal System #### Mouth 1. Ingest food 2. Mastication 3. Salivary amylase: Breakdown carbohydrates 4. Swallowing 5. Moistens food into a bolus An image showing the mouth and its parts, including the lips, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, and uvula. #### Esophagus Esophagus: Muscular tube that carries food from the pharynx to the stomach. #### Stomach 1. Mixes food with gastric juices 2. Hydrochloric acid 3. Pepsin: Gastric juice that breaks down protein 4. Carries food into the duodenum as chyme 5. Secretes intrinsic factor required for vitamin B12 absorption - **Liver:** Produces bile, emulsifies lipids. - **Gallbladder:** Stores and releases bile. - **Pancreas:** Secretes insulin, bicarbonate and digestive enzymes #### Small Intestines 1. Absorption of nutrients 2. Chyme propels at a slower rate to facilitate absorption 3. Segmentation #### Large Intestines 1. Absorption of water, electrolytes and vitamins 2. Propels feces to the rectum. - **Rectum:** Stores feces. - **Anus:** Defecation #### Digestive Enzymes 1. Salivary amylase: Breaks down starch 2. Hydrochloric acid: Gastric acid 3. Pepsin: Breaks down protien 4. Intrinsic factor: Absorption of B12 5. Gastrin: Regulates gastric acidity 6. Lactase: Breaks down lactose 7. Sucrase: Breaks down sucrose to fructose and glucose 8. Enterokinase: Breaks down trypsinogen into trypsin ### Topic: Hepatic System #### Functions 1. Production of bile 2. Glucose metabolism 3. Bilirubin excretion 4. Drug metabolism 5. Fat and protein metabolism 6. Clotting factors 7. Filters and remove toxins 8. Ammonia conversion An image showing the liver and its parts, including the lobes, hepatic artery, portal vein, and gallbladder. #### 1. Lobes 1. The liver is divided into 4 lobes 2. Right lobe 3. Left lobe 4. Caudate lobe 5. Quadrate lobe #### 3. Disorders 1. Portal hypertension 2. Jaundice 3. Esophageal varices 4. Hepatic Encephalophathy 5. Cirrhosis 6. Ascitis #### 2. Hepatic Circulation The hepatic portal vein is responsible for carrying up to 70% of the blood that passes through the liver. The hepatic artery is responsible for 30% to 40% of hepatic oxygenation. The hepatic system is responsible for receiving blood from the gastrointestinal region and venous drainage from the pancreas and spleen. One of the functions of the hepatic system is to supply the liver with metabolites to limit damage that toxins can cause after reaching the systemic circulation. Blood from the hepatic artery are oxygenated, but nutrient poor. Blood from the organs of the GI system flows through the portal veins and into the sinusoids of the liver, allowing for processing of nutrients in the liver. The liver is rich in specialized immune cells called Kupffer cells to destroy pathogens. Blood collects in a central vein that drains into the hepatic vein and finally the inferior vena cava. ### Topic: Urinary System #### Functions The kidneys are two fist-sized bean-shaped organs situated on either side of the vertebral column in the posterior abdomen. The kidneys are covered by the renal capsule. On top of each kidney are the adrenal glands. Functions include: 1. Electrolyte balance 2. Acid-base balance 3. Removes waste 4. Removes water 5. Vitamin D activation 6. Blood pressure control #### Human Kidney Anatomy An image showing the kidney and its parts, including the renal pelvis, hilus, cortex, renal pyramid, medulla, minor calyx, major calyx, renal columns, ureter, renal capsule, and renal papilla. #### 1. Main Structures The kidney is divided into two main structures: 1. Renal cortex 2. Renal medulla The renal medulla contains renal pyramids and renal tubules. The renal columns are between each pyramid. #### 2. Renal Parenchyma 1. **Renal cortex:** The outer rim of the kidney. It contains the glomeruli and a portion of the nephron tubules. 2. **Medulla:** Houses the renal pyramids that hold the collecting ducts, collecting tubules, and long loops of Henle. It also contains blood vessels and nerves. 3. **Renal pelvis:** Drains urine from the collecting ducts of the nephrons. The renal pelvis is a collection area. #### 5. Glomerulus Blood flows into the glomerulus through the afferent arterioles and out via the efferent arterioles. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus. That includes electrolytes, waste, glucose, amino acids. **Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR):** Filtration pressure. GFR is a diagnostic method to assess renal function. #### 5. Bowman's Capsule Houses the glomerulus and receives glomerular filtrate. An image showing the nephron and its parts, including Bowman's capsule, glomerulus, artery, loop of Henle, vein, and collecting duct. #### 3. The Nephron The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. Major functions: 1. Regulates and filters water soluble substances. 2. Reabsorbs water, nutrients and electrolytes. 3. Excretes waste. ### Nervous System #### Objectives 1. Functions of the nervous system 2. CNS 3. PNS 4. Neuron 5. Parts of a neuron 6. Reflex arc 7. Parts of the brain 8. Lobes of the cerebrum #### Notes Key points from this section... ### Topic: Nervous System #### Key Terms 1. **Stimulus:** A change in the environment that causes a response 2. **Excitability:** The neuron response to a stimulus to convert to an impulse 3. **Synapse:** A gap between one neuron's axon and the dendrite of another 4. **Neurotransmitters:** Chemicals that cross the gap (synapse) and continue the impulse #### 1. Reflex Arc A reflex is an involuntary action in response to a stimuli. A reflex action goes through a process called the reflex arc. 1. **Receptor:** A reaction to a stimulus occurs 2. **Afferent pathway:** The sensory neurons transmits impulses to the CNS 3. **Interneurons:** Includes synapses in the CNS (mostly in the spine) 4. **Efferent pathway:** Motor neurons transmits impulses from the CNS to the effector 5. **Effector:** A muscle or gland that responds to the stimulus #### 2. CNS **Central Nervous System:** Brain and spinal cord. **Meninges:** Covering of the brain and spinal cord. The three layers are: 1. **Dura mater:** The outer covering 2. **Arachnoid mater:** The middle layer 3. **Pia mater:** The innermost layer **Cerebrospinal fluid:** Clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord. An image showing the spinal cord and its parts, including the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccyx regions. #### 3. Parts of the Brain 1. **Cerebellum:** Movement and motor learning 2. **Cerebrum:** Activities that includes planning, perception, emotion, thought 3. **Thalamus:** Exchanges of information 4. **Medulla:** Involuntary/autonomic responses 5. **Brainstem:** (Medulla, pons, and midbrain) Involuntary response 6. **Hypothalamus:** Maintain the homeostasis of the body #### 4. Lobes of Cerebrum 1. **Frontal:** Planning, movement and coordination 2. **Parietal:** Processing, language 3. **Temporal:** Auditory, speech and visual perception 4. **Occipital:** Visual perception #### 1. Cranial nerve:** 12 nerves #### 2. Spinal nerves:** 31 -a. Cervical nerve -b. Thoracic nerve -c. Lumbar nerve -d. Sacral nerve ### Topic: Integumentary System #### Epidermis An image showing the skin and its layers, including the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis, subcutaneous layer, sweat pore, nerve, sweat gland, hair bulb, vein, artery, and adipose tissue. #### 1. Functions 1. Protection 2. Excretion 3. Body temperature regulation 4. Cutaneous sensation 5. Vitamin D synthesis #### 2. Layers of the Skin 1. Epidermis 2. Dermis 3. Hypodermis #### 3. Accessory Organs Hair, hair follicles, pili arrector muscle, sebaceous gland, sudoriferous gland, nails and mammary gland #### 4. Epidermis Made of stratified squamous epithelium and no blood vessels. Four layer of cells are found in the epidermis of the body surface: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, and stratum corneum. **Melanocytes:** Produces melanin. #### 5. Dermis 1. Made of fibrous connective tissue that contains arterioles for supplying nutrients 2. Contains pili arrector muscles 3. Contains nerves and hair follicles 4. Contains sebaceous gland to secrete sebum onto skin surface, and sudoriferous glands to secrete sweat #### 6. Hypodermis 1. Made up of connective tissues and adipose tissues 2. Contains large blood vessels. #### 7. Accessory Organs - **Hair:** Hair roots and hair shaft - **Pili arrector muscle:** Attached to each hair follicle - **Sebaceous gland:** Oil gland - **Sudoriferous gland:** Sweat gland - **Nails:** Made of keratin ### Topic: Reproductive System #### Vertebral column An image showing the male and female reproductive systems. #### Male #### 1. External Genitalia of a Male - **External genitalia:** - **Penis:** Urinary and reproductive elimination - **Scrotum:** Houses and protects the testes #### 2. Internal Genitalia of a Male - **Internal organs:** - **Testes:** Responsible for producing testosterone and sperms - **Ductal system:** The vas deferens is the tube that sperms passes through - **Seminal vesicle:** Secretes fluid during ejaculation - **Prostate:** Secretes alkaline fluids that assist in sperm motility, sperm protection, sperm nourishment #### Fertilisation (egg and sperm) - **Sperm cell** - **Egg cell** #### Female #### 1. External Genitalia of a Female - **External genitalia:** - **Mons pubis** - **Labia majora and minora** - **Clitoris** - **Vestibule** - **Perineum** - **Internal organs:** - **Vagina:** Muscular tube from the vulva to the uterus - **Cervix:** Cylinder-shaped neck of tissue that connects the vagina and uterus - **Ovaries:** Two sex organs on each side of the uterus - **Fallopian tubes:** Three sections (Isthmus, ampulla and infundibulum) - **Uterus:** The womb, located within the pelvic cavity. Divided into (cervix, uterine isthmus, corpus, fundus) #### 2. Menstrual Cycle The four main phases of the menstrual cycle are: 1. **Menstruation** 2. **The follicular phase** 3. **Ovulation** 4. **The luteal phase** ### Topic: Muscular System #### Functions 1. Movement 2. Posture 3. Produces heat 4. Stabilize joints #### Terminologies 1. **Neuromuscular junction:** The junction between a nerve cell and muscle fiber. 2. **Tendons:** Fibrous connective tissue connects bone to muscle. 3. **Ligaments:** Fibrous connective tissue that connects bone to bone. #### 1. Major Parts of Skeletal Muscle 1. **Epimysium:** Surrounds the entire muscle 2. **Perimysium:** Surrounds a bundle of muscle fibers 3. **Endomysium:** Surrounds a single muscle fiber 4. **Fascia:** On the outside of the epimysium #### 2. Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle 1. **Sarcolemma:** Plasma membrane 2. **Sarcoplasmic reticulum:** Smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Stores calcium. 3. **Sarcoplasm:** Cytoplasm fluid in a cell. An image showing the skeletal muscle and its parts, including the myosin, actin thin filament, perimysium, muscle fiber, sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, epimysium, fasciculus, and muscle fascicles. An image showing the types of muscle tissue, including smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscle cells, and striated muscle cells. #### The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction 1. A muscle fiber contracts when a nerve impulse causes the myosin filaments to pull actin filaments closer together and thus shorten sarcomeres within a fiber. When all the sarcomeres in a muscle fiber shorten, the fiber contracts. #### Types of Muscle Tissue Three basic muscle types: - **Skeletal muscle** - **Cardiac muscle** - **Smooth muscle** #### Skeletal muscle Most are attached by tendons to bones, striated and voluntary movement. #### Cardiac Muscle Found in the heart. Has striation. Has a nucleus. Involuntary movement. #### Smooth Musice Has no striation. Involuntary movement. Found in walls of hollow organs. ### Topic: Skeletal System #### Functions 1. Support structures 2. Protect organs 3. Formation of blood cells 4. Regulates phosphate and calcium 5. Movement #### Parts of the skeletal system 1. Bones 2. Joints 3. Ligaments 4. Cartilages #### Skeleton 1. **Axial skeleton:** - Cranium - Vertebrae - Ribs 2. **Appendicular skeleton:** - Limbs - Shoulders - Hips #### 1. Types of Bone Tissues Adult skeleton has a total of 206 bones. Types of bone tissue (osseous): 1. **Spongy bone:** Has many open spaces. 2. **Compact bone:** Dense. #### 2. Classification of Bones 1. **Long bones:** Femur and humerus 2. **Short bones:** Tarsals, carpals 3. **Sesamoid bones:** Patella 4. **Flat bones:** Sternum, skull, ribs 5. **Irregular bones:** Hips, vertebra #### 3. Anatomy of a Long Bone 1. **Diaphysis:** The length of a long bone. 2. **Epiphysis:** Spongy bone at the end of the long bone. 3. **Periosteum:** Connective tissue membrane covering the diaphysis. 4. **Articular cartilage:** Covers the epiphysis. 5. **Medullary cavity:** Mostly contains fats in adults. #### Function: #### Joints Holds bones together. Allows movement. #### Functional classification of joints 1. **Synarthroses - immovable joints** 2. **Amphiarthroses - slightly moveable joints** 3. **Diarthroses - freely moveable joints** #### Structural classification of joints 1. **Fibrous joints:** Immovable 2. **Cartilaginous joints:** Immovable 3. **Synovial joints:** Freely moveable 4. **Ball and socket:** Shoulder joint, hip joint 5. **Condyloid:** Wrist 6. **Saddle:** Carpometacarpal joint 7. **Pivot:** Proximal radioulnar joint #### 4. Process of Bone Formation Process of bone formation - ossification done by bone-forming cells called osteoblasts. #### Types of Bone Cells: 1. **Osteocytes:** The mature bone cells. 2. **Osteoblasts:** The bone-forming cells. 3. **Osteoclasts:** Breaks down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium. #### 5. Healing of Bone Fracture 1. Hematoma formation 2. Fibrocartilage callus formation 3. Bony callus formation 4. Bone remodeling (Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts.) ####Tendons: Connects muscle to bone #### Ligament: Connects bone to bone #### Cartilage: A soft, gel-like padding between bones to facilitate movement ### Topic: Lymphatic System #### Function 1. Returns excess fluid from tissue to blood 2. Body defense and immunity 3. Maintains and distributes lymphocytes 4. Hemopoiesis The lymphatic system functions with the circulatory and immune system. The lymphatic system is a network of vessels that transports and drains lymph from the tissues into the blood. #### 1. Lymphatic Structures 1. **Lymph:** A clear watery fluid 2. **Lymphatic nodes and vessels:** Removes fluids, bacteria etc. 3. **Spleen:** Largest of the lymphatic organs, screens blood, removes pathogens, erythrocyte and platelet destruction, RBC formation in fetus 4. **Thymus:** Primary function is in early life, Secretes thymosin and thymopoietin 5. **Tonsils:** Destroy bacteria that breach the mucosal membrane from outside #### 2. Lymph Circulation Interstitial fluid → Lymph → Lymph capillary → Afferent lymph vessel → Lymph node → Efferent lymph vessel → Lymph trunk → Lymph duct {Right lymphatic duct and Thoracic duct (left side)} →Subclavian vein (right and left) → Blood → Interstitial fluid #### 3. Lymphatic Vessels Lymphatic capillaries Lymphatic vessels Lymphatic collecting vessels Lymphatic trunks and ducts #### 4. Lymph Ducts 1. **Right lymphatic duct:** - Drains lymph from the upper right quadrant of the body - The upper right arm and the right side of the thorax and head 2. **Thoracic duct:** - Largest lymphatic vessel - Drains lymph from the rest of the body #### 5. Immunity **Adaptive Immunity** is also known as **acquired immune system** that includes the processes to eliminate pathogens. **Two types:** 1. **Cell-mediated immunity:** Involves the formation of cytotoxic T cells. 2. **Antibody-mediated immunity:** Also known as humoral immunity. Involves antibodies produced by B cells, which cause the destruction of microorganisms. ### Topic: Endocrine System #### Functions The endocrine system is made up of glands that produces and secretes chemicals, hormones and substances. #### Functions: 1. Growth and development 2. Control mood 3. Metabolism 4. Reproduction 5. Regulates the way body organs functions. #### Structures 1. **Hypothalamus:** Control center of the brain. Controls the pituitary gland. 2. **Pituitary Gland:** Master gland. Located at the base of the brain. 3. **Thyroid gland:** Located at the front of the trachea. (Metabolism, growth & development) 4. **Parathyroids:** Regulates calcium levels in the blood. 5. **Adrenal gland:** Located on top of the kidneys (produces hormones responsible for metabolism, stress response, blood pressure regulation, immune system) 6. **Pancreas:** Regulates blood glucose. 7. **Ovaries:** Produces eggs, progesterone and estrogen. 8. **Testes:** Produces sperms and testosterone #### Endocrine Gland - **Pituitary Gland** - **Anterior Pituitary** - **Posterior Pituitary** - **Adrenal Gland** - **Thyroid Gland** - **Pancreas** - **Ovaries** - **Testes** #### Hormone - **Anterior and posterior pituitary hormone** - **Growth Hormone (GH)** - **Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)** - **Luteinizing Hormone (LH)** - **ACTH** - **Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)** - **Prolactin** - **ADH, Oxytocin** - **Aldosterone, cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine** - **T3, T4** - **Insulin, glucagon, somastatin** - **Estrogen, progesterone** - **Testosterone** #### Definitions 1. **Hormones:** Chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood. 2. **Prostaglandins:** Lipids made at site of injury that do not enter bloodstream. 3. **Positive feedback:** An action that causes more of that action to occur in a positive feedback loop. 4. **Negative feedback:** Actions that are against the stimulus in a negative feedback loop.