Anatomy Complete Guide PDF

lOMoARcPSD|36400092 Anatomy Complete Guide Biology for Nursing Practice (University of Plymouth) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected]) ...

lOMoARcPSD|36400092 Anatomy Complete Guide Biology for Nursing Practice (University of Plymouth) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY - Anatomy and Physiology are always related - Structure determines what functions can take place. - For example, the lungs are not muscular ANATOMY chambers like the heart and can not pump - the study of the structure and shape of the blood, but because the walls of lungs are body and body parts & their relationships to very thin, they can exchange gasses and one another. provide oxygen to the body. - the term anatomy comes from the Greek words meaning to cut (tomy) apart (ana) - is the study of the structure and the DIVISIONS OF ANATOMY relationships among structures. - the art of separating the parts of an 1.GROSS ANATOMY organism in order to ascertain their position, - Structures that can be seen with the eye relations, & structure - Muscles, bones, various organs - cutting something up to see what’s inside - A type of anatomy that can be undertaken (structure) without a microscope - study of anatomy helps in understanding the - considers large structures such as the brain functions of body. 2. SURFACE ANATOMY (EXTERNAL) - anatomy that we can see at the surface of PHYSIOLOGY the body - the study of how the body and its parts work or function 3. REGIONAL ANATOMY (SPECIFIC AREA) - physio =nature - complete anatomy (internal) of a specific ology = the study of region of the body (learning every blood - it has many subdivisions. For example, vessel, muscle, bones, etc. in the arm) in neurophysiology explains the working of the medical school nervous system , and cardiac physiology - is the study of the interrelationships of all of studies the function of the heart. the structures in a specific body region, such - is the study of the normal function of the as the abdomen. human body (to maintain life) - Studying regional anatomy helps us - Human physiology is the scientific study of appreciate the interrelationships of body the chemistry and physics of the structures structures, such as how muscles, nerves, of the body and the ways in which they work blood vessels, and other structures work together to support the functions of life. together to serve a particular body region. - much of the study of physiology centers on the body’s tendency toward homeostasis. 4. SYSTEMIC ANATOMY (ORGAN SYSTEMS) - the body is divided into 11 organ systems - is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 structures that work together to perform a the skin in order to decrease body unique body function. temperature. - For example, a systemic anatomical study of the muscular system would consider all of 3. MOVEMENT the skeletal muscles of the body. - a type of response to stimuli - Study of specific system: - Human movement includes not only actions at the joints of the body, but also the motion *Integumentary *Nervous *Respiratory of individual organs and even individual *Endocrine *Skeletal *Digestive cells. *Cardiovascular *Muscular *Urinary - ability of a organism in displacement, move *Reproductive *Immune *Lymphatic from one location to another 5.MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY 4. DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH - Structures that cannot be seen with the eye - Development is specialized in structure and - Need to use a microscope function to perform certain tasks in the body - Cytology = study of cells - Development is all of the changes the body - Histology = study of tissues goes through in life includes the process of - Requires the use of a microscope (e.g. differentiation, in which unspecialized cells light or phase microscope) become specialized in structure and function - Microscopic anatomy can deal with the to perform certain tasks in the body same structures, though at a different scale. - Development also includes the processes of growth and repair, both of which involve cell differentiation. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE - knowledge, IQ and EQ 1. ORGANIZATION - Growth is the increase in body size. Humans, - organize structure like all multicellular organisms, grow by - follows hierarchy increasing the number of existing cells, - living things are made of cells, which is the increasing the amount of non-cellular basic unit of life. If something is going to be material around cells (such as mineral alive, it should be made of cells deposits in bone), and, within very narrow limits, increasing the size of existing cells. 2. RESPONSIVENESS - cell division specifically “Mitosis” is - is the ability of an organism to adjust to responsible for growth changes in its internal and external environments. - Mitosis = divides in result to be alike - ability to sense and react to a certain - Meiosis = sex cells; haploid stimulus and changes from both internal and - Gametes = produce through meiosis external - Example: Changes in an organism’s internal environment, such as increased body 5. REPRODUCTION temperature, can cause the responses of - is the formation of a new organism from sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in parent organisms. In humans, reproduction is carried out by the male and female Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 reproductive systems. Because death will - Passive Transport = without energy come to all complex organisms, without - Active Transport = using energy reproduction, the line of organisms would - Osmosis = segregate end. - Phagocytosis = Cell eating - Endocytosis = Cell drinking - Sexual = copulation; with the use of sex organs - 2 parents supply DNA THE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION - male and female reproductive system - To study the chemical level of organization, scientists consider the simplest building - Asexual = absence of sexual act blocks of matter: subatomic particles, - pollination, cross pollination atoms and molecules - Elements = all matter in the universe is 6. METABOLISM composed of one or more unique pure - ability of organism to utilize energy substances - ex: living things take in energy for - ex: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, maintenance and growth calcium, and iron - Anabolism- process where simple - Atom = the smallest unit of any of elements molecules are gathered to create - are made up of subatomic particles such complex molecules as the proton, electron and neutron - storing/building of energy - smaller to larger - Molecule = formed by two or more atoms combined - Catabolism- process where complex - ex: water molecules, proteins, and molecules were broken down of energy sugars found in living things - breaking down of energy - the chemical building blocks of all body - larger to smaller structures 7. GENES - Cell = the smallest independently - traits you have inherited to your parents/ functioning unit of a living organism ancestor - each bacterium is a single cell - hereditary/traits - all living structures of human anatomy - genetics contain cells, and almost all functions of - dominant and recessive human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells 8. HOMEOSTASIS - perform all functions of life - balance between fluids/ chemical - it is the basic functional and structural components within the body unit of body - is the state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things. Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 - Organelles = a variety of tiny functioning units together with water-based cellular fluid - Tissue = is a group of many similar cells (though sometimes composed of a few related types) that work together to perform a specific function - Organ = is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more tissue types - each organ performs one or more specific physiological functions - Organ system = is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body. - Organism = a individual living being - consists of different systems REFERENCES: https://www.cuyamaca.edu/people/greg-brulte/ files/test-1/A-intro.pdf https://www.academia.edu/33633526/Chapter_ 1_Introduction_to_Human_Anatomy_physiology NOTE: Some information were gathered online and others were from PDFs downloaded years ago Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 Dorsal Back/ Toward the back Proximal Nearest/ Closer to a point of attachment Distal Distant/ Farther from a point of attachment Medial Toward the midline Lateral Away from the midline ANATOMICAL POSITION Superficial Toward to the surface - in the anatomical position, the body is of the body standing erect and facing forward, the feet Deep Toward the interior of are together, and the arms are hanging at the body the sides with the palms facing forward BODY PARTS AND REGIONS - used to designate specific areas within The major body divisions CENTAL REGION OF THE BODY (AXIAL PARTS) 1. Head 2. Neck 3. Trunk- can be divided into: a) Throrax (Chest) b) Abdomen (region between thorax and pelvis) c) Pelvis (inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips) UPPER LIMB (APPENDICULAR PARTS) 1. Arm- extends from the shoulder to the elbow 2. Forearm- extends from the elbow to wrist DIRECTIONAL TERMS 3. Wrist - describe parts of the body relative to each 4. Hand other LOWER LIMB (APPENDICULAR PARTS) TERM DEFINITION 1. Thigh- extends from the hip to the knee Supine Lying face upward 2. Leg- extends from the knee to the ankle Prone Lying face downward 3. Ankle Superior Higher/ above 4. Foot Inferior Lower/ below Anterior Front/ Toward the ABDOMEN (APPENDICULAR PARTS) front of the body - often subdivided superficially into four Posterior Back/ toward the back sections or quadrants by to imaginary lines of the body that intersect at the navel Ventral Belly/ Toward the belly Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 a. Quadrants- right-upper (RUQ), left-upper PLANES (LUQ), right-lower (RLQ), and left-lower - imaginary flat surface (LLQ) - the body is often cut, or sectioned, along b. Regions- uses four imaginary lines that a flat surface created an imaginary tic-tac-toe figure on the abdomen, resulting nine regions: TERMS 1. Epigastric- located superior to the Sagittal Plane Runs vertically through umbilical region the body and separates 2. Right hypochondriac- lie lateral to it into right and left the epigastric region and deep to the parts ribs (chondro = cartilage) Median Plane A sagittal plane that 3. Left hypochondriac- lie lateral to the passes though the epigastric region and deep to the ribs midline of the body, (chondro = cartilage) dividing it into equal 4. Umbilical- the centermost region right and left halves deep to and surrounding the umbilicus Transverse/ Horizontal Runs parallel to the (navel) Plane surface of the ground, 5. Right lumbar- lie lateral to the dividing the body into umbilical region (lumbus = loin) superior and inferior 6. Left lumbar- lie lateral to the parts umbilical region (lumbus = loin) Frontal/ Coronal Plane Runs vertically from 7. Hypogastric- located inferior to the right to left and divides umbilical region the body into anterior 8. Right iliac- located lateral to the and posterior parts hypogastric region (iliac = superior part Longitudinal Section A cut through the long of the hip bone) axis of the organ 9. Left iliac- located lateral to the Transverse Section/ A cut at a right angle to hypogastric region (iliac = superior part Cross Section the long axis of the hip bone) Oblique Section A cut is made across the long axis at other than a right angle Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 - The thoracic cavity is separated from BODY CAVITIES the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity - these cavities are closed to the outside and by the diaphragm, a dome-shaped provide different degrees of protection to muscle important in breathing. the organs contained within them. b. ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY 1. NASAL CAVITY - has two parts. - Open to the outside of the body - these regions are not physically - located within and posterior to the nose, the separated by a muscular or membrane wall nasal cavity is part of the respiratory system - the abdominal and pelvic cavities are passageways not aligned with each other. Instead, the bowl-shaped pelvis tips away from the perpendicular 2. DORSAL BODY CAVITY - the ventral body cavity houses internal - which protects the fragile nervous system organs collectively called the viscera or organs, has two subdivisions visceral organs. a. CRANIAL CAVITY - in the skull, encases the brain b. VERTEBRAL OR SPINAL CAVITY 4. ABDOMINAL CAVITY - runs within the bony vertebral - is bounded primarily by the abdominal column, encloses the delicate spinal muscles and contains the stomach, the cord. The spinal cord is essentially a intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, continuation of the brain, and the and the kidneys. cranial and spinal cavities are continuous with one another. 5. PELVIC CAVITY - is a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part 3. VENTRAL BODY CAVITY of the large intestine, and the internal - the more anterior and larger of the closed reproductive organs. body cavities - has two major subdivisions: 6. ORAL AND DIGESTIVE CAVITIES - commonly called the mouth, contains the a. THORACIC CAVITY teeth and tongue - superior subdivision,is surrounded by - it is part of and continuous with the cavity of the ribs and muscles of the chest the digestive organs, which opens to the - It is further subdivided into lateral body exterior at the anus. pleural cavities each enveloping a lung, and the medial mediastinum. The 7. ORBITAL CAVITIES mediastinum contains the pericardial - (orbits) in the skull house the eyes and cavity, which encloses the heart, and it present them in an anterior position. also surrounds the remaining thoracic organs (esophagus, trachea, and 8. MIDDLE EAR CAVITIES others). - the middle ear cavities in the skull lie just medial to the eardrums. These cavities Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 contain tiny bones that transmit sound - As an organ rubs against another organ or vibrations to the hearing receptors in the against the body wall, the serous fluid and inner ears smooth serous membranes reduce friction. - Thoracic cavity contains three serous 9. SYNOVIAL CAVITIES membrane-lined cavities: - are joint cavities - they are enclosed within fibrous capsules 1. PERICARDIAL CAVITY that surround freely movable joints of the - surrounds the heart. The visceral body pericardium covers the heart, which is - like the serous membranes, membranes contained within a connective tissue sac lining synovial cavities secrete a lubricating lined with the parietal pericardium. The fluid that reduces friction as the bones move pericardial cavity, which contains across one another. pericardial fluid, is located between the visceral pericardium and the parietal pericardium SEROUS MEMBRANES - line the trunk cavities and cover the 2. TWO PLEURAL CAVITIES organs of these cavities - surrounds each lung, which is - to understand the relationship between covered by visceral pleura. Parietal serous membranes and an organ, imagine pleura lines the inner surface of the pushing your fist into an inflated balloon. thoracic wall, the lateral surfaces of The inner balloon wall in contact with your the mediastinum, and the superior fist (organ) represents the visceral serous surface of the diaphragm. The membrane, and the outer part of the pleural cavity is located between balloon wall represents the parietal serous the visceral pleura and the parietal membrane pleura and contains pleural fluid. - the part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is called the parietal serosa. It folds in on itself to form the visceral serosa, - Abdominopelvic cavity contains a covering the organs in the cavity. serous membrane-lined cavity called the - The cavity, or space, between the visceral peritoneal cavity. Visceral peritoneum and parietal serous membranes is normally covers many of the organs of the filled with a thin, lubricating film of serous abdominopelvic cavity. Parietal fluid produced by the membranes peritoneum lines the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm. - Peritoneal cavity is located between the visceral peritoneum and the parietal peritoneum and contains peritoneal fluid. - Serous membranes can become inflamed—usually as a result of an infection. - Pericarditis is inflammation of the pericardium - Pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 - Peritonitis is inflammation of the and abdomen, peritoneum. supported by the ribs, sternum and costal cartilages; chest POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS Umbilical Navel Abdominal Anterior body trunk POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS inferior to ribs Calcaneal Heel or foot Acromial Point of shoulder Cephalic Head Antebrachial Forearm Femoral Thigh Antecubital Anterior surface of Gluteal Buttock elbow Lumbar Area of back between Axillary Armpit ribs and hips, loin Brachial Arm Occipital Posterior surface of Buccal Cheek area head or base of skull Carpal Wrist Olacranal Posterior surface of Cervical Neck region elbow Coxal Hip Popliteal Posterior knee area Crucal Anterior leg; shin Sacral Area between hips at Deltoid Curve of shoulder base of spine formed by large deltoid Scapular Shoulder blade region muscle Sural Posterior surface of Digital Fingers, toes leg; calf Femoral Thigh (applies to both Vertebral Area of spinal column anterior and posterior) Fibular Lateral part of leg REFERENCE: Frontal Forehead Inguinal Area where thigh Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th Edition. meets body trunk; Scanlon, V.C. & Sanders, T., 2007. F.A. Davis groin Company, Philadelphia. (PDF) Mental Chin Nasal Nose area Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th Oral Mouth Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston : Orbital Eye area Pearson. (PDF) Patellar Anterior knee Pectoral Relating to, or Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, occurring in or on, the Ninth Edition. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., Russo, A., chest 2016. McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New Pelvic Area overlying the York, NY. (PDF) pelvis anteriorly Pubic Genital region Sternal Breastbone area Tarsal Ankle region Thoracic Are between the neck Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 e. 6 carbons= Hexoses  GLUCOSE (C6H1206) (ENERGY) - important source of energy for humans - during cellular respiration, energy is released from here and that energy is used to help make ATP (adenosine CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF THE CELL triphosphate) - can be divided into two major groups: - plants synthesize Glucose using CO2 and Organic and Inorganic compounds water and Glucose is used for energy requirements for the plant A. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - excess glucose is often stored as starch - are chemical compounds that contain the that is catabolized by humans and other element carbon -Organic compounds in the animals that feed on plants cell include carbohydrates, protein, lipids - Aldose and nuclei acids. Some of these compounds are synthesised by the cell itself.  GALACTOSE (MILK SUGAR) - are carbon containing compounds, and - part of lactose make up about 95% of the dry weight of - Aldose the protoplasm  FRUCTOSE (FRUITS) - found in sucrose THE IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - Ketose IN THE CELL: A. CARBOHYDRATES 2. DISACCHARIDES - components carbon “carbo” and - di= “two” components of water “hydrate” - form when two monosaccharides undergo a - Supply energy for cell processes dehydration reaction - A means of storing energy - Dehydration Reaction- to put together while - Give structural support to cell walls losing water - classfified into 4 subtypes: -monomers combine with each other using covalent bonds to form larger 1. MONOSACCHARIDES molecules known as Polymers and so - mono= “one”; saccar= “sweet” monomers release water molecules as - simple sugars, most common of which is byproducts Glucose - Hydrolysis- Polymers are broken down into - number of carbons usually ranges from 3-7 monomers - most monosacc ends with the suffix -ose -a reaction in which a water molecule is - If sugar has: used during breakdown a. Aldehyde group= known as Aldose b. Ketone group= Ketose  LACTOSE (MILK) c. 3 carbons= Trioses - disaccharide consists of monomers Glucose d. 5 carbons= Pentoses and Galactose Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092  MALTOSE (MALT SUGAR) B. LIPIDS - formed by a dehydration reaction between - from the Greek word lipos, meaning "fat" two glucose molecules - are naturally occurring, nonpolar substances that are mostly insoluble in water (with  SUCROSE (TABLE SUGAR) the exceptions being the short-chain volatile - composed of monomers Glucose and fatty acids and ketone bodies), yet soluble in Fructose nonpolar solvents (like chloroform and ether) - Store large amounts of energy over long 3. POLYSACCHARIDES periods of time - poly= “many” - Act as an energy source - a long chain of monossacharides linked by - Play a major role in the structure of the cell glycosidic bonds membranes - Act as a source of metabolic water  STARCH (WATER) - Reduce the loss of water by evaporation - stored from of sugars in plants - They serve as membrane components - made up of a mixture of amylose and (cholesterol, glycolipids and phospholipids), amylopectine storage forms of energy (triglycerides), - plants are able to synthesize glucose precursors to other important biomolecules - excess glucose is stored in different plant (fatty acids), insulation barriers (neutral fat parts stores), protective coatings to prevent - starch in seeds provide foods for the embryo infection and excessive gain or loss of water, - starch consumed by humans are broken and some vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and down by enzymes into smaller molecules hormones (steroid hormones) such as maltose and glucose - major classes: -made up of glucose monomores 1. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids  GLYCOGEN (HUMAN) (short, medium, and long-chain) - storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates 2. Triglycerides, lipoproteins {i.e., - made up of monomers of glucose chylomicrons (CMs) - animal equivalent of starch and is highly branched molecule usually stored in liver 3. Very low density (VLDL),low density (LDL), and muscle cells intermediate density (IDL), and high - whenever blood glucose levels decrease, density lipoproteins (HDL)} glycogen is broken down to release glucose with process glycogenolysis 4. Phospholipids and glycolipids, steroids (cholesterol, progesterone, etc.), and  CELLULOSE eicosanoids (prostaglandins, - most abundant natural biopolymer thromboxanes, and leukotrienes) - cell wall of plants is mostly made up of cellulose; provides structural support to the - All lipids can be synthesized from acetyl-CoA, cell which in turn can be generated from numerous different sources, including Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 carbohydrates, amino acids, short-chain  bilirubinbinding proteins in liver cells volatile fatty acids (e.g., acetate), ketone - some act as storage proteins; ex: bodies, and fatty acids.  myoglobin binds and stores O2 in - Simple lipids include only those that are muscle cells) esters of fatty acids and an alcohol (e.g., - others as defense proteins in blood or on mono-, di- and triglycerides) the surface of cells; ex: - Compound lipids include various materials clotting proteins and immunoglobulins that contain other substances in addition to - others as contractile proteins; ex: an alcohol and fatty acid (e.g.,  the actin, myosin and troponin of keletal phosphoacylglycerols, sphingomyelins, and muscle fibers cerebrosides) - others are merely structural in nature; ex: - derived lipids include those that cannot be  collagen and elastin neatly classified into either of the above (e.g., steroids, eicosanoids, and the fat-soluble vitamins) D. NUCLEIC ACIDS - Play a vital role in protein synthesis C. PROTEINS - are nucleotide polymers (from the Greek - Act as building blocks of many structural word poly, meaning "several", and mer, components of the cell ; required for growth meaning "unit"), that store and transmit - Form enzymes which catalyse chemical genetic informatio of cell reactions - Genetic information contained in nucleic - Form hormones which control growth and acids is stored and replicated in metabolism chromosomes, which contain genes (from - are amino acid polymers responsible for the Greek word gennan, meaning "to implementing instructions contained within produce") the genetic code - A chromosome is a deoxyribonucleic acid - Twenty different amino acids are used to (DNA) molecule, and genes are segments of synthesize proteins, about half are formed intact DNA. as metabolic intermediates, while the - When a cell replicates itself, identical copies remainder must be provided through the of DNA molecules are produced, therefore diet. the hereditary line of descent is conserved, - Each protein formed in the body, unique in and the genetic information carried on DNA its own structure and function, participates is available to direct the occurrence of in processes that characterize the virtually all chemical reactions within the individuality of cells, tissues, organs, and cell. organ systems - The flow of information from nucleic acids - A typical cell contains thousands of different to protein: proteins, each with a different function, and many serve as enzymes that catalyze (or DNA —> messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) speed) reactions —> transfer RNA (tRNA) —> ribosomal RNA - Other proteins transport different (rRNA) —> protein compounds either outside or inside cells; ex:  lipoproteins and transferrin (an - The nucleotide sequence in a gene of DNA iron-binding protein) in plasma specifies the assembly of a nucleotide Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 sequence in an mRNA molecule, which in - Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, turn directs the assembly of the amino acid and phosphorus normally makeup more sequence in protein through a tRNA and than 99% of the mass of living cells. rRNA molecule - Ninety-nine percent of the molecules inside living cells are water molecules. - Cells generally contain many more protein B. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS molecules than DNA molecules, yet DNA is - Water is an inorganic compound which is typically the largest biomolecule in the cell. composed of hydrogen and oxygen. It is an important compound in the cell. THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN THE CELL REFERENCE: - Water is important for life because its chemical and physical properties allow it to Chapter 1, Introduction to Human sustain life. Anatomy/physiology (PDF) - Water is a polar molecule which consists of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. A Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body. polar molecule is a molecule with an John P. Fisher, Adapted from Textbook of unequal distribution of charges. Each Medical Physiology, 11th Ed. Arthur C. Guyton, molecule has a positively charged and a John E. Hall, Chapter 1 negatively charged end. Polar molecules attract one another as well as ions. Because The chemical components of the cell. Haixu Tang. of this property, water is considered the School of Informatics (PPT) solvent of life. - It is the transport medium in the blood NOTE: Some information were gathered online - It acts as a medium for biochemical and others were from PDFs downloaded years reactions. ago. - Water helps in the maintenance of a stable internal environment within a living organism. The concentration of water and inorganic salts that dissolve in water is important in maintaining the osmotic balance between the blood and interstitial fluid. - It helps in lubrication. - Water molecules have very high cohesion. - Water molecules tend to stick to each other and move in long unbroken columns through the vascular tissues in plants. Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 TYPE EXAMPLES FUNCTIONS Digestive Amylase, Help in Enzymes Lipase, Pepsin, digestion of Trypsin food by catabolizing nutrients into monomeric units Transport Hemoglobin, Carry Albumin substances in the blood or lymph throughout the body Structural Actin, Tubulin, Construct Keratin different structures like the cytoskeleton Hormones Insulin, Coordinate the Thyroxine activity of different body systems Defense Immunoglobuli Protect the ns body from foreign pathogens Contractile Actin, Myosin Effect muscle contraction Storage Legume storage Provide proteins, egg nourishment in white (albumin) early development of the embryo and the seedling Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 Percenta This element is common in ge of Phosphor Element Usage 1.0% the bones and teeth, as well Body us as nucleic acids. Weight Potassium is found in the This element is obviously 0.4% Potassium muscles, nerves, and the most important certain tissues. element in the human body. Oxygen atoms are Sodium is excreted in present in water, which is 0.2% Sodium sweat, but is also found in 65% Oxygen the compound most muscles and nerves. common in the body, and other compounds that Chlorine is present in the make up tissues. It is also 0.2% Chlorine skin and facilitates water found in the blood and absorption by the cells. lungs due to respiration. Magnesium serves as a Magnesiu Carbon is found in every 0.06% cofactor for various m organic molecule in the enzymes in the body. body, as well as the waste 18.6% Carbon product of respiration Sulfur is present in many 0.04% Sulfur (carbon dioxide). It is amino acids and proteins. typically ingested in food that is eaten. Iron is found mostly in the 0.007% Iron blood since it facilitates the Hydrogen is found in all transportation of oxygen. water molecules in the 9.7% Hydrogen body as well as many other Iodine is found in certain compounds making up the 0.0002 Iodine hormones in the thyroid various tissues. % gland. Nitrogen is very common in proteins and organic compounds. It is also 3.2% Nitrogen present in the lungs due to its abundance in the atmosphere. Calcium is a primary component of the skeletal system, including the teeth. 1.8% Calcium It is also found in the nervous system, muscles, and the blood. Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 CELLS - basic unit of life - all organisms are composed of cells B. EUKARYOTIC CELL - all living things are made up of cells - greek = true nucleus - new cells arise only from preexisting cell - contain a well-defined nucleus surrounded by - bounded by a selectively permeable a nuclear membrane membrane - can be single celled, such as yeast and paramecium, or multicellular, such as animals A. PROKARYOTIC CELL and plants - Greek = before the nucleus - Cytoskeleton= protein fibers that maintain cell - single celled organism shape - Bacteria and Cyanobacteria - Have membrane-bound nucleus and - no nucleus organelles - DNA is not separated from other components *Endomembrane system: endoplasmic - Lack a membrane-bound nucleus reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes - Smaller than eukaryotic cells *Energy-related organelles: mitochondria and - Have a single chromosome, semifluid chloroplasts cytoplasm, and thousands of ribosomes The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It is made of three major parts: Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 THE CELL'S PARTS - they act as transporters or receptors 1. The plasma membrane 2. The cytoplasm b.) Integral proteins- which are attached to 3. The nucleus the hydrophobic portion. - they act as cytoskeleton anchors or A. THE PLASMA MEMBRANE (SKIN): enzymes - Cell Membrane - The plasma membrane (also called plasmalemma) forms the outer boundary of 3. ) THE CARBOHYDRATES the cell - consist of glycolipids and glycoproteins which - semi-permeable form a filmy covering called the glycocalyx; it - It is the outer protective layer of cell. It isolates acts as: cell from neighbouring environment. a.) an adhesive between cells. - composed of proteins (structural; proteins) b.) site for immunological response - a selective barrier that allows sufficient c.) cell identity markers. passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell 4. ) CHOLESTEROL - The general structure of a biological - attached to phospholipid chains; it determines membrane is a double layer of phospholipids the fluidity of the plasma membrane. FUNCTIONS: - maintains shape MOVEMENT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANES: - contains the contents inside - Two basic types of molecular traffic take place - prevents cell from mixing in and out of cells: passive movement and - controls entrance and exit of materials active movement - protects the cell STRUCTURE: 1. ) PASSIVE MOVEMENT According to the "Fluid Mosaic Model Theory" - Molecules pass through the plasma membrane postulated by Singer & Nicolson, the plasma according to their concentration gradient membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, (meaning from areas of high concentration to proteins, and carbohydrates. areas of low concentration without the use of energy (ATP)). Passive movement includes the 1. ) THE PHOSPHOLIPIDS following: - form a fluid "sea" made of a central bimolecular layer; here the long hydrophobic a. ) DIFFUSION - random movement of hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids (tails) are molecules from areas where they are highly attached to the hydrophilic globular portions concentrated to areas where they are less of phosphate (head). concentrated until a uniform distribution of molecules is achieved. 2. ) THE PROTEINS - (e.g.) inhaled O2 -> Lung -> Bloodstream - float like "icebergs" - Depending on their position they can be b. ) FACILITATED DIFFUSION - when carrier classified as: proteins in the plasma membrane combine temporarily to molecules and allow them to a.) Peripheral proteins- which associates to pass through membrane via protein channels; the globular portions of phospholipids. Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 they move from an area of high concentration d.) FILTRATION- Process that forces small to an area of low concentration. particles dissolved in a solution to cross the s - (e.g.) - absorption of glucose or amino emipermeable membrane with the help of acids by the duodenum during digestion. hydrostatic pressure. - (e.g.) Ultrafiltration of blood by the c.) OSMOSIS - when water molecules move glomeruli of the kidneys through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration of water to e.) DIALYSIS- Exchange of solutes between two an area of low concentration of water. solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane  Osmotic Pressure is the force exerted - (e.g.) Use of the cellophane sheets in the by a highly concentrated solution "A" artificial kidney machine is based upon this which prevents the net flow of water principle. across the selectively permeable membrane coming from a lower 2. ) ACTIVE MOVEMENT concentrated solution "B". - When substances move across a selectively  Osmotic pressure concept has its permeable membrane from areas of low application in chemistry, biology, and concentration to areas of high concentration. medicine, and allows one to Since active movement is against the distinguish three types of solutions: concentration gradient, it requires energy in the form of ATP.  Hypotonic solution - Active movement includes the following: - when the solute concentration is lower a.) active transport outside the cell than it is inside the cell b.) exocytosis - (e.g.) when pure water is exposed to red c.) endocytosis blood cells (RBC), hemolysis occurs due the swelling and bursting of RBCs a. ) ACTIVE TRANSPORT - uses energy from the breakdown of ATP to move substances  Isotonic solution across selectively permeable membrane - when the water and solute concentration against a concentration gradient. outside the cell is the same as inside the cell. - (e.g.) continuous transport of sodium out - (e.g.) exposition of Red Blood Cells to a of resting cells by the "sodium-pump" even solution containing 0.85g of sodium chloride though its concentration is much higher per 100 ml. water (physiological solution) does outside of the cell. not result in the net movement of water into or out of the RBCs. b. ) EXOCYTOSIS - is the fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane, followed  Hypertonic solution by their expulsion from the cell through the - when the solute concentration is higher plasma membrane. outside of the cell than it is inside. - (e.g. ) release of neurotransmitters by the - (e.g.) Exposition of RBCs in a solution neurons containing 100g sodium chloride per 100 ml; results in crenation due to the loss of water by c.) ENDOCYTOSIS - process during which RBC and the shrinkage. particles are engulfed by cytoplasmic extensions, thus forming membrane bound vesicles within the cytoplasm. - there are three types of endocytosis: Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092  Pinocytosis (carbon) and minerals (silver, lead - (also called "Cell Drinking") etc.) - is the process during which the plasma - It consists of an aqueous phase and an membrane invaginates and encloses small particulate phase: amounts of fluid droplets, thus forming small pockets which are released into the a. ) AQUEOUS PHASE OR "FLUID PHASE" cytoplasm. (e.g. Kidney cells take in tissue - consists of cytosol. The cytosol is fluids to maintain fluid balance). composed of water (75% to 90%), proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and  Receptor-mediated endocytosis inorganic substances. - when extracellular large molecules bind with specific receptors on plasma membrane, b. ) PARTICULATE PHASE - consist of causing the membrane to invaginate and draw organelles and inclusions: them into the cytoplasm  Phagocytosis  Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (Blood vessels) - called "Cell Eating" - parallel arrays of canals - is the ability of the plasma membrane to - attaches to the nuclear envelope engulf large particles (foreign bodies, bacteria), - transport of substances and digesting them by fusing the pocket into - a membranous system where ribosomes which they are contained with lysosomal attach and aid in protein synthesis enzyme. (e.g. neutrophils digest harmful - is a network of tubes and flattened sacs that bacteria) channels the flow of substances around the cytoplasm. - is system that continues with infoldings of cell B. CYTOPLASM (BLOOS) membrane and interlaces with the interior of - Cyto= Cell cell - Plasm= fluid - Two types of "ER" are distinguishable: Smooth - living substance of cell Endoplasmic Reticulum "SER" and Rough - rich in organic and inorganic compounds Endoplasmic Reticulum "RER". - is the portion of the cell located between the plasma membrane and the nucleus a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) - free floating - is a delicate branching network of tubules - Contains Organelles free of ribosomes. - Source of energy - lacks proteins and is where lipids are - is the mass of living matter between cell wall made and nucleus. - is the site of steroids synthesis, especially - It contains stored foods, secretion granules, steroid hormones (e.g. progesterone, pigments and crystals. Stored foods are estrogen, testosterone). carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and - is involved in the degradation of vitamins. hormones and drugs in the liver cells. - Pigments are two types: - stores calcium in striated muscles. a. ) ENDOGENOUS - pigments are haemoglobin and melanin b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) b. ) EXOGENOUS - pigments are - is a complex system of branching tubes carotene from vegetables, dusts and flattened sacs covered by ribosomes on their surface. Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 - assists in protein synthesis and translation secretory vesicles, or other cytoplasmic of language of nucleic acid components - Involved in the formation of some large  Cell Wall saccharide polymers bound with a small - extracellular structure that distinguishes plant amount of protein, such as hyaluronic acid and cells from animal cells chondroitin sulfate - protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water  Lysosomes (Stomach) - Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers - membrane-bound vesicles produced by the embedded in other polysaccharides and protein Golgi apparatus - Important in recycling cellular material and  Ribosomes digesting worn-out organelles - creates protein - Suicide bags with enzymes - non-membrane-bound particles where protein - secretes enzymes like hydrochloric acid to synthesis occurs broken down nutrients and food materials and - tiny spherical structures also viruses - are sites of protein synthesis - Phagocytosis - are spherical nonmembranous-bound - membrane-bound organelles that contain organelles made of two subunits: digestive enzymes (acid hydrolase); act as the (a.) The small ribosomal subunit. digestive system of the cell; also known as (b.) The large ribosomal subunit "suicide bags". - are usually grouped in clusters in the - They contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes cytoplasm and are then called polysomes - are absent in RBC - Breaking down of particles taken in to cell and  Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex (Mouth) digestion - series of smooth membrane - Autolysis - continuous with endoplasmic reticulum - Phagocytosis - prepare materials for digestion - Killing of cells (planned way) - packaging of food materials in preparation for - Cell division digestion - series of five to seven flattened sacs, involved  Centrosome in processing, storing, and packaging of - cell center secretory proteins. - centrioles and asters (used for cell division) - Composed of four or more stacked layers of - used in cell division thin, flat enclosed vesicles lying near the nucleus  Peroxisomes - One side is directed toward the ER and t - small, membrane-bound organelles - sorts and packages proteins and lipids in resembling empty lysosomes vesicles - Contain enzymes to digest excess fatty acids - Prominent in secretory cells where it is located *Produces products used by mitochondria on the side of the cell from which secretory to make ATP substances are released - Produce cholesterol and phospholipids found - Golgi apparatus functions with the ER, where in brain and heart tissue transport vesicles bud off the ER and diffuse to - similar to lysosome the Golgi apparatus – the Golgi apparatus - purine (end product) catabolism processes ER vesicles to form lysosomes, - converts fat into glucose (energy) Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 - membrane-bound organelles found mostly in - forms a supportive framework, assists in the liver, in the kidney and the macrophages organelles movement, and provides a - contain enzymes (peroxidase) which are transport system within the cell. involved in the formation of hydrogen peroxide as they oxidize various substances.  Centrioles - A pair of cylindrical cytoplasmic organelles  Mitochondrion/ Mitochondria (Liver- secretes located in a space near the nucleus called energy) centrosome - hotdog like, spherical, rod shaped, hollow - Assist in cell division by forming Mitotic structure Spindle System - are the "powerhouses" of the cell because of * Note that mitotic spindle is involved ATP production. with chromosome movement during - provide energy; convert sugar into ATP mitosis (Adenosine Triphosphate) or enegry - provide site for synthesis of RNA and DNA  Cilia - were also derived from bacteria and therefore - Minute cytoplasmic extensions from the cell have a double membrane which are involved in the transport of - Double layered membrane organelle with its materials along the cell surface inner layer thrown into folds called "cristae" - hair like projecting into the inner cavity filled with - whiplike structures of cells amorphous substance called "matrix" where - (e.g. mucus movement in the trachea; different enzymes are found. movement of the ova in the fallopian tube.) - are abundant in different types of cells such as myofibers, neurons, spermatozoa - Is the site of the final steps in cellular  Flagellum respiration, which result in the production of - Cellular appendage which protrudes from the ATP used in the cell metabolic activities. cell and allows its propulsion - tail of sperm cell  ATP - (e.g. Spermatozoa tail is made of flagellum) - ATP means Adenosine Triphosphate - ATP is the main energy supplier for most  Secretory Vesicles biological activities in the cell. The phosphate - Membrane bound cytoplasmic chambers bond (the P of ATP) is where most of the containing products of secretion such as energy exists protein. - Most of it is created in the cell's mitochondria.  Microtubules (Spine)  Microfilament (Fibers) - made up of protein molecules - Microscopic tubes - made of contractile protein  Cytoplasmic Inclusions - Locomotion - There is a variety of cellular inclusions. - Examples are:  Cytoskeleton a. Lipid droplets - storage for energy - Formed by: b. Glycogen - principal storage form of a. Microtubules carbohydrates b. Microfilaments c. Zymogen granules - secretory products c. ntermediate filaments rich in inactive enzyme Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 d. Melanin pigment - most abundant skin - The nucleus is the container of DNA in pigment eukaryotic cells e. Hemosiderin - yellowish brown pigment - Site where the genetic material is stored resulting from degradation of hemoglobin - It consists of three components:  Centrosome 1. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE OR NUCLEAR ENVELOPE - Centrosome contains centrioles. Centrioles - Separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. control polarisation of spindle fibres. Centriole - Contains opening called nucleopores which are is closely related to spindle formation during potential passageway for exchange of cell division (Mitosis). substances (e.g.) Messenger Ribonucleic Acid (mRNA)  Plasmosin - is constant constituent of cytoplasm. They 2. CHROMATIN form Tonofibrils in epithelial cells, myofibrils in - Complex substance made up fibrous strands muscles and neurofibrils in nerves. containing DNA and proteins. DNA controls: - They consist of long protein molecules rich in a.) Cell's Heredity deoxy -ribonucleoprotein. b.) Protein Structure c.) Other nonmetabolic activity  Vacuoles - spherical empty sacs 3. NUCLEOLUS - storage food - Dense nonmembranous mass where RNA is - They are also cytoplasmic organelles. They are synthesized; location for the components found covered by fat on staining with dilute found in ribosomes. neutral red solution. * Note: Red Blood Cells (RBC) in circulation - membranous sacs larger than vesicles and don't have a nucleus; therefore, they are usually store substances unable to divide and they die after 4 months in - Example: toxic substances used in plant circulation defense - Central vacuole – found in plants, contains ADDITIONAL: watery sap and maintains turgor pressure A. CHROMOSOMES  Nasal bodies - Chromosomes are present as individual bodies - They are found in nerve cells. in interphase as well as in mitosis. Predominant component in chromosome is  Secretory granules DNA. - They store secretory products of cell and are - Genes are located in chromosome. They are found in- Golgi apparatus and E.R discrete units of transmission of hereditary characters. C.THE NUCLEUS (BRAIN) B. CHLOROPLASTS - rounded darkly stained object inside the cell - type of plastid, an organelle bounded by a - key structure of living cell double membrane with a series of internal - control center/ controls all the processes of membranes separated by a ground substance organelles - site of photosynthesis - controls protein synthesis (production of - Other plastids are: protein) Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092  Chromoplast- contain variously colored NOTE: Some information were gathered online and others pigments like red, blue, violet, yellow etc. were from PDFs downloaded years ago.  Leukoplast- colorless plastid; storage depot of starch C. PRESENCE OF CAPSULE IN BACTERIA = harmful D. KIDNEY - steriles; does not have bacteria E. URINE - is sterile since it came from kidney REFERENCE: Chapter 1, Introduction to Human Anatomy/physiology (PDF) Introduction to Human Anatomy. The Medical Lab Technician (PDF) Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body. John P. Fisher, Adapted from Textbook of Medical Physiology, 11th Ed. Arthur C. Guyton, John E. Hall, Chapter 1 https://twitter.com/student_nxrs/status/1036502465493889 024?s=21&fbclid=IwAR2licQH2zbPdPMLCIBX4BOWDgL6G9h NBdtizO2-JF6fHEPBtxh_I452mPk Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTE BOTH Have No nucleus With nucleus ribosomes DNA is not DNA is separated from separated by Have DNA other membrane components bound Small and Have Have simple organelles cytoplasm Can be Have cell No organelles unicellular or membrane multicellular Are very Have Have flagella abundant cytoskeleton All are Some have cilia unicellular Includes Cells have a everything sticky capsule that’s not bacteria All cells have Found in cell walls humans Reproduce/divi Were the first de by cells meiosis/mitosis Live a wide variety of environments All are bacteria Not found in humans Reproduce/ divide by binary fission Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092 THREE TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTIONS A. ISOTONIC: - equal. Water moves in and out of the cell at an equal rate B. HYPOTONIC - water moves into the cell, making it swell and get fat. There is a greater concentration or number of solute CELL PHYSIOLOGY particles inside a membrane than there - is the biological study about the are outside. activities that take place in a cell to keep C. HYPERTONIC it alive. In the context of human physiology, the term cell physiology - water moves outside the cell, making it often specifically applies to the shrink. There is a greater concentration physiology of membrane transport, or number of solute particles outside a neuron transmission, and (less membrane than there are inside. frequently) muscle contraction. DIFUSSION * Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of trillions - Diffusion is the net movement of of cells. They provide structure for the body, particles from an area of higher take in nutrients from food, convert those concentration to lower concentration. nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions. TWO MAIN TYPES OF DIFFUSION: A. PASSIVE DIFFUSION OSMOSIS - is the movement of molecules across a - Osmosis movement of a solvent (such as semi-permeable membrane without the water) through a semipermeable help of protein channels. membrane (as of a living cell) into a solution of higher solute concentration B. FACILITATED DIFFUSION that tends to equalize the - is the flow of molecules down a concentrations of solute on the two concentration gradient, across a sides of the membrane. membrane, but requires the help of a *It does not require energy to be applied protein. There are two categories of proteins that assist facilitated diffusion:  CARRIER PROTEINS- are like taxi cabs in a cell membrane Downloaded by lauren gomm ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|36400092  CHANNEL PROTEINS- are like tunnels  PINOCYTOSIS- brings liquids into the that create a hole across a cell cell membrane. Channels open to allow  PHAGOCYTOSIS- is responsible for molecules to flow through them. transporting large particles or other solids into the cell C. EXOCYTOSIS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSMOSIS AND - is very similar to endoxytosis except DIFFUSION: that it deposits materials from inside the cell on the outside instead of the other way around Osmosis- is a slow process and diffusion is the fast process. Osmosis is dependent on one solvent to the another for the reduction of free energy PASSIVE TRANSPORT Diffusion- the movement of molecules is from the area of their higher free energy to the area - is a movement of ions and other atomic of the lower free energy or molecular substances across cell membranes without need of energy input. ACTIVE TRANSPORT THREE MAIN TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT: - a protein pump uses energy, in the A. SIMPLE DIFFUSION form of ATP, to move molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of - movement of small or lipophilic high concentration.