Anatomy After Midterm PDF

Integumentary (plays with immune system, acid mantle 4.5 - 5.5 acidic to kill pathogens) - Classify burns - Classify pressure wounds - Differentiate layers of skin - differentiate Overview - Protective layer from environment - Contains glands to regulate temperature - Adi...

Integumentary (plays with immune system, acid mantle 4.5 - 5.5 acidic to kill pathogens) - Classify burns - Classify pressure wounds - Differentiate layers of skin - differentiate Overview - Protective layer from environment - Contains glands to regulate temperature - Adipocytes in dermis/hypodermis - Vitamin d3 in skin (from sun and converted) important for calcium absorption - Types of melanin Functions - Protect from pathogens - Balances fluid levels (sewating) - Store fatty tissues for energy supply - Produces vitamin d from sun - Provides sensory input - Helps to regulate body temperature Layers - Epidermis (avascular, no blood supply) - Dermis (location of nerve endings) - Ubcutaneous fascia (compposed of connective and fatty tissue) Epidermis - Composed of squamous and epitheleal cells - 4-5 layers - Stratum corneum - Stratum lucidum (only in palms and feet) - Straum granulosum - Stratum spinosum - Stratum basale - Avascular - Constantly shedding as basale ayer grows - Stratum germinativum: region of cell birth - Stratum corneum are dead cells, flat scaly keratinized epithelial cells - Specialized melanocytes in epidermis deeper responsible for skin color (produce melanin) - Lymphedema have high risk of skin infections, over wash themselves and can wash off the acid layer/mantle - Brick wall (bricks are skin cells and mortar is lipids) Dermis - Underlying framework giving support to epidermis - Vascular: contains blood and lymph nerves sweat glands, ect - Collagen and elastic fibers allow for elasticity of skin, prevents skin from tearing (snapping back is called turgor  - Sweat glands - 2 types sweat or sudiferous - Apocrine: groun, anal region, armpits, active at puberty (body odor) - Eccrine: palms, feet, forehead, upper lip (regulate body temp) - Sebaceous glands - Secreting oil - Keeps skin from drying out - Acidic nature - Found in hair covered area and eyelids, penis Hypodermis - Provides cushion and insulation - Connects skin to underlying structures (doesn’t move ) - Subcutaneous fascia - Innermost layer of the skinhypodermis - Composed of elastic and fibrous connective and fatty tissue - lipocytes(fat cells) produce the fat to provide padding and act as insulation for temp regulation - Fascia attaches to the body muscles - Cutaneous plexus and papillary plexus (hypodermis and dermis blood vessels and arteries) Hair and nails - Derived from epidermis but roots grow into dermis - Function: mechanical protection for the skin, increases sensory functions, aids in regulating body temperature (raised hair from goosebumps puts a layer of oxygen under to help insulate skin - Nails - Specialized epithelial cells originating from nail root - keratinization - As cells grow out and over the nail bed, they become keratinized forming a substance similar to horns on a bull - Nail body visible portion - Nail matrix - Lunula: white half moon - Mails grow 1 mm a week - Hair - Regulate body temp - Enhances sensory information - Eyelashes protects eyes from foreign - Nose hairs keep stuff out of nose - Visible hair is keratin, shaft is visible - Lok at slides hair anatomy Temperature regulation - Regulation accomplished bu changes in the size of blood vessels - Decrease tmp: vasodilation, increase size of vessels to pick up more oxygeb - Increase temp: vasoconstriction, decrease blood vessel size Burns to the skin - Burns caused by heat, chemicals, electricity, or radiation - Two factors access damage: depth and amount of area damage(rules of nine) - Depth - First degree outer layer epidermis only - Redness and pain but no blister - Heals in 2-3 days w no scarring - Second degree entire depth of the epidermis and portion of dermis - Redness pain and blistering. Extent of blistering dependent on depth - Blistering heals 10-14 days, 1-3 months to heal w scarring - Third degree: all three layers of skin - Skin surface is leathery and dead - No blisters cause iy goes through blood supply - No pain because pain receptors are destroyed (in localized area, nerves around wound still alive and still painful) - Destroyed sweat and sebaceous glands, hair follicles and blood vessels - Fourth degree - Burned to bone - Amount of area damaged - Rule of nines used to estimate the extent of area damaged by burns - Percentages for burns in slides - Percentages change as child or baby Pressure wounds - Stage I: skin is intact, presence of non-blanchable erythema (redness turns white when you push on it). Is a pressure wound if it stays red - Stage 2: there is a partial thickness skin loss involving dermi and epidermis - Tage 3: full thickness loss of skin that extends to the subcutaneous tissue but does not cross fascia beneath, smells - Stage IV: full thickness skin loss extending through the fascia with considerable tissue loss, there might be possible involvement of the muscle bone tendon or joint - The faster you get out of bed the less risk of pressure wound - Skin breakdown caused by wetness, darkness, mobility. - Team paper: what kind of features in the environment can be changed, what component of the environment can impact a person Intro to Nervous System - Organize the nervous system structurally and functionallu - Define afferent and efferent - Explain how an action potentioal occurs - Describe different neurotransmitters and their actions in the body - Watch 2 lectures together - Neuro system monitors the body. Takes in visual, sensory information, classifies it whether its important or not. Different systems in the body report to the brain, collecting  and appraising information. Spinal cord has sensory information filter, decides if information is disregarded or needs to be sent to brain Organization - Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord_ - Brain and spinal cord, when it exits: - Peripheral nervous system - Everything outside the brain and spinal cord - autonomic nervous system - Involuntary control - Somatic nervous system - Voluntary control - Spinal nerves and myotomes part of peripheral nervous system - Input side of the peripheral nervous system is the sensory system - The output side of the nervous system is the motor system - Somatic controls sksletal muscle - Automic controls smooth muscle and glands Autonomic system divided into 2 branches - Parasympathetic system when body is normal functioning - Sympathetic system when experiencing ‘fight or flight’ Terms - Afferent carries sensory to the CNS - Efferent carries motor information away from CNS to the body - Nerves can be bidirectional - Ion channels - Used to change the gradient, embedded in cell membrane, used when chemical signal comes to open the door, or mechanical signal - G-protein - Memory protein that allows for door to stay open longer Tissue types - Main actor cells of the nervous system - The cell body: nuclei in the CNS and ganglia ni the PNS - Supporting - Glial cell Neurons - Specialized cell of nervous system, releasing or accepting - Neuron body: cell metabolism occurs - Dendrites: receives information from the environment or another neuron - Axon: generates and send information to next destination - Axon terminal: where the signal leaves the cell (spinal cord, muscle, ect) - Synapse: where the axon t - Soma: protein synthesis for neurotransmitters - Dendrites: Input site to neuron - Axon: output portion of neuron - Presynaptic Nerve types - Multipolar - most common, all motor neurons - Pseudounipolar: sensory receptors, decides if sensory information will be sent to CNS - Unipolar - Bipolar Structure - Bipolar: one axon one dendrite 2 process - Unipolar: one pr Function - Sensory neurons: input - afferent - Motor neuron: output - efferent - Interneurons - communication between neurons, reflex sensory information handles automatically by neuron instead of sending to CNS. pain receptors Central Nervous system glial cell - keep nervous system alive and functioning. Lots of disease is glial cells not neurons - Different in cns and pns, 2 sets - Cns: astrocytes(most abundant, support and nutrients to neuron, plays role in blood brain barrier - stops virus but also medicine, mops up leaked k+), microglial, ependymal, aligodendrocytes Peripheral nervous system - Not as many glial cells bc no blood brain barrier - Satellite cells - Support and nutrients, function is largely unknown - Scheann cells: produce myelin sheath in PNS, important for nerve regeneration How neurons work - Neurons excitable cells, work through action potential - Carries an electrical charge at rest - Cells need to reach a threshold, ect - All muscle types are excitable cells, as are many gland cells - Cells are like minatryre batteries - Turn on cell electricity uing action potential - Positively charged ion brought in for action potential to occus - Grapoh of time and membrane potential - -70 brought to -55 threshold, depolarization and Propagation of information overview Electric potentials - Resting membrane potential -70 membrane voltage maintained by NaKpump - Local potentials: sensory system tells difference in pressure - Action potential - - allor nothing - Rapid depolarization due to opening of voltage gates Na+ channels - Decrease Na+ conduction due to closing of Na+ channels - Rapid repolarization due to  - Sodium potassium pump maintains -70 m/v - Everytime below threshold line, action potential is possible Propagation og action potnrial - Speed of conduction dependent on diameter of the axon - Myelination - Saltitory conduction, wave like propagation Synapse: neurotransmitters releases into synaptic cleft using exocytosis, latch on receptors Important neurotransmitters table in slides What is pain: an unpleasant ebsiry and emotional experience associated wutg actual or potential damage or described in terms of such - A multiple system output activated by the brain based on a perceived threat - Pin is a normal response, goal is to change behavior - CNS filters information Pain pathway - 1st order afferents] - A delta fibers: noscioception, not pain until gets to brain. Fibers send fast sharp pain - C-fibers, transmits oiirky localizesm, dissuse sensation. Grawingtype of pain (soreness) - Second order - Pain crosses at the spinal cord - Neospinothalamic - paleospino thalamic tract Neuroplasticity’’ Hebbian theory Pain states Mature organism moxsl - Input, prosessinf, output Subjective pain measures 10/29/24 Unit 3 Action Potential - Describe role of the Na/K pump - Compare and contrast local and action potentials - Describe how a synapse works Neurons - Neurons are excitable cells - Carry an electrical charge at rest - Each time charged particles flow across a cell membrane, a tiny charge is generated - Cells like a bettery Action potentials - Cell at rest - Negative charge - Considered polarized  - Cell that is stimulated - Becomes positively charged - Considered depolarized - When cell is stimulated - Sodium gates in cell membrane open - Sodium travels across cell membrane - Sodium is positively charged, makes cell more positive (depolarization - Asmore sodium enters cell becomes more depolarized (positive feedback loop) - creates a stronger pull to get more sodium - Repolarization occurs when - Need to bring cell to baseline to send another signal - Sodum gates close - Gates within cell open causing positively charged potassium to leave, which causes the cell to repolarize - Hyperpolarization - Cell becomes more negative than when resting - Action potential is the cell moving through depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization before it goes back to rest - Refractory period - Time when cell cannot accept another stimulus - Potassium inside and sodium outside at rest - Sodium enters and reach threshold abd - Excitatory neurotransmitter cause depolarizaton - Sodium increase action potential, potassium decrease action potential Graded potentials - Neurons can use their ability to generate electricity to send and receive as well as interpret signals - Hitting thumb with hammer, dendrites stimulated, cause sodium gates to open. The number of cells that are affected depends on how hard you hit your thumb (size of stimulus, how bug and forceful, determines how excited thecell gets) - Dendries carry depolarization to the sensory neuron cell boy which takes information and decides if it needs to be seent to brain - Action potentaisl are yes or no(all or none) while local potential varies depending on size - Know difference between action and local potential for exam Impulse conduction - Speed of impulse conduction determined by the amount of myelin and the diameter of the axon - Myelin is a lipid provides insulation in the CNS and Schwann cells in PNS - Myelinated nerves lok white - Unmyelinated neves are gray - Myelin essential for speedy flow of Action potentials down actions - No myeline means sodium ions can leak out - In myelinayed acons - Sodium ions can only enter at nodes  - Acton potential moves faster because there is no leak, saltatroy sonductio - Myelin like a wave thatpulls more sodium as it travels down axon - Diameter of axon effects speed of the action potential flow, more space to pick up more sodium - Small unmyelinated axons speed 0.5 meters/sec while large diameter myelinated axons can be 100 meters/second, 200 times faster Chemical synapses - When the action potential arrives at the msucle/endocrine gland/axon terminal, the terminal depolarizes and calcium gates open - Calcium flows into cell and triggers a charge change at terminal (calcium positive instead of sodium) - Tiny vesicles in terminal release their contents from the cell when calcium flows in - Neurotransmitters - Calcium important to alow neurotransmitters to leave the synapse - Neurotransmitters bind to cell receiving the signal openin or closing gats - Some excite the receiving cell and some calm it - Calcium at synaptic cleft, vesicles exocytosis, neurotransmitters exit and exciteor inhibit Neuromuscular junction - Slide - Surface of muscles studded w sodium that are ligand gates. These open or close …lock and key only fiit with neurotransmitter its meant to take - Skeletal muscles - Acetylcholine is excitatory causes depolarization and contraction. Binds to surface of skeletal muscle opens - Acetylcholinesterase enzye cleans neurotransmitter out of synaptic cleft Electrical synapse - Some cells do not need the chemicals to transmit information from one cell to another - Transfer information freely bc have special connections called gap junction - Connection exists between any types of excitable cells. In intercalated discs between cardiac muscle fibers Muscular Skeletal System and Homeostasis - Onthe micro level, - Bones play a role in regulation of Ca for the body, mineral storage and production of blood cells - Macro level, types of movements - ADL(activities of daily living) vs IADL (independent activities of daily living) - ADL: dressing, cleaning, feeding  - iADL: cooking preparing, engaging in community. Activities you need to do in order to live on your own independently. iADL requires executive function. Locomotion of skeletal system allows for these activities - Osteoporosis - Decrease in bone mineral density. Leads to decrease strength in the bone and incesased risk of fractures - Lifestyle factors that increase risk of osteoporosis: - Low levels of physical activity - Smoking - Chronic alcohol abuse - Treatment - Nutritional strategies - Supplementatoin - Increased activity levels (weight bearing, no aquatic exercises.) Recommendations for exercises: - 2 days a week of strength training of all major muscle groups - Cardiovascular. 150 minutes at least of moderate intensity aerobic physical activity. At least 75 minutes of vigorous intensity aerobic physical activity Exercise benefits - - Risks of not exercising - Increased risk of heart disease - Increased risk of diabetes melats (DM) - Increased risk of pain - Increased risk of cancer Pain - Descartes model tells us that pain is inherently due to damage. Says we can give medication or put out the fire to decreaser pain. Avoid doing the thing that causes pain. Surgery to kill nerve. - Mature organism model of pain: see pain as an output of the nervous system. Body takes into account the environment and state of tissue, brain scrutinises the environment u are in and past experiences to figure out whether something is pain or not (can be just a touch, ect Bed sores - Injuries to skin from prolonged positions. Typically in bony areas. - Risk factors:  - Being confined to bed - Incontinence and increased moisture - Poor diet - Certain medical conditions, unable to move Bone repair - Repared via endochondral ossification(body healing itself). For bone to heal a fracture, the end of broken bone must be touching. If not do surgery and use metal plate to bring bone ends together - Stage 1 is hematoma formation and inflammation - Stage 2 is soft fibrocartilage callus formation. Cartilage fills space between bones and sets a spot where the bone should begin healing, ontop of cartilage - Stage 3 hard bony callus formation. Bone replaces the cartilage via endochondral ossification - Stage 4 the bone is remodeled via the activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts until the fracture is nearly undetectable - - Different types of bone fractures - Hairline: looks like piece of hair on the x ray. A fine fracture that doesn’t completely break or displace the bone - simple/closed fracture: break with minimal displacement and no tear in the skin - Greenstick fracture: an incomplete break often found in children - Spiral fracture: caused by a twisting motion to the bone - Skin Healing  - Step 1: wound fills with blood that contains clotting substances - Step 2: top part of clot hardens to fom a scab. Inflammatory response causes white blood cells to enter wound and destroy pathogens. Fibroblasts begin pulling edges of area together - Step 3: basal layer begins to hyper produce new cells for wound repair. If the wound is severe enough, a tough scar composed of collagen fibers may form Primary vs secondary healing (skin and bone fractures) - Primary healing: medical intervention for healing - Secondary healing: body heals itself Minimum 5 sources peer reviewed, no less than 4 pages, no more than 5 Half page socioeconomic impacts. Apa formatting Anatomy 11/7 Lecture Peripheral Nervous System - Differentiate between types of receptors - Differentiate between fiber types - Map motor signals from brain to peripheral Peripheral nerve anatomy - Similar to anatomy of muscle, layers and individual nerves inside - Endoneurium: separates individual axons - Periosteum: - Epineurium - Exiting the spinal cord, nerve fibers clumped together with fascicles - Lots of individual nerve fibers/axons clumped together that make up the nerve as a whole PNS - Sensory - Motor - Automatic Sensory - Labeled based on diameter ad information they carry - A-alpha fibers: largely diameter and myelinated. Proprioception (this is where my limb is in space - B-beta: smaller, myelinated, light touch sensation - A-delta: even smaller diameter (less fast), myelinated. Nociception (precursor to pain, warning signal), temperature. First order pain signals - C: unmyelinated, small, large branching and webbing, not as well localized with sensation. Second order pain. Pain that remains and spreads over time after stubbing yout toe. Different from the initial pain of a-delta. Nociception, temperature, and itch Mechanoreceptors (differentiate what your touching) - In dermis level - Meissner: sliding skin sensation - Ruffini: skin stretching senses - Pacini: vibration type sensation - Murkle: tells depth of impact on skin - C-fibers: glandular. Yes is a nerve and carries a sensation, but also produces information and markers that help to kickstart the inflammatory system. Release hormones to signal inflammatory about possible injury Motor - Somatic: carries info to skeletal muscle. Voluntary - Visceral: carried info to glands, smooth muscle. Involuntary Mnemonic for nerve fibers: prime minister pressurized to sign the contract fast.(slides) Spinal nerves (slides finish) - Dorsal root ganglia organizes nerve fiber types - Proximal portion (to the spinal cord) consists of a anterior and posterior root - Distal branches: posterior ramus - Roots combine to become spinal nerve, spinal nerve has projections called posterior or anterior ramus (innervate muscles and joint of back and limb innervation respectively) Dermatomes: how you line up sensory information. Line up with spinal cord - Trunk lines up with ribs (spinal nerves) - Lining up to a level of the spinal cord - C5 lateral portion of arm, c6 lateral covering thumb. T1 inner portion of arm. Down one side and back up on the other side considering the arm - L and S myotomes in legs Peripheral distribution: nerve exits the spinal cord and starts to branch. Lines up with peripheral nerve - Peripheral nerves separate from dermatomes. Brachial plexus (picture) - Innervates entire upper extremity - Roots, trunks, divisions, cords, terminal nerves - Roots of an individual spinal nerve - Muscle innervation is a combination of multiple nerves working together (c5-c7 innervation, ect) - Mixing of information Lumbar plexus - Innervated the skin and muscles of the anterior and medial portions of the leg - Sacral plexus (slide) - Innervates skin and muscles Nervous system chart Clinical context PNS vs CNS injury  - No clear end and beginning of cns to pns - Diabetes damage smaller peripheral nerves - peripheral issues follow a pattern of not following a pattern or just peripheral nerve portion. Cns nerve issue loses everything below level of spinal cord injury (injury c5 lose everything under c5 in spinal cord) Look at table of distinguishing peripheral from central nervous system dysfunction in the textbook? - Muscle atrophy shrinking muscles rapidly - pns. Muscle atrophy slowly - cns The brain and cranial nerves (sldes read textbook) - - cranial nerves leave brain - to function cns and pns need to talk to each other. Cranial nerves are like spinal nerves w input and output pathways for brain, but do not have Cranial nerves are not all mixed nerves like the spinal nerves (mnemonic) - Some are mainly sensory - Others are mainly motor - Others are mixed Cranial nerves come off of the brain. Control face and sensation in facial parts Roman numerals for cranial nerves. CNV. CNII, ect Mostly come off of the brainstem, but can be higher. Table for cranial nerves and their primary function cIII opens the eye, cVII closes the eye. the vagus nerve CX travels down and out of the brain (can’t eat without it). CXI - Cns and pns work together for transmission of sensory and motor information - Cns: brain and spinal cord Spinal cord - Cylinder of neuron cell bodies and axon tractions - Axons white matter, cell body in gray matter - Connects Spinal nerves - 31 pairs of peripheral spinal nerves - Cervical: 8 - Thoracis: 12 - Lumbar: 5 - Sacral: 5 - Coccyx: 1 Neuron anatomy - Dendrites: receive - Axon: transmit and send info - Schwann cells: make myelin that speeds up signals Classifications of neurotransmitters  Excitatory: depolarize, moe Inhibitory: polarize, more negative Cerebrospinal fluid - Clear liquid with protein and glucose for energy as well as lymphocytes to guard against infection - Produced by choroid plexus - Know question what produces cerebrospinal fluid, choroid plexus - Epidermal cell with cilia moves cerebrospinal fluid Brain review Cerebrum: gives us conscious control and sensation - Frontal lobe: executive function, motor - Parietal lobe: sensation - Occipital lobe: vision - Temporal lobe: hearing Diencephalon: inside portion of brain, thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus. Emotional processing Cerebellum: motor control, coordination Brain stem: relays signals from the spinal cord and directs basic internal functions. - Know which does breathing control (slides - Picture of functional areas of the brain Frontal lobe vs warnekies area Learn jobs of cranial nerves and know whether motor, sensory or both Questions like: someone has a loss of hearing imbalance, which is the cranial nerve. Should know the name, number and function/job of cranial nerves. Brain Recorded Lecture Brain takes in information from peripheral nervous system and then makes decisions about what to do with it Cerebrum contains:lobes line up well with bone structures - Frontal lobe - Parietal lobe - Occipital lobe - Temporal lobe Cerebellum separate structure from cerebrum that deals a lot with coordination, bottom back of head Brain stem - Midbrain - Pons - Medulla oblongata Diencephalon: center inside portion of brain Cerebrum - Made of gyri and sulci and divided into regions by fissures - Each region has a specific role - Frontal: motor planning and execution, as well as executive function (thinking, smell, speech emotions) - Pre-central gyris located in the frontal lobe, motor planning area, mapping out what we do movement wise - Parietal ACA, MCA, PCA important to know. Need to know arteries involved in CVA (cardiovascular accident). Whihc artery was involved can tell us whihc area of the brain was damaged based on what it should be supplying? ACA stroke (CVA): - Aca part of internal carotid artery - - Circle of willis allows blood to get to parts of brain even if there is a clot Blood brain barrier - Tight union of epithelial cells Autonomic nervous system 11/12/24 - Sympathetic nervous system Objectives - Define role of ANS - Parasympathetic vs sympathetic Parasympathetic: rest and digest. Cranial sacral system, cell body in cranial and sacral Sympathetic: T1-L1 cell bodies live thoracic region Motor sytem divided into somatic and autonomic - Somatic controls skeletal muscles  - Autonomic controls physiological characteristics like blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, digestion and sweating. Release neurotransmitters and cause an action to occur - Autonomic motor neurons located in the lateral horn instead of ventral horns. Unlike somatic motor neurons, - Needs to have a wide influence across the entire body - Second motor neuron read textbook - Pre ganglionicfiber, releases acetylcholine onto post ganglionic fiber. - Both sympathetic and parasympathetic use acetylcholine at preganglion - Parasympatetic will use epinephrine? - Sympathetic division fontrols fight or flight response. Increases heart rate, BP, sweating, causes dry mouth (symptoms of adrenaline rush - Things that inhibt acetylcholine have dry mouth effects - Start line preganglionic neurons located in the thoracic and first 2 lumnar segments of the spinal cord. The pregaglionic neurons secrete acetylcholine, synapse with the postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic ganglia - Coordinating up and down,, chain like ganglia forming a pair - Autonomicnervous stops at ganglia to coordinate. Has a longer and wider response on the body Parasympathetic branch - rest and digest. Responsible for maintaining homeostasis and reversing sympathetic effects. Decrease heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, increase digestive activity including salivation - Neurons of parasympathetic in brain stem and sacral spinal cord. Neurotransmitter acetylcholine released by postganglionic neurons ANS - Visceral nervous system - innervated organs - Motor fiber in smooth muscles - Sympathetic and parasympathetic thoracolumbar and craniosacral - Series of 2 multipolar neurons - Presynaptic located in gray matter of CNS - Postsynaptic located in PNS Parasympathetis short lived and highly localized, sympathetic fibers las long spread throught hte body Parasympathetic has long preganglionic fiber, short postganglionic Sympathetic has short preganglionic fiber, longer post ganglionic fiber Sympathetic presnaptic cell bodies lcated in intermediolateral cell column - lateral horns Parasympatheitc presnaptic cell bodies lcated in: - S234 keeps poop off the floor - Gray matter of the brain stem Sympathetic use acetylcholine at sweat glands, and otherwise norepinephrine Pregangionic fibers myelinated while post ganglionic unmyelinated Sympathetic - Presynaptic cell bodies - Postsynaptic cell bodies - Pathways: - Leave through anterior roots into anterior rami - Pass into the sympathetic nervous trunks through the white rami communicantes - 4 potential ways afterwards: - Ascend to head/neck - Descend - Synapse immediately - Bypass the trunk through the splanchnic nerve (around and into gi system)] - Blood vessel contraction and incr blod pressure - Pilomotion (via arrector mussles goose bubmps) - Sweating - Eye dilation - T1-t3 head - Different vertebrae signals go - Sympathetic nervous system innervates adrenal meduulla (endocrine hormone Parasympathetic - Cranial parasympathetic outflow - Fibers exit some cranial nerves - CNII - CNVII, ect - Bowl bladder, colon Funcions of ANS divisions - symap==pathetic - Catabilic, expends energy - Eagles the body to deal with stress - Fight or flight - Parasynpatheic finish Diencephalon controls staying alice - Hypothalamus - Limbic system - Reticular formation: coordinates heart activity, BP, body temp, water ballance, endocrine activity - Stress and fear - Brainstem - Regulation of heart raye? - Visceral reflexes Neurotransmitters in slides - Odd numbers insight even numbers inhibit - Receptors - Alpha 1: constricys blood vessels and sphincters, dilation  - Alpha 2inhibuts insulin secretion - Beta 1: incraased heart rate an force of contraction - Beta 2dilates blood vessels and chronchioles - Beta 3: stimulayes lipoysis - Horners syndrome - Autonomic dysreflexia - Spinal cord injury abouve t6 (t6 and above, you lose control of heart. Leads to uncontrolled hypertension - Can lead to death Upper motor neuron vs lower motor neuron - UMN injury/CNS injury - Increased tone, impaired motor control, easy fatigue, hypereflexic (big - Lower motow neuron (LMN)/PNS injury - Decreased tone, hyporeflexia, flaccid paralysis, atrophy (signal cannot reach arm at all when PNS nerve is completely cut) Majority of strokes are due to ischemiaevent with hypertension being the leading cause - Early recognition is important cause medicine needs to be given within 4.5 hours of onset, treat with tPA During ischemic stoke there is poor production of ATP - Leads to failure of Na/K pump (then causes action potential to stop happening, death) NIHSS screening for stroke patients (the higher the paoints the more liekly a storke is occuring) - LOC - potentially damaged brain stem (conciousness) - Language - warnike’s area - Dysarthria - brocha’s area - Motor - frontal lobe - Vision - occipital lobe - Eye movement - brain stem - Facial paralysis - brain stem or frontal lobe - Ataxia - dmg to cerebellum BEFAST (balance, eyes, face, arm, speech, time) acronym for stroke Stroke syndrome (know arteries and where they go and what the supply blood to - ACA - Rare: broca’s area, primary motor area, primary sensory area, prefrontal cortex - Patients present with motor aphasia, personality issues, and contralateral leg weakness and numbness. Hand and face are usually spared - MCA - Most common (arterry is a straight shot from the heart) - Contralateral arm and facial numbness and weakness, gaze deviation towards the affected side. Aphasia in the left sided lesions and neglect in the right sided-lesions  - PCA - Homonymous hemianopsa - Lose peripheral vision on both eyes, usually only vision impacted. Big stroke can lose all vision. Confabulation, brain makes up visual experience without realizing they have lost their vision. Filling in details they don’t have - Cerebellar - Ataxia (walking strangely), dysarthria, nausea, vomiting and vertigo (dizzyness that can’t be treated) - Know what happens when this artery gets cut off When frontal lobe damaged, lose sense of right and wrong, Aphasia can be broca. Wernike, or global aphasia. When a man’s hippocampus and amygdala was removed, he got permanent amnesia, not able to form or retrieve new memories 1) Explain the role of acetylcholine in the nervous system, particularly its significant Acetylcholine depolarizes, causing action to occur in the skeletal muscles. 2) Compare and contrast the functions of dorsal column tract and the spinofilamic tract in the transmission of sensory inforatin to the brain. Include the specific types of sensations each tract is responsible forn Efferent tracts, carry sensory information. Dorsal column does light touch proprioception. Spino does pain, temperature, itch. Dorsal crosses at brain stem. Spinochalamic crosses at spinal cord 3) Discus the importance of sensory homonculus in undratdning brian function. In which lobe of the brain is it located and what information does it represent - Parietal lobe, post central gyrus. Represents sensory information, sensory info at the hand is more accurate than sensory information at the arm for example. More receptors in hand, brain needs a larger area to identity what is happening 4) Discuss the anatomical and functional differences between the cranial nerves and spinal nerves. Provide examples of situation where damage to specific cranial nerves could lead to distinct sensory or motor deficits - Cranial nerves: originate from brain and brain stem. Can be sensory or motor only, or mixed component. Spinal nerves always mixed. Only sensory loss in the olfactory cranial nerves. Only motor loss in the ocular motor nerves (eyes). Lose both in trigenital (cranil nerve for chewing) 5) Describe the impact of trauma on the functioning od a specific lobe of the cortex lelading to potential vision problems. - Occipital lobe, consequences lose part of peripheral vision. Dng at thalamus ause information to not reach occipital lobe 10 questions from unit one and two, 70 questions in total Vertebral artery travels through transverse foramen, both converge in brain to form basilar artery Supply to the pons Mca, pca, aca blood supply through the circle of wilis (collateral circulation)  - Use blood supply chart Exam questions: 48 A 49 C 50 A spino Mthcing, action potential, symptoms of stroke, quiz questions A 65 year old female was diagnosed with Bels Palsy 3 minutes ago. Left side of the face. Pt not recommended for bells palsy. Steadily getting better. At dentist she found 3 infected cavities that need to be pulled - Pain from trigeminal nerve - Cranial nerve 7 does facial movement, salivary glands, - She isnt able to produce saliva, meaning