Anatomy 2 PDF

**[TABLE OF CONTENTS]** - Specific joints - Cartilage - Tendons and ligaments **[WRIST JOINT]** The wrist joint is formed by Distally -- the proximal row of carpal bones (except the pisiform) Proximally -- the distal end of the radius, and the articular disk  The...

**[TABLE OF CONTENTS]** - Specific joints - Cartilage - Tendons and ligaments **[WRIST JOINT]** The wrist joint is formed by Distally -- the proximal row of carpal bones (except the pisiform) Proximally -- the distal end of the radius, and the articular disk  The ulna is not part of the wrist joint, it articulates with the radius, just proximal to the wrist joint, at the distal radioulnar joint. Together, the carpal bones form a concave surface with articulates with the convex surface of the radius and the articular disk. The wrist is an ellipsoidal (condyloid) type synovial joint allowing for movement along the two axes, flexion / extension and adduction / abduction the movements of the wrist are performed by the muscles of the forearm **[ELBOW JOINT]** The elbow joint is where the long bone at the top of your arm (humerus) meets the 2 bones in the forearm (radius and ulna) It is classified as a synovial hinge joint, and it allows you to bend your arm. The upper part of the radius can rotate so you are able to twist your forearm. The ulnohumeral joint or trochlear joint is composed of the 2 bones (humerus and ulna) and is the junction between the trochlea notch of the ulna and the trochlea of humerus. It is classified as a hinge joint which allows for movements of flexion, extension and circumduction. The radioulnar joints are 2 locations in witch the radius and ulna articulate in the forearm - Proximal radioulnar joint -- located near the elbow. It is and articulation between the head of the radius and the radial notch of the ulna. - Distal radioulnar joint -- located near the wrist. It is an articulation between the ulnar notch of the radius and the ulnar head Both joints are classified as pivot joints, responsible for the pronation and supination of the forearm. **[SHOUDLER JOINT]** The shoulder joint (Glenohumeral joint) is a ball and socket joint between the scapula and the humerus. It is the major joint connecting the upper limbs to the trunk. It is one of the most mobile joint sin the human body, but this makes the joint less stable. The shoulder joint is formed by the articulation of the head of the humorous with the glenoid cavity (fossa) of the scapula. Like most synovial joints the articulating surfaces are covered with hyaline (articular) cartilage The head of the humerus is much larger than the glenoid fossa, giving the joint a wide range of movement at the cost of inherent instability.  To reduce the disproportion in surfaces the glenoid fossa is deepened by a fibrocartilage rim called the glenoid labrum (lips) GLENOID LABRUM -- a fibrocartilaginous ridge surrounding the glenoid cavity. It deepens the cavity and creates a seal with the head of the humorous reducing the risk of dislocation. **[SHOUDLER MOVMENTS]** - #### **EXTENSION - arm moves backwards in sagittal plane** - #### **FLEXION - arm moves forwards in sagittal plane** - #### **ABDUCTION - arm moves away from midline in frontal plane** - #### **ADDUCTION - arm moves towards midline in frontal plane** - #### **INTERNAL ROTATION - rotation towards the midline, so that the thumb is pointing medially.** - #### **EXTERNAL ROTATION - rotation away from the midline, so that the thumb is pointing laterally.** **[SPINE ]** There are 2 types of joints in the spine The vertebral bodies are joined by inter-vertebral discs made of fibrocartilage and thereby structurally form a symphysis type of cartilaginous joints Each vertebra also has 4 articular processes (2 above and 2 below) which join the vertebrae above and below via synovial joints (facet joints) All vertebrae also protect the delicate spinal cord and nerves within their vertebral canal **[SPINE INTER-VERTEBRAL JOINTS]** **[CERVICAL]** The cervical spine has 7 stacked bones called vertebrae labelled C1 to C7  The top of the cervical spine connects to the skull and the bottom connects to the thoracic vertebrae at the about shoulder level The cervical spine forms a lordotic curve by gently curving towards the front of the body and the back Roles of the cervical spine - Protecting the spinal cord - Supporting the head and its movements - Facilitating and protecting flow of blood to the brain **[THORACIC]** The thoracic spine is the second segment of the vertebral column located between the cervical and lumbar vertebral segments. Is consists of 12 vertebrae which are separated by intervertebral discs Along with the sternum and the ribs the thoracis spine forms part of the thoracic cage The bony structure helps protect the internal organs **[CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES]**  Vertebra body is heart shaped Presence of demi-facets on the sides of each vertebral body these articulate with the heads of the ribs Presence of costal facets on the transverse processes these articulate with the tubercles of the ribs The spinous processes are long and slant inferiorly this offers increased protection to the spinal cord Thoracic spine is considered to have a restricted range of motion (ROM) compared with that of the cervical and lumbar spine The ROM of the thoracis spine is restricted by the rib cage **[LUMBAR]**  The lumbar vertebrae consist of 5 individual cylindrical bones that form the spine in the lower back These vertebrae carry all of the upper body's weight while providing flexibility and movement to the trunk region As in other regions of the spine the movements of the lumbar spine are - Flexion / extension - Lateral bending - Rotation While lumbar motion is potentially greater than that of the thoracic spine because of the lack of rib restriction, facet facing and heavy ligaments check the range of rotatory motion **[SPECIFIC JOINTS ]** **[THE PELVIS JOINTS]** The joints of the pelvis include - Sacrococcygeal - Lumbosacral - Pubic symphysis - Sacroiliac The lumbosacral joints forms from the 5^th^ lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum In between the articular processes this joint has an intervertebral disc The sacrococcygeal joint is a fusion of the bone between the sacrum and coccyx It also consists of an intervertebral disc between the 2 vertebrae and several accessory ligaments The sacroiliac joints are synovial articulations between the surfaces of the ilium and sacrum on either side The sacroiliac joints surface is smooth and flat and has posterior strengthening by dorsal sacroiliac and interosseous ligaments When a person is upright the body weight usually transmits to the sacrum and iliac When sitting or supine the persons body weight transmits to the ischial tuberosity The pubic symphysis is a cartilaginous joint located between the main body of the pubic bone in the anterior midline. This joint is covered with hyaline cartilage and the ligaments around it are flexible and relax during pregnancy **[HIP JOINT]** A cartilaginous labrum expands the size of the bony socket It can be distorted and damaged at extreme ranges of hip motion **[KNEE JOINT]** The knee joint is a hinge type synovial joint which mainly allows for - Flexion / extension - Small degree of medial and lateral rotation It is formed by articulations between the patella, femur and tibia  **[KNEE LIGAMENTS]** Ligaments are bands of strong tissue that connect bone to bone The knee has 4 major ligaments that connect the femur to the tibia - Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) - Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) - Medial collateral ligament (MCL) - Lateral collateral ligament (LCL) The ACL and PCL prevent the femur and tibia from sliding too far forwards and backwards The MCL and LCL prevent side to side movement A knee meniscus is a thick pad of cartilage located between the femur and tibia There are 2 menisci in each knee - Medial meniscus (located on the inside of the knee) - Lateral meniscus (located on the outside of the knee) The menisci reduce shock and absorb impact when moving or bearing weight  Also helps stabilize the knee and facilitate smooth motion between the surface of the knee **[THE ANKLE JOINT]** Ankle joint is formed by 3 bones - Tibia - Fibula - Talus (in foot) The tibia and fibula are bound together by strong tibiofibular ligaments Together they form a bracket shaped socket, covered in hyaline cartilage. This socket is known as mortise The body of the talus fits snugly into the mortise formed by the bones of the leg. The articulating part of the talus is wedge shaped -- it is broad anteriorly and narrow posteriorly DORSIFLEXION -- the anterior part of the talus is held in the mortise and the joint is more stable PLANTARFLEXION -- the posterior part of the talus is held in the mortise and the joint is less stable The ankle joint is a hinge type joint with movement permitted in one plane The plantarflexion and dorsiflexion are the main movements that occur at the ankle joint Eversion and inversion are produced at the other joints of the foot, such as the subtalar joint PLANTARFLEXION is produced by the muscles in the posterior compartment of the leg (gastrocnemius, soleus plantaris and posterior tibial) DORSIFLEXION is produced by the muscles in the anterior compartment of the leg (tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus and extensor digitorum longus) The medial ligament is attached to the medial malleolus (a bony prominence projecting from the medial aspect of the distal tibia) Is consists of four ligaments, which fan out from the malleolus, attaching to the talus, calcaneus and navicular bones The primary action of the medial ligaments is to resist over eversion of the foot The lateral ligament originates from the lateral malleolus (a bony projecting from the lateral distal fibula) It resists over inversion of the foot and is comprised of 3 distinct and separate ligaments - Anterior talofibular - Posterior talofibular - Calcaneofibular  **[TYPES OF CARTILAGE]** - Articular cartilage - Growth cartilage - Fibrocartilage **[ARTICULAR, GROWTH AND FIBROCARTILAGE]** **[ARTICULAR (HYALINE) CARTILAGE]** Is a connective tissue covering the end of bones that functions as a load bearing, low-friction, and wear-resistant surface to facilitate joint movement  Provides** **smooth** **articular surfaces for movable (synovial) joints. It** **protects** **through shock absorbing. Has** **poor regenerative** **(healing) capacity. Damage can lead to degeneration of tissue.**\ ** Mainly subjected to compression forces.  **[GROWTH CARTILAGE (PHYSIS OR GROWTH PLATE)]** Responsible for growth in height.**\ ** **\ **Fuses** **(ossifies)** **in** **late teens resulting in cessation of growth.** ** bumps (tubercles) on bones for tendon attachment** **also have growth plates. **[FIBROCARTILAGE]** Provides articular pad for some movable joints Provides tough union between structures Examples of fibrocartilage pads in joints - Between ulna and metacarpals - Between vertebrae - Lateral and medial meniscus cartilage **[LIGAMENTS]**  Strong rope like tissue joins bone to bone Ligamentous joint capsule surrounds (encapsulates) movable (synovial) joints Capsule is also reinforced with ligaments There are some ligaments within joints (eg knee and hip) In joints between long bones of the limbs there are often thick ligaments on each side of the joint (collateral ligaments) **[TENDONS]** Strong rope like tissue that joins muscle to bone Inverts into the periosteum of bone with some fibbers actually interwoven into bone matrix  Sometimes in sheets called fascia Some tendons also serve as joint stabilizers (rotator cuff of the shoulder) **[COMMON INJURIES AND DISEASES IN MAG]** - Osgood-Schlatter disease - Servers disease - Injuries to knee ligaments during under rotation on longitudinal axis - Injuries to ankles during under rotation on transversal axis **[FOREARM SPLITS]** Forearm splints are painful and frustrating injuries that occur most often in athletes, gymnasts, and weight trainers. This injury is due to tendons that are unable to stand the stress that is being placed on them. These tissues tear away from the bone or bones that they are attached to. This is very similar to shin splints, and generally take about the same amount time to heal. Interosseous membrane between radius & ulna (forearm). **[SHIN SPLINTS]** The term "shin splints" describes pain felt along the front of your leg and shinbone. You'll notice the pain in the front area of the leg between your knee and ankle. Shin splints are a common overuse injury. They can occur from running or doing other high-impact activities for extended periods of time or without adequate stretching. **[GYMNAST WRIST ]** Gymnast wrist is an overuse injury that can occur in adolescent gymnasts. It is a combination of injuries to the bone and the ligaments of the wrist. Gymnast wrist occurs because of the repetitive compressive forces applied across the wrist during the weight bearing activities of gymnastics. Gymnast wrist is commonly shown as a chronic stress fracture of the distal radius, and in these skeletally immature gymnasts, this is near the growth plate of the wrist. **[SHOULDER INJURIES -- IMPINGEMENT]** Shoulder impingement - when the tendons of the rotator cuff (RTC) become trapped and compressed under the bones (humerus and acromion) during shoulder movements. The shoulder is unusual because unlike most areas of the body, the bone covers the muscle. The rotator cuff muscle is sandwiched between the humerus (arm bone) and the acromion (top of the shoulder) in an area called the subacromial space. The rotator cuff (RTC) can become pinched between these bones leading to injury and inflammation (tendonitis and bursitis).