Study Notes: Blood Vessels (Week 9) PDF

Chapters 29-40 Study Notes: Blood Vessels (Week 9) Overview of Blood Vessels Purpose: Closed transportation network delivering oxygen, nutrients, and regulatory substances while removing waste products. Pathway of Blood Flow: o Starts at the left ventricle, where ox...

Chapters 29-40 Study Notes: Blood Vessels (Week 9) Overview of Blood Vessels Purpose: Closed transportation network delivering oxygen, nutrients, and regulatory substances while removing waste products. Pathway of Blood Flow: o Starts at the left ventricle, where oxygenated blood is pumped into the aorta (largest artery). o Aorta branches into arteries, which progressively narrow into arterioles. o Arterioles lead to capillaries, where oxygen and nutrients diffuse into tissues, and waste diffuses out. o Blood moves into venules, which merge into veins that return deoxygenated blood to the heart. o Veins eventually empty into the vena cava, returning blood to the right atrium. Fun Fact: The body’s five liters of blood circulate through this system once every minute. Types of Blood Vessels and Their Functions (tricuspid right side, bicuspid is left side) 1. Arteries a. Muscular layer: Carry blood away from the heart to specific areas of the body, proportionately thicker. Mostly oxygenated blood b. Elastic layer: elastic walls to withstand high pressure. (Can stretch without injury to accommodate the surge of blood pulsating during contraction and relaxation) c. Arterioles: smallest arteries; variable contraction of smooth muscle in the walls which can increase resistance to blood flow and helps reg. BP and how much blood enters a particular organ. i. Know principal arteries on body  1. Apical (chest), radial (wrist), brachial (where BP taken), carotid (one at a time), femoral (groin region), popliteal (knee region), posterior tibial, pedal 2. Capillaries a. Carry blood from arterioles to venules = microcirculation, transfer of nutrients (not uniformly distributed. Tissues with high metabolic rates will have more capillary vessels – avascular tissues lack. Pericytes on outside) b. Microscopic, hairlike vessels that connect arteries to veins. c. Gas Exchange Site: Oxygen and nutrients diffuse into tissues; carbon dioxide and waste diffuse into blood. d. Walls are only one cell thick to allow efficient exchange. e. What happens when a precapillary sphincter is closed? Blood is diverted away from periphery veins act as reservoir to come back 3. Veins a. Carry blood towards the heart. Mostly deoxygenated blood b. Veins become larger as they approach the heart and have structural changes to accommodate large blood volume c. Contain valves to prevent backflow of blood. d. Capacitance is the ability to stretch and increase capacity; reservoirs of blood, conduits for blood’s passage back to the heart, one-way valves e. Venules are smaller veins that drain blood from capillaries into larger veins. Receives blood from metarterioles and then enters progressively larger veins i. Know many vessel 1. Superior vena cava = drains deoxygenated blood from the upper body into the heart 2. inferior vena cava = drains deoxygenated blood from the lower body into the right atrium of the heart. Structure of a Generic Blood Vessel 1. Tunica Intima (Innermost Layer): a. A thin endothelial layer that lines the heart, has a basement membrane to support it. b. Cells fit tightly together, creating a smooth, slick surface to reduce friction. 2. Tunica Media (Middle Layer): a. Made of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue. (Smooth permits changes in blood vessel diameter; innervated by autonomic nerves, supplied with own circulation)  b. Allows vessels to constrict (narrow) or dilate (widen), controlling blood pressure. c. Controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. 3. Tunica Externa (Outermost Layer): a. Strong, flexible, Fibrous connective tissue provides support and protection. Collagen fibers anchor the vessel and help to keep it open Venous Return and Factors Affecting It Veins are far from the heart, so blood pressure is low, making it difficult for blood to return. Mechanisms that Help Venous Return: o Skeletal Muscle Pump: Muscle contractions compress veins, pushing blood toward the heart. o Valves in Veins: Prevent backflow and ensure one-way movement. o Thoracic (Respiratory) Pump: Pressure changes during breathing aid blood flow. o Venous Lumens: Veins have larger lumens to allow more blood flow under low pressure. Key Point: Venous return must equal cardiac output (stroke volume × heart rate) to maintain circulation balance. Pathway Through the Heart The cardiovascular system is divided into two circuits: 1. Pulmonary Circuit: Moves blood between the heart and lungs. a. Pathway: Pulmonary arteries → Lung arterioles → Lung capillaries (gas exchange: oxygen in, CO2 out) → Pulmonary venules → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium. 2. Systemic Circuit: Moves blood between the heart and the body. a. Pathway: Aorta → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries (gas exchange: oxygen out, CO2 in) → Venules → Veins → Vena cava → Right atrium. Major Parts of the Aorta Aorta: Largest artery in the body; begins at the left ventricle and arches over the heart. Divided into: o Ascending Aorta: Directly from the heart. o Aortic Arch: Curves over the heart. o Thoracic Aorta: Travels through the chest. o Abdominal Aorta: Supplies blood to the abdomen and lower body. Major Arteries and Their Supplied Regions Carotid Arteries: o Internal: Supplies the brain. o External: Supplies skin and muscles of the head and neck. Vertebral Artery: Brain and spinal cord. Subclavian Artery: Head and upper limbs. Bronchial Arteries: Lungs. Coronary Arteries: Myocardium (heart muscle). Celiac Artery (Abdominal Aorta Branch): o Gastric: Stomach. o Splenic: Spleen and pancreas. o Hepatic: Liver. Renal Arteries: Kidneys. Relationship to Aorta: All these arteries branch from the aorta at various levels. Arterial Pulse and Its Measurement Pulse: Alternating expansion and recoil of arteries caused by ventricular contractions. Normal Pulse Rate: 70–76 beats per minute (varies with activity, posture, and emotions). Measurement: Common sites include the radial, carotid, brachial, and femoral arteries. Blood Pressure and Its Components The volume of blood within the arteries largely determines arterial blood pressure, many factors determine arterial pressure through their influence on arterial volume. Anything that makes the heartbeat faster or stronger (increasing its SV) tends to increase CO and therefore arterial blood volume and pressure. Anything that causes the heart to beat more slowly or weakly (decreases SV) tends to decrease CO arterial volume and blood pressure Blood Pressure (BP): Force blood exerts against vessel walls. Two Components: o Systolic Pressure: Highest pressure during ventricular contraction (~120 mmHg). o Diastolic Pressure: Lowest pressure during ventricular relaxation (~80 mmHg). Factors Influencing BP: o Heart Action: Increased stroke volume or heart rate raises BP. o Blood Volume: Less blood lowers BP; more blood increases BP. o Peripheral Resistance: Resistance from vessel walls hinders flow and increases BP. o Viscosity: Thicker blood (more cells/plasma proteins) increases BP. Cardiac output o Amount of blood that flows out of a ventricle per unit of time o Influences flow rate to organ (stroke volume x heart rate = cardiac output) ▪ Stroke volume: the amount of blood pumped out of the ventricle by each beat ▪ Heart rate: SA node influenced by the NS impulses conducted to the node per minute, or emotion, hormones, exercise, etc. Elasticity and Viscosity of Blood Vessels 1. Elastic Arteries (e.g., Aorta): a. Stretch during systole and recoil during diastole, helping to maintain BP. b. Loss of elasticity (e.g., in atherosclerosis) increases BP. 2. Viscosity: a. Thicker blood resists flow, requiring more force to circulate. b. Influenced by red blood cells and plasma proteins. Regulation of Blood Pressure 1. Baroreceptors (Short-Term): a. Located in the carotid and aortic sinuses. b. Detect pressure changes and signal the brain to adjust vessel diameter and heart rate. 2. Renin-Angiotensin System (Long-Term): a. Renin: Released by kidneys when BP is low; triggers angiotensin II production. b. Angiotensin II: Potent vasoconstrictor; stimulates aldosterone release to retain sodium and water. c. Vasomotor Control Mechanism: blood pressure and amount of blood distributed to different organs can be influenced by the diameter of arterioles i. Vasoconstriction: increases resistance, blood flow to tissues decreases ii. Vasodilation: decreases resistance to flow, blood increases to tissues Study Notes: Lymphatic System (Week 10) 3 main functions of the Lymphatic System 1. Maintain fluid Balance: a. Collects and returns excess interstitial fluid to the bloodstream to prevent swelling (edema). 2. House the immune Defense: a. Houses lymphocytes and macrophages to identify and eliminate pathogens. 3. Absorption of lipids: a. Absorbs dietary fats from the small intestine and its transport to the large systemic veins via lacteals (specialized lymph capillaries). i. Lacteals = absorb fat from the digestive system Lymph structure  Clear fluid in the lymphatic vessels Key Components of the Lymphatic System 1. Lymphatic Vessels: a. One-way network of thin-walled tubes paralleling blood vessels. b. Contain valves to prevent backflow. 2. Lymph Nodes: a. Lymph nodes contain compartments and channels where lymph circulates. Contains lymphocytes that function to fight “non-self” particles as they pass through the node b. Housing of WBC to filter out lymph we are absorbing form capillary networks c. Small, bean-shaped structures along lymph vessels. d. Contain lymphocytes (T and B cells) and macrophages to filter lymph. e. Flow: Lymph enters nodes via afferent vessels, is filtered, and exits via efferent vessels. i. Lymph nodes in body 1. Thoracic, axillary, inguinal, cervical, supratrochlear, abdominal, pelvis f. Shape/structure: oval-shape, linked together by lymphatic vessels, center is called medulla and is composed of sinus to activate plasma cells and B cells to produce antibodies g. Lymph valves: prevent back flow in the lymphatic vessels, due to the low pressure of the lymph 3. Thymus: a. Thymus is composed of lymphatic issues containing lymphocytes. Tells develop there, as it releases thymosin a hormone that stimulates the maturation of T cells b. Bi-lobed gland in the mediastinum. c. Matures T lymphocytes and secretes thymosin (stimulates T-cell development). d. A person with thymus dysfunction produces fewer T cells, thus reducing the effectiveness of the immune system, secreting hormones. 4. Spleen: a. Spleen resembles a large lymph node and functions to filter and clean blood. It destroys old worn-out RBC’s and returns salvageable products to the liver. b. Largest lymphatic organ, located in the LUQ (left upper quadrant).  c. Functions: Filters blood, destroys old red blood cells, synthesizes lymphocytes, stores platelets, and acts as a blood reservoir. 5. Lacteals: a. Lymphatics in the villi of the small intestines, able to absorb fat from the digestive system 6. Lymphatic Ducts: a. Lymph ducts drain lymph from larger portions of the bdoy to the subclavian veins i. Thoracic Duct: Drains lymph from most of the body into the left subclavian vein. ii. Right Lymphatic Duct: Drains lymph from the right upper body into the right subclavian vein. Lymph Flow Pathway Interstitial fluid → Lymph capillaries → Lymph vessels → Lymph nodes → Collecting ducts → Subclavian veins. Mechanisms Promoting Lymph Flow: 1. Skeletal muscle contraction. 2. Pressure changes during breathing. 3. Valves to ensure unidirectional flow. Study Notes: Immune System (Week 10, Section 2) Identification of cells Antigens: cells, viruses, and other particles with unique molecules on their surfaces o Self = substances in our body recognized as our own o Non-self = invade – foreign substances o Self-tolerance Definition of Immunity Immunity: Body's ability to resist specific pathogens and foreign substances. Why Important? o Acts as a defense system to protect against infections, abnormal cells, and toxins. o Builds memory for faster future responses (e.g., immunity from vaccines or previous infections). Types of Immunity 1. Innate (Non-Specific): a. General defenses present at birth (e.g., skin, inflammation, fever). b. Respond immediately to any invader. 2. Adaptive (Specific): a. Targets specific pathogens (e.g., antibodies for chickenpox). b. Features: Antigen-specific, systemic, has memory. c. Divisions: i. Humoral Immunity: B-cells produce antibodies. ii. Cell-Mediated Immunity: T-cells attack infected or abnormal cells. Key Immune Components 1. Lymphocytes: a. B-cells: Produced in bone marrow; produce antibodies (humoral immunity). b. T-cells: Mature in the thymus; attack infected cells (cell-mediated immunity). (pre-T are immature cells) i. 3 main T-lymphocytes: 1. Killer T = attaches to the antigen and kills it directly 2. Helper T = helps B cells differentiate into antibody secreting plasma cells, when T cells bind a B cell that has already combined with an antigen this T cell releases chemical (cytokines) that stimulate the B cell to proliferate 3. Suppressor T = inhibits the activity of both T and B cells once the infection is controlled 2. Phagocytes:  a. Neutrophils: Target small pathogens during acute infections. b. Macrophages (from monocytes): Aggressive phagocytes that digest large particles like bacteria and cancer cells. 3. Interferons: a. Proteins that inhibit virus replication and activate immune cells. 4. Histamine: a. Released by mast cells and basophils; increases capillary permeability during inflammation. White blood Cell types Granulocytes o Neutrophils: phagocytes involved in short-term infections (fight infections) o Basophils: produce and release histamine and heparin causing inflammation and blood vessel leakiness o Eosinophils: kills parasites and active in allergic reactions Agranulocytes o Leukocytes ▪ T cells: involved in cell-mediated immunity ▪ B cells: involved in humoral-mediated (antibody-mediated) immunity o Monocytes ▪ Macrophages: phagocytes involved in long-term infections Immune Response Process 1. Primary Immune Response: a. Reaction from immune system when it has first encounter with an antigen. b. B-cells produce: i. clone cells: to react to antigens ii. plasma cells: they produce and secretes antibodies that travel through the body to attach to antigens iii. memory cells: stored in lymph nodes until ability to secrete antibodies is needed, long-living cells capable responding to the same antigens in the later infections 2. Secondary Immune Response: a. Reaction from immune system when it contacts an antigen for the second or subsequent times b. Faster and stronger due to memory cells. Immunoglobulins Immunoglobulins = antibodies Five major antibody classes (isotypes) 1. IgG – antibody normally constituting the highest % of antibodies in the blood 2. IgM – the antibody produced after initial contact with an antigen (rem as; mom who is always there and has an immediate response) 3. IgA – the major class of antibody present in breast milk and is the ability to pass antibody from parent to baby When you see “globulins” you are just referring to protein Active vs. Passive Immunity Active Immunity: Body produces antibodies. o Naturally Acquired: From infection (e.g., chickenpox). o Artificially Acquired: From vaccination. Passive Immunity: Antibodies are borrowed. o Naturally Acquired: From mother (e.g., antibodies in breast milk). o Artificially Acquired: Injection of antibodies (e.g., antivenom). Study Notes: Digestive System (Week 11) Digestive system: Convert food to energy and nutrients required for cellular processes Changes food to a form our cells can use Rids the body of the indigestive remains Processes of digestive Injection of food Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes Mixing and movement of food and wastes through the body Digestion of food into smaller pieces Absorption of nutrients Excretion of wastes Main Functions 1. Ingestion: Taking food into the mouth. 2. Digestion: a. Mechanical: Physical breakdown (chewing, churning in stomach). b. Chemical: Enzymes break food into nutrients (e.g., amylase in saliva for starch). 3. Motility of the GI tract: physically breaks down large chunks of food into smaller bits and move alone the tract 4. Secretion: digestive enzymes into the lumen of the GI tract 5. Absorption: movement of the digested and products/ nutrients absorbed into blood or lymph from the GI tract 6. Elimination: defecation/excretion of indigestible substances and waste from the body via anus/ in the form of stool 7. Regulation: coordination of various functions of the digestive system Wall of the GI tract Four layers of tissue: 1. Mucosa – inner mucous lining, innermost layer of the GI tract 2. Submucosa – layer of connective tissue that contains the main blood vessels of the tract 3. Muscularis – muscular layer characterized by an inner layer of circular and an outer layer of longitudinal smooth muscle 4. Serosa – also called serous layer, outer fibrous layer - Modifications of layers = can vary in different regions of the tube throughout its length Key Organs and Their Functions 1. Mouth: a. Digestion begins via chewing (mechanical) and saliva (chemical). 2. Stomach: a. Produces gastric juice (HCl and enzymes like pepsin). b. Churns food into chyme (chyme is when food has been chemically digested is semi-liquid that's working way through digestive system) 3. Small Intestine (Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum): a. Primary site of digestion and absorption.  b. Enzymes from the pancreas and bile aid digestion. 4. Large Intestine: a. Reabsorbs water and electrolytes. b. Forms and stores feces. Esophagus Collapsible, muscular, mucosa-lined tube; that extends from the pharynx to the stomach To deliver mushed up food to our esophagus Each end of the esophagus is encircled by muscular sphincters o Upper esophageal sphincter (UES) o Lower esophageal sphincter (LES) (cardiac sphincter) - keeping food down from throwing up Stomach Main function: o Deliver chyme to the duodenum at proper rate, rugae helps to allow the stomach to expand ▪ What is the sphincter that allows food to enter the stomach from the esophagus? Cardiac Sphincter ▪ The pyloric sphincter is located between the duodenum and what structure? Stomach Stomach wall o Epithelial lining of the stomach consists largely of folds (rugae) o Gastric pits = marked depressions within the rugae o Gastric glands = secrete most of the gastric juice ▪ 3 major secretory cells; 1. Chief cells: secretes the enzymes of gastric juice 2. Parietal cells: secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor 3. Endocrine cells: secrete ghrelin (GHRL) hormone that stimulates the hypothalamus which increases appetite and release gastrin Peritoneal cavity Large, continuous sheet of serous membrane that covers most of the digestive organs o Parietal = lines the walls of the entire abdominal cavity o Visceral = serous outer coat of organs Binary system Small bile ducts for right and left hepatic ducts (ducts immediately join to form one common hepatic duct) o Common duct merges with the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form the common bile ducts o Biliary system – the liner, gallbladder and bile ducts work together to make, store and secrete bile ▪ synthesizes clotting factors, stores vitamins, detoxifies drugs, and is involved in the metabolism of fats and proteins: Liver ▪ produces bile and secretes it into the hepatic ducts Gallbladder Pear-shaped sac 7-10cm long and 3 cm at widest point; lies on the undersurface of the liver Serous, muscular and mucous layers; compose to wall of the gallbladder; mucosal lining has rugae Stores bile that enters it by way of the hepatic and cystic ducts o The common bile duct empties its contents into the duodenum Pancreas Endocrine role: alpha cells secrete glucagon (sugar is low we release glucagon – body's natural sugar to make ATP), beta cells secrete insulin (sugar is too high levels of blood sugar to put energy and raise levels quickly) Exocrine role: acinar units of the pancreas secrete the digestive enzymes o Acinar cells manufacture inactive forms of the enzymes (zymogens) ▪ Zymogen are stored in vesicles called zymogen granules with protease inhibitors and are release into the pancreatic duct, released in the duodenum and are activated by protease trypsin Autodigestion = pancreatic enzymes destroy its own tissue leading to pancreatitis (2 leading causes of pancreatitis are alcohol and gallstones) o Relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi allows bile to enter the duodenum from the common bile duct Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions of breaking down Chemical digestion – changes in chemical composition that transforms food during the travel through digestive tract; changes are a result of hydrolysis (compound unities with water and then splits into simpler compounds) 1. Carbohydrates: a. Amylase (saliva, pancreas) breaks down starch into monosaccharides. i. Compounds are made of saccharides ii. Polysaccharides are hydrolyzed to disaccharides by enzymes known as amylases iii. Enzymes that catalyze the final step in carb digestion are surcase, lactase, and maltase which convert disaccharides to monosaccharides 1. Chemical digestion of protein begins in the stomach and is completed in the small intestine 2. Proteins: a. Pepsin (stomach) and proteases (pancreas) break proteins into amino acids. Trypsin (produced amino acids as its product of digestion) b. Main proteases: pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and peptidases 3. Fats: a. Lipase (pancreas) and bile (gallbladder) emulsify and digest fats. i. Emulsification facilitates chemical digestion of fats by breaking down large fat drops into small droplets ii. Lipase chemical breakdown bonds, while bile Parasympathetic on digestion stimulates peristalsis and secretion Gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin are hormones (help with satiation, hunger, etc.) Study Notes: Respiratory System (Week 11, Section 2) Functions Main function is to take oxygen in environment and deliver to cells of our body 1. Supplies oxygen to the bloodstream. 2. Removes carbon dioxide from the blood. 3. It helps regulate blood pH. Key Structures 1. Upper Respiratory System: Nose, nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx (larynx and up) 2. Lower Respiratory System: Trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs (trachea and down) Trachea Tube that extends from the larynx in the neck to the primary bronchi in the thoracic cavity The wall of the trachea is composed of c-shaped cartilaginous rings Which provide a sturdy open passageway from the upper respiratory tract into the lungs Bronchi and alveoli Trachea divides into 2 primary bronchi and then divided into smaller branches called secondary bronchi branch to form tertiary bronchi and then further on into bronchioles and continue to branch into microscopic terminal bronchiole; where air is passed into respiratory bronchioles and then alevolar sacs (which contain numerous smaller sacs called alveoli) o Sympathetic causes bronchial to dilate – swell up so more can get through o Parasympathetic causes constriction – to normal tone Alveoli are made up of single layer of simple squamous epithelial tissue (Squamous are scales like – allows for slates in between them for things to be defused)  o Allows oxygen and carbon dioxide gas to pass quickly from alveoli to capillary Lungs Main function of the Lungs is to perform both air distribution and gas exchange Cone-shaped organ that fill the pleural portion of the thoracic cavity completely o Hilum: slit on the lung’s medial surface where the primary bronchi and pulmonary blood vessels enter (entry point of blood vessels) o Base: broad inferior surface of the lung o Apex: pointed upper margin of the lung Visceral pleura– covers the outer surfaces of the lungs; provides protection from abrasion within the pleural cavity o Pleural membranes are serous membranes (pleural ONLY IN LUNGS) Thorax Functions of the thorax brings about inspiration and expiration Divided by pleura to form 3 divisions o Pleural divisions – the part occupied by the lungs o Parietal pleura – lines the entire thoracic cavity by attaching to the inside of the ribs and superior surface of the diaphragm o Visceral pleural – lines the lungs entirely Role of surfactant Alveoli = single layer of simple squamous epithelial tissue allows O2 and CO2 to pass Surfactant – substance covering the inner surface of the alveoli Reduces surface tension and prevents the alveoli form collapsing Gas Exchange in Alveoli Alveoli is surrounded by capillaries where oxygen diffuses into blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses into alveoli for exhalation. Principle of diffusion to gas exchange  Exchange of gases in tissues takes place between arterial blood flowing through tissue capillaries o Oxygen diffuses out of arterial capillaries and into cells o Carbon dioxide diffuses out of cells into venous capillaries Diffusion = transport is driven by a concentration gradient without the use of any energy Concreated of gases (applied sued parietal pressure) Gas exchange is measured through several means: o Pulse oximetry = measures oxygen saturation level o Diffusing capacity for carbon dioxide o Arterial blood gas sampling Partial pressure – pressure exerted by any one gas in a mixture of gases or in a liquid o Law of partial pressure: the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases is directly related to the concentration of the gas in the mixture and to teh toal pressure of the mixture The following affecting gas exchange Ventilation = process by which air flows in and out of the lungs Partial pressures = process by which air flows b/c of pressure differences between the atmosphere and the gases inside the lungs Surface area = structure of lung maximizes its surface area to increase gas diffusion Perfusion = flow of blood to alveolar capillaries for diffusion of gases Primary vs secondary transfer O2 and CO2 in blood Oxygen o A small amount is carried in the plasma as a dissolved gas o Most transported via the protein hemoglobin in RBCs H2O + CO2 H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- Carbon dioxide o A small amount is carried in the plasma as a dissolved gas o Some bind to hemoglobin, forming carbaminohemoglobin o Most transported as dissolved bicarbonate ions in plasma Respiratory assistance in serum pH Mechanics of Breathing 1. Inspiration: a. Diaphragm contracts, thoracic cavity expands, pressure decreases, air enters lungs. i. Intrapulmonary volume = increase ii. Atmospheric pressure = same iii. Intrapulmonary pressure = decrease iv. Intrapleural pressure = same (sub-atmospheric) 2. Expiration: a. Diaphragm relaxes, thoracic cavity reduces, pressure increases, air exits. i. Intrapulmonary volume = decrease ii. Atmospheric pressure = same iii. Intrapulmonary pressure = increase iv. Intrapleural pressure = same (sub-atmospheric) Key Laws and Concepts Boyle’s Law: Pressure and volume of gas are inversely proportional (e.g., expanding lungs decreases pressure, drawing air in). o Describes relationship between the pressure and the volume of gas for a mass and temperature ▪ Increasing gas volume – decreasing lung pressure ▪ Decreasing gas volume = increasing lung pressure Increase lung pressure you are essentially exhaling (diaphram relaxes is when you exhale, diaphragm contraction is breathing in – opening it up and going down to force you to breath in) Describe pressures Atmospheric pressure: pressure of air outside of the body Intrapleural pressure: pressure within the pleural cavity (in lungs) Intrapulmonary (alveolar) pressure: pressure inside the alveoli of the lungs (in alveoli of lungs) Pulmonary Ventilation 1. Tidal Volume: the air moved with normal breathing; Normal air exchanged (~500 mL). 2. Vital Capacity: Maximum air exchange (~4600 mL). Test five to know Blood vessels - Left vent pump then released to aorta then capillaries arterials venules back to veins (from left how would process venous return) (recheck answer) - Blood vessels absorbed in respiratory tract would be capillaries (site of gas exchange) - What would affect peripheral resistance = blockage, viscosity of blood thicker blood/plasma that your heart must work extra to pump  - 1st sound heard when listening to blood pressure you hear systolic (contraction of ventricles of them pumping with such force) - What is main purpose of hepatic portal vein = supplies liver with nutrient dense blood to detoxify before returning it heart to get pumped tp brain or lungs - Smooth muscles - What has valves – veins do - How is bp regulated (which part of brain stems would regulate it) = medulla oblogata (VCR) - All arteries directly or indirectly are branched off the aorta (the main trunk) - Know correct direction and pathway of blood blow (e.g. starting at capillaries go to venal then veins) and superior/ inferior vena cava Immunity - Know non-specific immunity vs specific - What plays a role in immunity (cells) (leukocytes – b cells are healthy version antibodies; t cells are cellular mediated attackers) - T cells mature in thymus in mediastinum - Interferon – infers with viruses - Memory cells - IgA, IgG, IgM - Mumps as a child they won't get again because they built up memory cells (as a secondary immune response – active immunity)