Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes PDF

THE HUMAN ORGANISM often examines systems rather TOPIC OUTLINE than regions because a particular 1 ANAT...

THE HUMAN ORGANISM often examines systems rather TOPIC OUTLINE than regions because a particular 1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY function can involve portions of a 2 STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY system in more than one region. 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE Cell physiology examines the processes occurring 4 HOMEOSTASIS in cells 5 TERMINOLOGY AND BODY PLAN Systemic physiology considers the functions of organ systems ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Neurophysiology focuses on the nervous system Cardiovascular deals with the heart and blood DEFINITION OF TERMS physiology vessels Pathology the medical science dealing with TERMS all aspects of disease, with an Anatomy scientific discipline that emphasis on the cause and investigates the body’s structures development of abnormal conditions, as well as the examines the relationship structural and functional changes between the structure of a body resulting from disease. part and its function Developmental studies the structural changes that anatomy occur between conception and STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY adulthood Embryology subspecialty of developmental HUMAN BODY LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION anatomy LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION considers changes from 1 CHEMICAL LEVEL conception to the end of the eighth 2 CELL LEVEL week of development 3 TISSUE LEVEL Cytology examines the structural features 4 ORGAN LEVEL of cells 5 ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL Histology examines tissues, which are 6 ORGANISM LEVEL composed of cells and the materials surrounding them CHEMICAL LEVEL Gross anatomy study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a Ø involves interactions between atoms, which are tiny microscope building blocks of matter. Physiology the scientific investigation of the Ø For example, collagen molecules are ropelike protein processes or functions of living fibers that give skin structural strength and flexibility. things CELL LEVEL to understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli and to Ø Cells are the basic structural and functional units of understand how the body plants and animals. maintains conditions within Ø Molecules combine to form organelles (little organs), a narrow range of values in a which are the small structures inside cells. constantly changing environment. DRGB 1 gg Ø For example, the nucleus is an organelle that contains Ø An organism is any living thing considered as a whole— the cell’s hereditary information, and mitochondria are whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or organelles that manufacture adenosine triphosphate of trillions of cells, such as a human. (ATP) Ø The human organism is a network of organ systems, all Ø Knowledge of these characteristics, as well as their mutually dependent on one another. variations, is essential to understanding anatomy and physiology. MAJOR ORGANS OF THE BODY TISSUE LEVEL Ø A tissue is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. Ø The characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials determine the functions of the tissue. FOUR BASIC TISSUE TYPES ü EPITHELIAL ü CONNECTIVE ü MUSCLE ü NERVOUS ORGAN LEVEL Ø An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions. Ø The urinary bladder, heart, stomach, and lung are examples of organs ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY Ø An organ system is a group of organs that together perform a common function or set of functions and are FUNCTIONS OF ORGAN SYSTEMS therefore viewed as a unit. Ø For example, the urinary system consists of the kidneys, INTEGUMENTARY 1. Provides protection ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra. 2. Regulates temperature 3. Prevents water loss 11 MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS 4. Helps produce vitamin D ü Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat INTEGUMENTARY ü glands SKELETAL ü MUSCULAR SKELETAL 1. Provides protection and support ü NERVOUS 2. Allows body movements ü ENDOCRINE 3. Produces blood cells ü CARDIOVASCUALR 4. Stores minerals and adipose ü LYMPHATIC Consists of bones, associated ü RESPIRATORY cartilages, ligaments, and joints. ü DIGESTIVE ü URINARY MUSCULAR 1. Produces body movements ü REPRODUCTIVE 2. Maintains posture 3. Produces body heat ORGANISM LEVEL Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons. DRGB 2 gg LYMPHATIC 1. Removes foreign substances from URINARY 1. Removes waste products from the the blood and lymph blood 2. Combats disease 2. Regulates blood pH, ion balance, 3. Maintains tissue fluid balance and water balance. 4. Absorbs dietary fats from the Consists of the kidneys, urinary digestive tract. bladder, and ducts that carry urine. Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic FEMALE 1. Produces oocytes organs. REPRODUCTIVE 2. The site of fertilization and fetal development RESPIRATORY 1. Exchanges oxygen and carbon 3. Produces milk for the newborn dioxide between the blood and air 4. Produces hormones that influence 2. Regulates blood pH sexual function and behaviors Consists of the lungs and respiratory Consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, passages. uterus, vagina, mammary glands, and associated structures. DIGESTIVE 1. Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of MALE 1. Produces and transfers sperm cells ü digestion REPRODUCTIVE to the female ü absorption of nutrients 2. Produces hormones that influence ü elimination of wastes sexual functions and behaviors Consists of the mouth, esophagus, Consists of the testes, accessory stomach, intestines, and accessory structures, ducts, and penis. organs. NERVOUS 1. A major regulatory system that detects sensations 2. Controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors. ENDOCRINE 1. A major regulatory system that influences ü metabolism ü growth ü reproduction ü many other functions Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones. CARDIOVASCULAR 1. Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body 2. Plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. DRGB 3 gg CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN LIFE 1 ORGANIZATION 2 METABOLISM 3 RESPONSIVENESS 4 GROWTH 5 DEVELOPMENT 6 REPRODUCTION ORGANIZATION Ø refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to perform specific functions. Ø Living things are highly organized. Ø All organisms are composed of one or more cells. Some cells in turn are composed of highly specialized organelles, which depend on the precise organization of large molecules. Ø Disruption of this organized state can result in loss of functions, or even death. DRGB 4 gg METABOLISM Ø Development usually involves growth, but it also involves differentiation and morphogenesis. Differentiation: Ø refers to all of the chemical reactions taking place in the involves changes in a cell’s structure and function from cells and internal environment of an organism. an immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized Ø It includes an organism’s ability to break down food state. molecules, which the organism uses as a source of Þ For example, following fertilization, immature energy and raw materials to synthesize its own cells differentiate to become specific cell types, molecules. such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These Ø Energy is also used when one part of a molecule moves differentiated cells form tissues and organs relative to another part, changing the shape of the Morphogenesis: the change in shape of tissues, organs, molecule. and the entire organism. Ø Metabolism is necessary for other vital functions, such as responsiveness, growth, development, and REPRODUCTION reproduction. Ø the formation of new cells or new organisms. RESPONSIVENESS Ø Without reproduction of cells, growth and development are not possible. Ø an organism’s ability to sense changes in its external or Ø Without reproduction of organisms, species become internal environment and adjust to those changes. extinct. Ø Responses include actions such as moving toward food or water and moving away from danger or poor environmental conditions. HOMEOSTASIS Ø Organisms can also make adjustments that maintain their internal environment. Ø Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a Ø For example, if the external environment causes the relatively constant environment within the body. body temperature to rise, sweat glands produce sweat, Ø To achieve homeostasis, the body must actively regulate which can lower body temperature down to the normal conditions that are constantly changing. range. Ø As our bodies undergo their everyday processes, we are continuously exposed to new conditions. GROWTH Ø Homeostasis is the maintenance of a variable around an ideal normal value, or set point. The value of the variable Ø refers to an increase in the size or number of cells, which fluctuates around the set point. to establish a normal produces an overall enlargement of all or part of an range of values. organism. Ø For example, a muscle enlarged by exercise is composed of larger muscle cells than those of an untrained muscle, and the skin of an adult has more cells than the skin of an infant. Ø An increase in the materials surrounding cells can also contribute to growth. Ø For instance, bone grows because of an increase in cell number and the deposition of mineralized materials around the cells DEVELOPMENT TYPES OF FEEDBACK MECHANISMS Ø includes the changes an organism undergoes through FEEDBACK MECHANISMS time, beginning with fertilization and ending at death. Ø The greatest developmental changes occur before birth, NEGATIVE FEEDBACK POSITIVE FEEDBACK but many changes continue after birth, and some go on throughout life. the response to the original occur when a response to the stimulus results in deviation original stimulus results in the DRGB 5 gg from the set point, becoming deviation from the set point smaller becoming even greater 3 COMPONENTS: At times, this type of response 1. receptor - monitors the is required to re-achieve value of a variable such as homeostasis body temperature 2. control center - such as part of the brain, establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained through communication with the receptors and effectors 3. effector - such as sweat glands, which can adjust the value of the variable, usually back toward the set point. Ex: Maintaining normal Ex: Blood Loss body temperature a chemical responsible for if the body is exposed to blood clot formation, called extreme heat, the shape of thrombin, stimulates the molecules in the body production of even more could change, which would thrombin. In this way, a eventually prevent them disruption in homeostasis is from functioning normally resolved through a positive- feedback mechanism 2 PRINCIPLES TO REMEMBER 1 Many disease states result from the failure of negative- feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis 2 Some positive-feedback mechanisms can be detrimental instead of helpful DRGB 6 gg TERMINOLOGY AND BODY PLAN Ø the chest is always described as being “above” (superior to) the stomach, whether the person is lying down or is DEFINITION OF TERMS even upside down. TERMS foramen Latin word for “hole” magnum Latin word for “large” foramen magnum a large hole in the skull through which the spinal cord attaches to the brain -itis means an inflammation appendicitis inflammation of the appendix BODY POSITION ANATOMICAL POSITION ü standing position, whereby the person looks forward. ü arms are by the side DIRECTIONAL TERMS ü with the palms facing forward ü the fingers extended Ø Directional terms describe parts of the body relative to ü with the thumbs pointing away from the body each other ü the feet are spaced slightly apart Ø they are usually grouped in pairs of opposites. ü the toes pointing forward TERMS superior (cephalic) up, toward the head inferior (caudal) down, toward the tail anterior that which goes before ventral belly (front) posterior that which follows dorsal back proximal nearest distal distant medial toward the midline lateral away from the midline superficial a structure close to the surface of the body deep toward the interior of the body planes imaginary flat surfaces TERMS supine when lying, face upward prone when lying, face downward Ø The position of the body can affect the description of body parts relative to each other. In the anatomical position, the elbow is above the hand but, in the supine or prone position, the elbow and hand are at the same level DRGB 7 gg DIRECTIONAL TERMS the chest is superior to the 1 Superior (cranial) and inferior (caudal) hips 2 Anterior (ventral) and Posterior (dorsal) 3 Distal and proximal 4 Superficial and deep ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR 5 Medial, lateral, and intermediate Ø relate to the front or back of the body or structure, relative to another structure. SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR Ø refer to the relative position toward or away from the head ANTERIOR VS POSTERIOR SUPERIOR VS INFERIOR ANTERIOR POSTERIOR SUPERIOR INFERIOR ventral (belly) dorsal cranial/cephalic caudal front of back of toward the head end of the away from the head in the front behind/on the back body the abdominal muscles are on “posterior” is another word higher/above lower/under/below the anterior side of the body for your rear end, which is on your backside. head of a company is your an inferior product has a superior at work. He or she “lower” quality of material examples: examples: holds a “higher” position than compared to something else the sternum is anterior to the the spine is posterior to the you do. They are above you in spine abdominal muscles authority. the abdominal muscles are the heart is posterior to the anterior to the intestines pectoral or chest muscles examples: examples: the eyes is superior to the the hips is inferior to the chest nose the chest is inferior to the the nose is superior to the neck PROXIMAL AND DISTAL mouth the neck is inferior to the the mouth is superior to the mouth Ø relate to the attachment point or origin of a structure neck the mouth is inferior to the to your body, such as your arms and legs attaching to the neck is superior to the nose your trunk chest the nose is inferior to the eyes DRGB 8 gg SUPERFICIAL VS DEEP SUPERFICIAL DEEP external internal nearest to the surface (or √away from the outside of outside) of the body the body if a person is superficial, it A deep wound is going to means they only care about penetrate far below the the outside appearances surface of the skin! (what’s on the surface) examples: examples: The skin is superficial to the The liver is deep to the rib PROXIMAL VS DISTAL liver. cage. PROXIMAL DISTAL The skin is superficial to the The muscles are deep to the kidneys. skin closest to or nearest away from or farthest from MEDIAL. LATERAL, INTERMEDIATE nearest the point of origin of a farthest from the attachment structure, such as your limb in point of the structure (hip for Ø refer to a structure’s location relative to the midline of relation to your trunk legs or shoulders for arms) the body. “approximately” means “close literally “go the distance” to” the insertion point on the with distal trunk. examples: examples: the femur bone in your upper the pistol is distal to your leg would be proximal to your upper arm. ankle bones (tarsals). the fingers (phalanges) would be distal to your wrist bones (carpals). SUPERFICIAL & DEEP Ø refers to the position of a structure relative to the body’s surface LATERAL, MEDIAL, INTERMEDIATE MEDIAL LATERAL INTERMEDIATE toward the midline away from the “between” two of the body body’s midline structures “middle” “away” “between” - lateral raises, in - which you raise your arms away DRGB 9 gg from the body’s midline examples: examples: examples: Your sternum is Your deltoid Your knee is medial to your (shoulder intermediate humerus muscle) is between your lateral to your ankles and hip. pectoral (chest) muscles. BODY PARTS BODY REGIONS Ø The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into quadrants by two imaginary lines—one horizontal and one vertical— that intersect at the navel. 4 QUADRANTS 1 right-upper quadrant 2 left-upper quadrant 3 right-lower quadrant 4 left-lower quadrant Ø In addition to these quadrants, the abdomen is BODY PARTS sometimes subdivided into regions by four imaginary CENTRAL REGION head, neck, trunk lines: two horizontal and two vertical. TRUNK thorax, abdomen, pelvis Ø These four lines create a "virtual" tic-tac-toe grid on UPPER LIMB arm, forearm, wrist, hand the abdomen, resulting in nine regions LOWER LIMB thigh, leg, ankle, foot 9 REGIONS TRUNK TERMS 1 epigastric region thorax the chest cavity where the heart and lungs 2 right and left hypochondriac region are located 3 umbilical region abdomen contains organs such as the liver, stomach, 4 right and left lumbar region and intestines 5 hypogastric region pelvis contains the bladder and reproductive 6 right and left iliac region organs UPPER LIMB TERMS arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist LOWER LIMB TERMS thigh extends from the hip to the knee leg extends from the knee to the ankle arm & leg refer to only a part of the limb DRGB 10 gg BODY PLANES Ø A plane divides, or sections, the body, making it possible to “look inside” and observe the body’s structures TYPES OF PLANES SAGITTAL PLANE divides the body into right and left parts MEDIAN PLANE divides the body into equal right and left halves TRANSVERSE divides the body into superior (HORIZONTAL) PLANE and inferior portions FRONTAL (CORONAL) divides the body into anterior and PLANE posterior parts BODY CAVITIES SECTIONS OF AN ORGAN LONGITUDINAL divides it along the length of the 3 MAIN TYPES OF CAVITIES SECTION organ TRANSVERSE (CROSS) cuts at a right angle to the length of THORACIC CAVITY the rib cage surrounds the thoracic SECTION the organ cavity, and the muscular diaphragm OBLIQUE SECTION cuts across the length of an organ at separates it from the abdominal an angle other than a right angle cavity ABDOMINAL CAVITY enclosed by abdominal muscles contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys PELVIC CAVITY surrounded by pelvic bones where the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs are housed CAVITIES MEDIASTINUM divides the thoracic cavity contains the heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus, and other structures, such as blood vessels and nerves The two lungs are located on each side of the mediastinum ABDOMINOPELVIC The abdominal and pelvic cavities CAVITY are not physically separated and sometimes called as this DRGB 11 gg visceral covers many organs of the peritoneum abdominopelvic cavity parietal lines the wall of the abdominopelvic peritoneum cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm mesenteries anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs consist of two layers of peritoneum fused together. They connect the visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to the parietal peritoneum on the SEROUS MEMBRANES body wall. Ø Serous membranes line the trunk cavities and cover the The mesenteries also connect certain organs within these cavities organs’ visceral peritoneum to the visceral peritoneum of other SEROUS MEMBRANES abdominopelvic organs. parietal found against the outer wall of a body membranes cavity TERMS visceral found covering the organs in a body Pericarditis inflammation of the pericardium membranes cavity Pleurisy inflammation of the pleura Peritonitis inflammation of the peritoneum THORACIC CAVITY SEROUS MEMBRANE-LINED CAVITIES pericardial cavity a cavity that surrounds the heart located between the visceral pericardium and the parietal pericardium pleural cavities two lung cavities that surrounds the lungs located between the visceral pleura and parietal pleura SEROUS MEMBRANES visceral covers the heart pericardium parietal outer wall of the pericardial cavity pericardium ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY SEROUS MEMBRANE-LINED CAVITIES peritoneal cavity a cavity that surrounds the abdominopelvic cavity located between the visceral peritoneum and the parietal peritoneum and contains peritoneal fluid SEROUS MEMBRANES DRGB 12 gg Choose the correct order for these organizational levels, from simplest to most complex. a. 1,2,3,6,4,5 b. 2,1,6,3,4,5 c. 3,1,6,4,5,2 d. 4,6,1,3,5,2 e. 1,6,5,3,4,2 Q3-7: match each organ system with one of the following functions. a. regulates other organ systems b. removes waste products from the blood; maintains water balance c. regulates temperature; reduces water loss; provides protection d. removes foreign substances from the blood; combats disease; maintains tissue fluid balance e. produces movement; maintains posture; produces body heat 3. Lymphatic system - D 4. Integumentary system - C 5. Muscular system - E 6. Nervous system - A 7. Urinary system - B Q8: The characteristic of life that is defined as “all the chemical reactions taking place in an organism” is QUESTIONS a. development REVIEW AND COMPREHENSION b. growth c. metabolism Q1 : Physiology d. organization a. deals with the processes or functions of living e. responsiveness things. b. is the scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structures. Q9: The characteristic of life that is defined as “all the c. is concerned with organisms and does not deal with chemical reactions taking place in an organism” is levels of organization, such as cells and systems. d. recognizes the static (as opposed to the dynamic) a. development nature of living things. b. growth e. can be used to study the human body without c. metabolism considering anatomy d. organization e. responsiveness Q2 : The following are organizational levels for considering the body. (1) cell (2) chemical (3) organ (4) organ system (5) organism (6) tissue DRGB 13