Anaphy Finals PDF

ANAPHY FINALS Module 5 : Endocrine System (BOOK COVERAGE) 2nd control system of the body release chemicals called hormones that regulate complex body processes. hormones released by endocrine glands travel through the blood and alter the activity of target cells. regulates c...

ANAPHY FINALS Module 5 : Endocrine System (BOOK COVERAGE) 2nd control system of the body release chemicals called hormones that regulate complex body processes. hormones released by endocrine glands travel through the blood and alter the activity of target cells. regulates complex processes such as growth and development, metabolism, and reproduction ? Cells have Dynamic adventures on the microscopic level all the time. For instance, when insulin molecules leave the blood and bind tightly to protein receptors on nearby cells, the response is dramatic: bloodborne glucose molecules begin to enter the cells, and cellular activity accelerates. Along with the nervous system, it coordinates and directs the activity if the body’s cells. !! REMINDER Hormones built for speed Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine cells uses nerve impulses to prod the muscles and glands into into the extracellular fluids that regulate the metabolic activity immediate action so that rapid adjustments can be made in of other cells in the body. response to changes occurring both inside and outside the body. Body produces many different hormones, nearly all of them can acts more slowly by using chemical messengers called hormones be classified chemically as their amino acid-based molecules which are released into the blood to be transported throughout (including proteins, peptides, and amines) or steroids. the body. hormones have widespread effects, the major processes they Steroid Hormones (made from cholesterol) include the sex control are reproduction’s growth and development; mobilizing hormones made by the gonads (ovaries and testes) and the body defenses against stressors; maintaining electrolyte, water hormones produced by the adrenal cortex. All other hormones are and nutrient balance of the blood; and regulating metabolism and nonsteroidal amino acid derivatives. If we also consider the energy balance. hormones that act locally, called prostaglandins. I. What is Endocrine System? Hormone Action network of chemical communication among cells in humans. Hormones circulate to all the organs of the body via blood, a given this body system functions to maintain homeostasis, that is, a hormone affects only certain tissue cells or organs, referred to as constancy of the internal environment of an organism. its target cells or target organs. The most common relationship between a hormone and its target is one of negative feedback. The term hormone comes from a greek word meaning “to arouse”. The negative feedback mechanism is a response to the hormonal They “arouse”, or bring about their effects on, the body’s cells stimulus turns off the original stimulus. primarily altering cellular activity that is, by increasing or decreasing the rate of a normal, or usual, metabolic process rather II. Functions of the Endocrine System than by stimulating performance of a new one. Water equilibrium: by regulating the solute concentration of the blood (concentration of solutes) Hormones can? Growth, metabolism, and tissue maturation Heart rate and blood pressure management Change plasma membrane permeability or membrane potential Immune system control (electrical state) by opening or closing ion channels Reproductive function controls Activate or inactive channels Uterine contractions and milk release Stimulate or inhibit cell division Ion management: regulates Na+, K+, and Ca2+ concentrations Blood glucose regulator Promote or inhibit secretion of a product Direct gene activation Turn on or turn off transcription of certain genes (such as those Second messenger system encoding proteins or regulatory molecules) !! gland —> hormone —> pituitary gland —> oxytocin —> uterus Oxytocin (Receptors find in the 2nd messenger and they are not hormones they just received and they are inside the cells.)  ANAPHY FINALS 2nd-Messenger System Pituitary gland Steroid hormones can influence cell activity either by direct gene a round organ about the size of a pea located behind the bridge activation or by the indirect pathway of activating a second messenger, of the nose at the base of the brain protein and peptide hormones, however they are not water-soluble and Secretes 9 different hormones, which affect many different are unable to enter target cells directly. areas of the body, including: They bind to hormone receptors situated on the target cell’s plasma Growth membrane and use a second messenger Blood pressure Regulation of Pregnancy In these cases, the hormone (first messenger) blinds to the receptors Breast milk production protein on the membrane, and the activated receptor sets off a series of Sex organ functions in both men and women Thyroid gland reactions (a cascade) that activities an enzyme. The enzyme, in turn, catalyzes reactions that produce second messenger molecules. function Metabolism III. Types of Hormones Water regulation in the body (kidneys) Peptide Hormones are hydrophilic and lipophobic (fat-hating) – Temperature regulation meaning they cannot freely cross the plasma membrane - Ex: insulin and glucagon, ADH and Oxytocin !! REMINDERS Steroid hormones are lipophilic (fat-loving) – meaning they can freely more water more urine and increase BP. (more pee less pee) diffuse across the plasma membrane of a cell. more growth hormone less fat accusation in the body - Ex: estrogen, progesterone and testosterone secondary sexual characteristics are the characteristics are not Amine hormones are derived from the amino acid tyrosine and include directly in the systems. enlargement of hips and female and adrenaline, thyroxine and triiodothyronine. broaden of this shoulders of male experiencing in puberty) - They share their mechanism of action with both steroid as well as peptide hormones. Growth Hormone Oversecretion of growth hormone: Endocrine glands: - Gigantism in childhood and acromegaly in adults (bones of Glands that secrete chemical products called hormones directly into the face, hands and feet enlarge) bloodstream travelling to distant sites or targets, where they cause specific physiological responses. Under secretion of growth hormone: Dwarfism in childhood They are ductless glands releasing secretions directly into the bloodstream. Important endocrine glands are the pituitary gland, Thyroid gland thyroid gland, adrenal gland, and gonads (ovaries and testes). Located in the neck Release hormones directly into the bloodstream Releases hormone thyroxine Blood transports hormones throughout the body Function is to regulate rates of metabolism in the body Each hormone acts on only a certain kind of tissue called its target - Essential for normal physical and mental development tissue Oversecretion of thyroxine: Pancreas - Results in nervousness and weight loss Undersecretion of thyroxine: Exocrine glands - Results in cretinism (mental retardation, small size) in children release their secretions into ducts, or tubes Iodine deficiency in your diet results in goiter (enlargement of - Liver - Bile released into the gallbladder, then through a duct thyroid gland) into the small intestine - Pancreas (exo function) - releases pancreatic juice into the small intestine via a duct  ANAPHY FINALS Parathyroid Catecholamines: in response to danger or stress Function is to control calcium, phosphorus and magnesium in the epinephrine (adrenaline) norepinephrine (noradrenaline) bones and blood liver and skeletal muscle cells to convert glycogen into glucose Necessary for normal nerve and muscle function, blood clotting, heart rate, pulse, and blood pressure healthy bones and teeth dilate airways, vasodilation to important organs Located in back of thyroid gland (in neck) Hormone released is vasoconstriction to less essential organs parathyroid hormone Under secretion of adrenaline results in the inability to deal Under Secretion of parathormone results in nerve disorders, brittle with stress bones and clotting problems GENERAL ADAPTION SYNDROME (GAS) Parathyroid hormone Stage 1: alarm reaction Release of calcium by bones into the bloodstream fight-or-flight response, mediated by the epinephrine and Absorption of calcium from food by the intestines norepinephrine: to prepare the body for extreme physical Conservation of calcium by the kidneys exertion Once this stress is relieved, the body quickly returns to normal Adrenal Glands (Kidney Hats) Located at the top of each kidney Stage 2: stage of resistance If the stress is not soon relieved Hormones of adrenal cortex: Zona Glomerulosa example: starvation = the body may send signals to the Mineralocorticoids gastrointestinal tract to maximize the absorption of nutrients Aldosterone: water and electrolyte balance (regulates from food. concentrations of sodium and potassium ions) *Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) - prevents aldosterone release Stage 3: stage of exhaustion If the stress continues for a longer term Mineralocorticoids depression, suppression of immune response, severe fatigue, or Corticosterone: helps regulate the conversion of amino acids into even a fatal heart attack carbohydrates and glycogen by the liver Islet of Langerhans Glucocorticoids The alpha cell produces glucagon (when blood glucose is LOW) promote normal cell metabolism and help the body to resist long- The beta cell produces insulin (when blood glucose is HIGH) term stressors / hyperglycemic hormone (Increases the blood The delta cell produces peptide hormone somatostatin (inhibits vessels of glucose) the release of both glucagon and insulin) inhibit prostaglandins = less pain & inflammation PP cell produces pancreatic polypeptide hormone (modulate cortisone and cortisol: Increase blood glucose levels digestion of food) !! Glucagon —> Glucose —> glucone Sex hormones androgens (male sex hormones) Diabetes-Type 1 estrogens (female sex hormones) Usually found in children and young adults; the body doesn’t During puberty and most of adulthood, androgens are produced in make enough insulin the gonads and sex drive menopausal women: source of estrogen since ovary function declines  ANAPHY FINALS Symptoms: Ovaries: Estrogen Frequent urination estrone: continues to be made after menopause when periods Unusual thirst stop Extreme hunger estradiol: main female hormone throughout life Unusual weight loss estriol: increases during pregnancy Extreme fatigue and Irritability Diabetes - Type 2 Either the body doesn’t produce enough insulin, or the cells ignore it If you consume too much sugar over a long period of time, your body has to release large amounts of insulin. This can result in your Placenta cells building up a tolerance for insulin, which means they won’t be human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) *promotes affected by it progesterone synthesis and reduces the mother’s immune function to protect the fetus from immune rejection Symptoms: human placental lactogen (hPL) *preparing the breasts for Any of the type 1 symptoms lactation Frequent infections relaxin: causes the relaxation of pelvic ligaments and softening Blurred vision of the cervix at the end of pregnancy (bone to bone is Cuts/bruises that are slow to heal Tingling/numbness in the hands/ ligaments) feet Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections The Pineal Gland pinealocyte cells that make up the pineal gland Hormone: MELATONIN secretion varies according to the level of light received from the environment; may influence the body’s circadian rhythms 1. light stimulate the retinas of the eyes 2. erve impulse - suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) 3. SCN to the spinal cord to the pineal gland Gonads male testes female ovaries Testes: Testosterone maturation of sperm cells in the female ovaries (+) but at a much reduced level *testes also produce the peptide hormone inhibin, which inhibits the secretion of FSH from the anterior pituitary gland  ANAPHY FINALS Module 5: Cardiovascular System Heart Wall I. What is Cardiovascular System? 3 layers called circulatory system Pericardium (tunica adventitia) is made up of 2 sacs: the outer consists of the heart, blooded vessels and closely assoc, lymphatic sac consists of fibrous tissue system the myocardium (tunica media) is the muscle layer and heart: pumping action ensures constant circulation of the blood responsible for heart contractility blood vessels: form a lengthy network through which the blood the endocardium (tunica intima) this lines the chamber and flows valves of the heart; permits smooth of the blood inside the the lymphatic system is closely connected , both structurally heart. Functions: The 4 Valves of Heart blood vessels dilates (vasodilation) Mirral Value - Separates the left armium from the left ventricle blood vessel constricts (vasocontriction) Aortic Value - Separates the left ventricle from the aorta epidermis heat conservation Tricuspid Value - Right atrium into the right ventricle epidermis increased heat loss Pulmonary Valve - Separating the right ventricle and the When the heart pumps blood through the arteries, the blood puts pulmonary artery. pressure on the artery walls. This is known as blood pressure. ***Chordae tendineae: strong, fibrous connections between the Heart valve leaflets and the papillary muscles (makes the bulb stronger). its weight is about 250-300 grams Situated in the middle of the mediastinum behind the breastbone in the chest (located in the chest between the lungs behind the sternum and above the diagram) In the average lifetime in the heart beats (250 million times and pumps 340 million liters of blood) The heart is a sophisticated pump that is controlled by an electrical current that is initiated in the brain  ANAPHY FINALS Blood Vessels 3 Methods of Circulation Arteries: distribute oxygen-rich blood to your body. Coronary Circulation Arterioles: a small branch of an artery leading into capillaries; Pulmonary Circulation feed the capillary beds in the tissues. Systematic Circulation Capillaries: smallest and most numerous of the blood vessels, form the connection between arteries and veins. CORONARY CIRCULATION An important and essential part of the human body’s systematic Veins: collect oxygen-poor blood and return it to the heart. circulatory pathway Venules: smallest veins and receive blood from capillaries The coronary arteries are located on the outside of the heart Without them, the heart tissue would not receive blood, Control of blood vessel diameter nutrients or oxygen. Vasoconstriction when nervous activity is increased, the smooth muscle of Aorta tunica media contracts and thickens. largest artery in the body decreased nerves stimulation relaxes the smooth muscle an inch wide in diameter thinning the vessel wall and enlarging the lumen = Vasodilation. receives the cardiac output from the left ventricle and supplies the body with oxygenated blood via the systematic circulation. II. Conducting system of the heart small group of specialized neuromuscular cells in myocardium Parts of the Aorta initiate and conduct impulses, causing coordinated and 1. ASCENDING synchronized contraction of the heart muscle. 2. AORTIC ARCH Purkinje fibers 3. DESCENDING - THORACIC - specialized conducting fibers composed of electrically 4. ABDOMINAL excitable cells, - allow the heart’s conduction system to create and synchronized and contractions of its ventricles - essential for maintaining a consistent heart rhythm SA Node / Sinoatrial Node / Superior Node acts as the normal pacemaker of the heart it initiates an action potential that result in an electrical impulse traveling through the hearts’s electrical conduction system to cause myocardial contraction Ascending Aorta Atrioventricular node (AV NODE) arises from the aortic orifice from the left ventricle and ascends situated in the wall of atrial septum near the atrioventricular to become the aortic arch. valve conducts the impulse that arrive from SA node, passes it Aortic Arch through AV Bundle (bundle of his) and purkinje fibers which in continuation of the ascending aorta turn convey the impulse to the ventricle. ends at the level of the T4 vertebra  ANAPHY FINALS 1. Brachiocephalic trunk: 1st and largest branch that ascends laterally to split into the right common carotid and right subclavian arteries supplying the right side of the head and neck, and the right upper limb 2. Left common carotid artery: Supplies the left side of the head and neck 3. Left subclavian artery: Supplies the left upper limb descending aorta spans from the level T4 to T12 leaves the thorax via the aortic hiatus in the diagram, and becomes the abdominal aorta Thoracic Aorta Cardiac Cycle descending aorta Period from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of spans from the level of T4 to T12 the next leaves the thorax via the aortic hiatus in the diaphragm, and Electrical and mechanical events must occur in the proper becomes the abdominal aorta sequence and to the proper degree to provide adequate blood flow to all the body parts Branches 1. Bronchial arteries: supply bronchial and peribronchial tissue and Has (2) two phases: visceral pleura Systole-the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle 2. Mediastinal arteries: supply the lymph glands and loose areolar contracts and pumps blood from the chambers into the arteries tissue in the posterior mediastinum Diastole-the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle 3. Esophageal arteries: supply the esophagus relaxes and allows the chambers to fill with blood 4. Pericardial arteries: supply the dorsal portion of the pericardium 5. Superior phrenic arteries: Paired parietal branches that supply the Stroke volume: volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of superior portion of the diaphragm the heart during each systolic cardiac contraction 6. Intercostal and subcostal arteries: 9 pairs of intercostal arteries depends on (3) three major factors: supply the intercostal spaces, with the exception of the first and second (they are supplied by a branch from the subclavian artery) ✔ Preload- stretching of muscle fibers in the ventricles The subcostal arteries supply the flat abdominal wall muscles ✔ Contractility - inherent ability of the myocardium to contract Abdominal Aorta normally. This is influenced by preload. The greater the stretch the continuation of the thoracic aorta beginning at the level of the T12 more forceful the contraction. vertebrae approximately 13 cm long and ends at the level of the L4 vertebra ✔ Afterload-refers to the pressure that the ventricular muscles At this level, the aorta terminates by bifurcating into the right and must generate to overcome the higher pressure in the aorta to get left common iliac arteries that supply the lower body theblood out of the heart.