American Literature 2 Notes PDF

Table of Contents []{#anchor}[]{#anchor-1}[]{#anchor-2}[]{#anchor-3}[]{#anchor-4}Poetry of Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Walt Whitman: "Song of Myself" (p. 2048 -- 2050; 2053 -- 2054; 2062;...

Table of Contents []{#anchor}[]{#anchor-1}[]{#anchor-2}[]{#anchor-3}[]{#anchor-4}Poetry of Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Walt Whitman: "Song of Myself" (p. 2048 -- 2050; 2053 -- 2054; 2062; 2088; 2090) Emily Dickinson: "Success is Counted Sweetest" (p. 2443) Walt Whitman: "Song of Myself" (p. 2048 -- 2050; 2053 -- 2054; 2062; 2088; 2090) Historical background Walt Whitman (1819 -- 1892) - one of the most important American writers - liked colloquial speech, wanted to use spontaneous and natural speech - wrote short fiction from 1841 -- 48, themes and techniques borrowed from Poe and Hawthorne - published his famous poetry Leaves of Grass - he did not become famous; he published his work, and, on the cover, there was no name - By 1890s - many editions of the book, he edited more and more parts until the final version - Free verse - using, but not the inventor - flowing energy of the city, changing, people, Brooklyn, smells, visions, colours, - all used to express the sensibility of America and changing cultures - Experiences with nature and the French language later appear in his poetry 'Pulp Fiction\' - 'popular, kind of a trash\' - Franklin Evans - 1842 - Temperance novel - men were drinking a lot, and did not take care of the family, women have created temperance unions, and associations so they could talk about the problems in the family - drinking, gambling, and its negative effects on the family matters - Sold 20,000 copies, more than any other work Whitman published in his lifetime - He was not successful with poetry but successful with novel ***Influences: Literature and Music*** - Italian opera 'Were it not for the opera, I could never have written Leaves of Grass" - Shakespeare, Richard III. Especially, the Bible - Thomas Carlyle's Sartor Resartus - Whitman loved the bel canto style of opera.  Bel canto consists of long passages of simple melody alternating with outbursts of elaborate vocal scrollwork, which turns the voice into a complex wind instrument.  The desired effect was to heighten the dramatic meaning and significance of the words through attention to pitch, dynamics, melody, and rhythm.  This highly emotional and intense use of the human voice was in Whitman's view the highest form of art 1841 Emerson - "The Over-Soul" - Emmerson´s essay "The Over-Soul" (1841), central to the transcendentalist movement, significant influence on Whitman - Whitman inspired by Emmerson´s ideas about the "Over-Soul" (the unity of all existence, the divine presence of nature and humanity) - Major influence on Whitman´s poetry -- celebration of individuality and the interconnection of life and humanity 1844 - "Nature" - Emmerson´s essay "Nature" (1836), relevant to transcendentalism, helped establish the view that nature is a divine force and source of ultimate spiritual truth - Influenced Whitman´s poetry - nature as a metaphor for the self and the human experience 1846-48 - Mexican--American War - Significant influence on Whitman´s life, the war and its results affected him deeply - Influenced his later works -- they reflect his feelings about war (Civil War, Mexican-American War,...) 1861-65 - Civil War (Lincoln, 13th Amendment, 14th (1868) and 15th Amendment (1870) - A major event during Whitman´s life, he didn´t fight in the war, but his brother did - Influenced his work, for e.g. his work Drum-Taps -- addresses the horrors of war & its effect on the soldiers and the nation Lincoln - President during the Civil War -- an important figure in Whitman´s poetry - Whitman had an admiration for Lincoln -- saw each other often, but never met face to face - wrote several poems in his honour, e.g. O Captain! My Captain! (after Lincoln´s assassination) - He viewed Lincoln as a symbol of unity and democracy **13**^**th**^ **Amendment (1865)** - Abolishment of slavery in the US, Whitman was a strong advocate for the abolition and in support of the amendment - His poetry reflects his (progressive) views about freedom and equality **14**^**th**^ **Amendment (1868) and 15**^**th**^ **Amendment (1870)** - Crucial in the post-Civil war era - 14^th^ amendment -- granted citizenship to all persons "born or naturalized in the US", provided all citizens with "equal protection under the laws" - 15^th^ amendment -- grants the right to vote to all male citizens regardless of ethnicity, race, or prior slave status ***Preface to** **Leaves of Grass (Key ideas, core themes, and philosophies)*** **American Exceptionalism** "The United States themselves are essentially the greatest poem." - Whitman argued that the US itself is, in a unique way, significant in the world - The country´s ideals, people, nature, etc. itself are poetic, a reflection of the grandness of the human spirit/soul **Democratic ideals** "The genius of the United States is not best or most in its executives or legislators, nor in its ambassadors or authors or colleges or churches or parlors, nor even in its newspapers or inventors \... but always most in the common people." - Whitman emphasized/believed that the true strength of the US lies in the strength of the common people -- reflects his democratic ideals that every person (individual) plays a crucial role in how the nation functions **Body and Soul** "The soul is not more than the body, and the body is not more than the soul." - A blur of the traditional ideas between the body and the soul, as it establishes that both are equally important, one isn´t over the other - A celebration of the physical body as an integral part of identity, viewed as part of the spiritual and intellectual self, and not separate from it **Optimism, future, and generosity** "This is what you shall do: Love the earth and sun and the animals, despise riches, give alms to every one that asks, stand up for the stupid and crazy, devote your income and labor to others, hate tyrants, argue not concerning God, have patience and indulgence toward the people, ---go freely with powerful uneducated persons, and with the young, and with the mothers of families---re-examine all you have been told in school or church or in any book, and dismiss whatever insults your own soul; and your very flesh shall be a great poem\.... "The poet shall not spend his time in unneeded work. He shall know that the ground is already plough\'d and manured; others may not know it, but he shall. He shall go directly to the creation\.... The known universe has one complete lover, and that is the greatest poet." - The Preface of Leaves of Grass reflects the optimistic vision that Whitman had of humanity, he encouraged an openhearted approach to life, and that people should show kindness to all over material values - His idealism is very much connected to his vision of democracy - Whitman advocated for a radical re-examination of the values of his current society, urging the people to trust their own souls over what they´ve been told to do -- encouraging personal growth and individual freedom Leaves of Grass - 12 poems - Song of Myself, I Sing the Body Electric, The Sleepers - Only 795 copies published -- printed - Family tradition says that Whitman set some of the type for this edition. ***Themes*** - Transcendent power of love, brotherhood, comradeship, - Imaginative projection into other's lives - Optimistic faith in democracy and equality - Belief in regenerative and illustrative powers of nature and its value as a teacher - Equivalence of body and soul and the unabashed exaltation of the body and sexuality Poetic techniques \- Free verse - lack of metrical regularity, conventional rhyme \- Use of repeated images, symbols, phrases, and grammatical rules \- Use of enumerations ( and catalogs \- Use of anaphora - initial repetition in lines and contrast and parallelism in paired lines Use of Language - words used for their sounds as much as their sense, foreign language - Use of the language from several disciplines - The science: anatomy, astronomy, botany, flora fauna of America - Business, professions, carpentry, - Military and war terms, nautical terms Early editions of Leaves of Grass 1855 - self-published the first edition 1856 - added new poems and revised the old ones 1860 - began grouping poems thematically,; including "A Child's Reminiscence," which would become "Out of the Cradle, Endlessly Rocking" 1867 Incorporates *Drum-Taps* (1865), including "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" and "O Captain, My Captain" Later Editions of Leaves of Grass - 1872 Includes 120-page "annex," *A Passage to India* - 1881-1882 The firm of James R. Osgood discontinues publishing *Leaves of Grass* after it is banned in Boston; Whitman takes the copies and binds and sells them himself. - 1888-1889 *Leaves of Grass* (Birthday Edition) is the first pocket-sized version. - 1891-92 "Deathbed Edition" - 1891 edition includes *Good-Bye, My Fancy a*utobiographical prose reminiscences with poetry. **Style, tone and themes** *"Unpoetic?"* -- as his style often defies what "traditional poetry" should be, in terms of the form and content, his poetry can seem "unpoetic" because it opts for a style that is more spontaneous and grounded *Free verse (in verse paragraphs)* -- allowed Whitman to write more organically and expressively, they mirror the natural rhythm of a person´s though and speech *Incantantory diction* -- his choice of language had an oftentimes "chant-like" quality, very rhythmic, a repetition of words and phases used for emphasis and effect *Prophetic status* -- Whitman often presented himself as a "prophet" or "visionary" about "universal truths" -- E.g., in "Song of Myself" he claimed to be a vessel for a collective voice (the voiceless, the oppressed, etc.) *Sexual freedom and tolerance --* Whitman embraced the themes of sexuality openly, which itself was revolutionary (as a part of the natural, the physical, and also as a source of connection) *Transcendentalism --* Whitman influenced by transcendentalism, especially ideas about unity of all life, sacredness of nature, individual self, and spiritual transcendence Persona - Whitman´s "kosmos" identity (the larger-than-life persona he presented) symbolizes his connection to humanity, the world, and his personal identity in terms of the interconnectedness of life Walt Whitman, a kosmos, of Manhattan the son,\ Turbulent, fleshy, sensual, eating, drinking and breeding,\ No sentimentalist, no stander above men and women or apart from them,\ No more modest than immodest. Whoever degrades another degrades me, Voices - Whitman channels marginalized voices, expressing their struggles and desires - He finds spiritual satisfaction in the tangible beauty of nature (reflects the transcendentalist beliefs) And whatever is done or said returns at last to me. Through me many long dumb voices,\ Voices of the interminable generations of prisoners and slaves, Voices of sexes and lusts, voices veil'd and I remove the veil, A morning-glory at my window satisfies me more than the metaphysics of books. ***Whitman** versus **Emerson*** "I find it \[Leaves of Grass\] the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed." - Statement reflects Emmerson´s deep admiration for Whitman´s Leaves of Grass, as according to Emmerson, Whitman managed to capture a distinctive, never before expressed, American voice "the American poem." - The statement suggests that Leaves of Grass embodies the "essence of American poetry", as Emmerson, a key figure of the transcendentalist movement, believed that Leaves of Grass embodied all the ideals of transcendentalism "that wonderful book---with all its formlessness & faults." - While Emmerson admired Whitman´s work, he was also aware of its faults, especially in due to the free verse form utilized ***Whitman** versus **Thoreau*** "I greet you at the beginning of a great career." - Thoreau was one of Whitman´s contemporaries, and fellow transcendentalist - He saw Whitman´s potential, and acknowledged that his work was the beginning of something great and transformative for American literature **Democratic Vistas** "Of all dangers to a nation, as things exist in our day, there can be no greater one than having certain portions of the people set off from the rest by a line drawn---they not privileged as others, but degraded, humiliated, made of no account. \... That is the lesson we, these days, send over to European lands by every western breeze." []{#anchor-5}[]{#anchor-6}[]{#anchor-7}[]{#anchor-8}[]{#anchor-9}***Imagism and Modernism in American Poetry** * ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (E. Pound, R. Frost, Hilda Doolittle, Amy Lowell, Wallace Stevens, W.C.Williams, Hart Crane, e.e.cummings, Marianne Moore) Imagism (broadly called modernism) - A modernist literary movement -- emphasized direct imagery, precision in language, and economy of expression - Different avant-garde movements, different view on art, using different techniques - A movement in poetry, originating in 1912, and represented by Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, W. C. Williams, etc. - Aiming at clarity of expression through the use of precise visual images - In the early period, often written in the French form Imagisme - Against amorphous abstractions, clichéd poetic diction, ornamentation, monotonous regularity of meter (e.g. Victorian poetry) -- influenced by Chinese and Japanese poetry, particularly the haiku form - Poetry should be clear, direct, and should create new moods, rhythms, and use a language of the common speech Imagist - a group of American and English poets whose poetic program was formulated about 1912 by Ezra Pound (in conjuctions with poets like H. Doolittle, R. Aldington, & F.S. Flint) - inspired by *the critical views of T.E. Hulme* (1886-1917), in revolt **against the careless thinking and Romantic optimism** he saw prevailing - a successor to the French Symbolist movement, but, whereas Symbolism had an affinity with music, Imagism sought analogy with Sculpture - In 1914 Pound turned to *Vorticism*, and Amy Lowell largely took over leadership of the group Image - *Image*: „that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time" - *Complex*: as a notably energized verbal experience that yields a „sudden liberation", expresses „a sense of freedom" and „a sudden growth" **From an Imagist manifesto:** 1.  To use the language of common speech, but to employ the exact word, not the nearly-exact, nor the merely decorative word 2.  We believe that the individuality of a poet may often be better expressed in free verse than in conventional forms. In poetry, a new cadence means a new idea. 3.      Absolute freedom in the choice of subject. 4.  To present an image. We are not a school of painters, but we believe that poetry should render particulars exactly and not deal in vague generalities, however magnificent and sonorous. It is for this reason that we oppose the cosmic poet, who seems to us to shirk the real difficulties of his art. 5.     To produce a poetry that is hard and clear, never blurred nor indefinite.  6.  Finally, most of us believe that concentration is of the very essence of poetry Principles, influences, anthologies London (between 1912 and 1918) - Ezra Pound was living in London between 1912 and 1918 -- Imagism started to take shape - His time in London exposed him to various movements and people (avant-garde, modernist ideas, etc.), which shaped his approach to poetry and Imagism T. E. Hulme - British philosopher and poet, had a significant influence on the formation of Imagism - Advocated for a more direct and concise approach to poetry - Emphasized clarity, precision, and imagery in poetry -- his ideas were essential in shaping Pound´s principles on Imagism - Emphasized an anti-Romantic stance, rejected the emotional excess of Victorian poetry Japanese Haiku - A Japanese poetic form characterized by its focus on nature, they convey a vivid image or moment of reflection - A major influence on the Imagist movement, E. Pound was deeply influenced by the haiku´s simplicity and conciseness - Typically structured in three lines with 17 syllables (5, 7, 5) French Symbolists -- Vers Libre - E.g. A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé - Had a lasting impact on Imagism, especially in the rejection of traditional metrical structures -- the exploration of relationships between words, sounds, meanings, etc. - The emphasis on the symbolic use of language influenced Imagism - Vers Libre -- a French poetic form that rejected the rigidity of traditional verse - E. Pound adapted Vers Libre and made it a central aspect of Imagist poetry Des Imagistes (1914) - An anthology edited by E. Pound, showcased the works of Pound, H. Doolittle, A. Lowell, etc. - One of the major texts which promoted the principles of Imagism Principles of Imagism Image: "presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time." (Pound) "A few Don´t´s of an Imagiste" (1913) 1. Direct treatment of the "thing,": - Direct treatment of the subject is one of the most important principles of Imagism, whether it´s a concrete object or abstract concept - The poet must present the thing itself without irrelevant explanation or commentary - The "thing" should be captured in its essence, so in the poem itself it creates a vivid image 1. Use no word that does not contribute to the presentation. - Every word in the poem should serve a purpose, doesn´t include any unnecessary or irrelevant words -- commitment to clarity, precision, and efficiency in expression 1. Regarding rhythm: the musical phrase, not the metronome. - Emphasized rhythm that is natural, that flows like a musical phrase -- aligns with free verse, focuses on fluidity and an organic feeling/nature of sound 1. *To use the **language of common speech*** - In Imagist poetry, the language should be that of the common speech (everyday language of people) -- Imagists rejected the overly formal, academic, and flowery language 1. *To create new rhythms \... we do not insist upon ''free-verse'' as the only method of writing poetry. We fight for it as **a principle of liberty**.* - Poets sought to create new rhythms by experimenting with free verse and spoken language -- a principle of liberty, a break from traditional poetry and its constraints - []{#anchor-10}[]{#anchor-11}Modernism ------------------------------------- - A cultural, artistic, and literary movement of the early 20^th^ century (esp. after WW1) - Characteristic by its break from traditional forms, experimentation with new structures & styles, fragmentation, and modern life Themes and Style - Alienation and disillusionment -- a theme explored by writers in the aftermath of WW1 and the following social changes - Stream-of-consciousness -- e.g. W. Faulkner, J. Joyce, - a narrative technique that attempts to capture the style of a person´s flow of thought - Fragmentation -- technique used by writers to present the complex and chaotic nature of the times - Rejection of realism -- a move away from the detailed and realistic depictions of everyday life and a move towards abstraction and experimentation ***Lost Generation*** - A key part of the Modernist movement -- a group of American writers disillusioned by the aftermath of WW1 and the social changes of the time **Historical background** World Wars - WW1 (1914-18) -- profound impact on literate and art, as the aftermath led to disillusionment, which prompted writers and artists into questioning the traditional beliefs and values of the times - WW2 (1939-45) -- deepened the previous feelings of fragmentation and loss NAACP--- Silent March 1917 - The NAACP organized a Silent March in 1917 to protest racial violence and discrimination -- an important moment in the fight for civil rights - Modernist writers explored themes of identity, racism, and social justice Immigration - Significant immigration to the US (esp. from Europe), prompted a change in American culture and society due to the various new influences from the immigrants - Themes of Modernist literature included themes of national identity and cultural assimilation The Soviet Union and Communism as a model - The introduction of Communism as an alternative political and economic system - Represented a potential way for social change for some, while for others it was a way of fear and skepticism - Modernist works explore the themes of alienation, rebellion, and politics 1929 Depression - Heightened already existing social inequalities (class, race, economics, etc.) - Modernist works captured themes of disillusionment, despair, and uncertainty about the future Racism -- trials (The Scottsboro Boys Trial) - The case where in 1931 nine AA teenagers were accused (wrongfully) of raping two white women in Alabama - Highlighted the issues with the American legal system in terms of the deep racial injustices and prejudices **Other -isms** **Cubism** - An avant-garde movement -- principle is to break down objects into geometric shapes and multiple viewpoints - Influenced Modernists towards experimentation with fragmentation in terms of form and perspective Ezra Pound, "The Cantos" - A long, complex, fragmented poem -- reflected his belief in a new and experimental style of poetry Ernest Hemingway Style -- iceberg principle - Writer associated with The Lost Generation - Writing known for simplicity, directness, economy of language -- style referred to as the iceberg principle, i.e. majority of the meaning is implied "under the surface", rather than stated directly **Awards** -- awarded Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 **William Faulkner** ***The Sound and the Fury (*****1929) --** employs multiple perspectives and complex narrative styles **Style -** Use of narrative techniques, such as stream-of-consciousness, fragmented time structures **Nobel Prize for Literature** -- received in 1949 **F.S.Fitzgerald** - ***The Great Gatsby (1925)*** - Exploration of the theme of Jazz Age disillusionment, the American Dream, wealth, class, and the search of meaning in a materialistic society - Captures the social and cultural shifts of the 1920´s Gertrude Stein - A central figure of the Parisian avant-garde literary and artistic movement - Mentor of other writers, such as E. Hemingway and F. S. Fitzgerald - Writing known for its experimental style -- repetitive structures, unusual syntax - Works reflect the emphasis on breaking away from conventional forms - **Alice B. Toklas --** partner, they lived together in Paris, their relationship became a subject of public scrutiny []{#anchor-12}[]{#anchor-13}[]{#anchor-14}[]{#anchor-15}[]{#anchor-16}Harlem Renaissance ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Harlem Renaissance (c. 1918 -- 1937) - A flourishing movement of African American culture -- in literature, music, and art -- centered in the Harlem neighbourhood of New York City - Rise of influential writers such as L. Hughes, Z. N. Hurston, C. McKay, C. Cullen, etc. -- these writers wrote about identity and culture while addressing issues of race, inequality, and social change in their works The "New Negro" Movement (1919 -- 25) - Term coined by Alain Locke, it was supposed to signify a new sense of racial pride and self-expression - Functioned as an empowerment for and among the African Americans The Chicago Group (or, The Chicago Renaissance) - A literary and artistic movement of the 1920´s and 30ss that emphasized individuality, and the role of an individual in an otherwise modern, industrially oriented society - Writers of this movement, e.g. C. Sandburg, T. Dreiser, focused on the life of the working class, the American experience, and the industrialization of Chicago The Fugitives - A group of Southern poets and intellectuals, functioning in the 1920´s and 30´s - Writers -- J. C. Ransom, A. Tate, R. P. Warren - They reacted against the modernism of the era and the decline of traditional Southern values - Their poetry was a return to formalism, and featured Southern themes as a way to preserve traditional Southern culture through their work (while of course addressing the social and political issues) Historical overview Great migration (1916 -- 1970) - The movement of African Americans from the rural south to the urban North (to cities like New York, Chicago, Detroit, etc.) to escape racial discrimination in the South, and in search of better opportunities in the North - This movement significantly influenced the Harlem Renaissance, as it helped in the development of cultural and artistic expressions Harlem Renaissance -- NAACP - NAACP -- National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - had a key role in the Harlem Renaissance -- supported AA writers, artists, and musicians The Crisis (W.E.B Du Bois) - The Crisis, a NAACP magazine, was crucial in promoting the works of Harlem Renaissance writers, artists, etc., as it was a platform for discussions on racial equality and civil rights, and an outlet for AA people to showcase their works - Du Bois´s editorial work shaped the public discourse on AA identity, and helped in the fight against racial discrimination and segregation 1920-33 -- Prohibition - A nationwide ban on the production, sale, and distribution of alcohol in the US - It had significant cultural and social impact -- rise of speakeasies, growth of organized crime, etc. - Led to a cultural shift, which was reflected in the jazz culture of the Harlem Renaissance (generally the Roaring 20´s) Great Depression (1929 -- 39) - A severe economic downturn, with a profound impact on society (including arts, music, and literature) - Writers of this time turned to themes such as economic struggle, social injustice, and the struggles and plights of the working class - Era influenced The Fugitives and other writers **Langston Hughes (1902-1967) -- (The Weary Blues)** **Claude McKay (1890--1948)** - **("America")** Jazz poetry - A genre of poetry influenced by the rhythms, the improvisation, and the cultural significance of jazz music - The style of poetry reflects the qualities of jazz, and incorporates musicality and the use of jazz structures, used colloquial language and fragmentation - Jazz poetry was significant during the Harlem Renaissance, as Harlem was a hub for jazz music - Writers -- L. Hughes, Z. N. Hurston, C. McKay - Jazz poetry drew on the AA oral tradition -- emphasis on performance, cadence of spoken word, etc. []{#anchor-17}[]{#anchor-18}[]{#anchor-19}[]{#anchor-20}[]{#anchor-21}Fiction in the USA between 1914-1945 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - Between 1914 and 1945 fiction in the US went through significant transformation -- driven by social changes, emergence of new literary forms, and modernist concerns - Prominent writers -- E. Hemingway, W. Faulkner, F. S. Fitzgerald, G. Stein, J. Steinbeck, W.E.B. Du Bois, W. Carter E. Hemingway: "Snows of Kilimanjaro" - Short story about a writer named Harry, who has to confront his own mortality after becoming fatally ill while in Africa -- an examination about a life unfulfilled - Story explores the themes of regret, a person´s failure to live their authentic/true self, and the process of dying - The story uses symbolism -- e.g. the mountain, the snow, the hyenas, etc. W. Faulkner: "A Rose for Emily" - Short story about a woman, Miss Emily Grierson, in the fictional town of Jefferson, who becomes a recluse after the death of her father, and her decline as told/seen through the other characters of the town - The story deals with themes of isolation, decay, and resistance to change (especially in terms of the South and "Southern ideals") - Faulkner uses a nonlinear narrative to tell the story []{#anchor-22}[]{#anchor-23}[]{#anchor-24}[]{#anchor-25}[]{#anchor-26}Poetry after 1945 - Beat poets ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - The Beat Poets, e.g. A. Ginsberg, J. Kerouac, L. Ferlinghetti, emerged in the 1940´s and 50´s as a countercultural movement - They wrote works which opposed the current societal norms, critiqued materialism and capitalism, and explored spirituality and sexuality - Defining work of the era -- "Howl" by A. Ginsberg Allen Ginsberg: "Howl", "Supermarket in California", "America" San Francisco Renaissance - A literary movement which overlapped with the Beat movement - It encapsulated a broader range of experimental poetry and art - E.g. L. Ferlinghetti, K. Rexroth -- central figures, used poetry as a way to challenge the conventional aesthetics of the time New York school of poets - Included poets like F. O´Hara, J. Ashbery, etc. - They were influenced by modern art and urban life -- the poetry was often ironic, experimental, and spontaneous F. O´Hara - a curator of the Museum of Modern Art - "Personism" -- focus on a direct, personal connection in poetry J. Ashbery - works focused on ambiguity and abstraction - poetry of absence - 1951 -- met O´Hara at Harvard Black Mountain: also projectivist poets - A group of poets, linked to Black Mountain College - They championed an open-form style of poetry ("projective verse"), that focused on breath and the physicality of writing -- relationship between the poet´s energy and the poem´s structure - E.g. Ch. Olson, R. Creeley **Other poets - Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton, Robert Lowell** Confessional poetry - Characterized by poetry that is very personal, delves into the writer´s mental health, relationships, and trauma - E.g. S. Plath, A. Sexton, R. Lowell - Key work of this genre -- Ariel, The Bell Jar Sylvia Plath - A leading figure of confessional poetry - Renowned for her works which are very personal and emotional -- Ariel (published posthumously), The Bell Jar - Her relationships with Ted Hughes (husband), R. Lowell (poet), A. Sexton (poet) influenced her writing (during her time in Boston) - Her works Ariel and The Bell Jar explore various themes, such as personal identity, mental illness, and societal expectations as a woman Adrienne Rich - Feminist poet and essayist -- works included themes of personal identity, social justice - *Diving into the Wreck: Poems 1971--1972* -- won ***the National Book Award for Poetry*** in 1973 - 1997: ***the National Medal of Arts --*** famously declined, as she criticized the Clinton administration´s politics -- she asserted that art must resist complicity with power "I could not accept such an award from President Clinton or this White House because the very meaning of art, as I understand it, is incompatible with the cynical politics of this administration \... \[Art\] means nothing if it simply decorates the dinner table of the power which holds it hostage". **Rich, 1997** Elizabeth Bishop - Known for her precise, imagistic poetry -- the ability to find beauty in the ordinary - Won the Pulitzer Prize in 1956, wrote Questions of Travel in 1965 and Geography III in 1977 - In her correspondence with A. Stevenson she expressed admiration for Darwin´s observations, in particular about the rigorous detail and poetic wonder that art, similarly to science, often requires - Her works use a blend of emotional depth and intellectual rigor I do admire Darwin! But reading Darwin one admires the beautiful solid case being built up out his endless, heroic *observations*, almost unconscious or automatic---and then comes a sudden relaxation, a forgetful phrase, and one feels the strangeness of his undertaking, sees the lonely young man, his eyes fixed on facts and minute details, sinking or sliding giddily off into the unknown. What one seems to want in art, in experiencing it, is the same thing that is necessary for its creation, a self-forgetful, perfectly useless concentration. "Bishops correspondence with Anne Stevenson". Gwendolyn Brooks - One of the most influential voices of 20^th^ century poetry - First African American to win the Pulitzer Prize for poetry in 1955 with her poetry collection *Annie Allen* (1950) - Her works deal with themes of the African American experience, identity, and community, as well as the joys, struggles, and complexities of African American life **Literature after 1945, The Beats** Historical overview - The Cold War with the Soviet Union and McCarthyism influenced the current society by fostering paranoia and censorship - The Civil Rights Movement -- key figures R. Parks, M. L. K. = Civil Rights Act (1964) - 1959: Communist revolution in Cuba -- key figure F. Castro - Consumerism and cultural conformity dominated the 1950´s, which in turn fueled the countercultural movement of the Beats The Beats - Emerged in the 1940s and 50s as a countercultural movement. Key figures: - - Allen Ginsberg -- Howl - Jack Kerouac -- On the Road - William S. Burroughs -- Naked Lunch Beat, beatific, beatitude, beatnik, - The term "Beat" originated from H. Huncke, which reflected the feelings of exhaustion and rejection - Later J. Kerouac linked the term to a "beatific" and spiritual transcendence, which blended societal disillusionment with searching for a meaning **Features / themes** - Disillusionment -- post-war materialism and societal conformity - Social Nonconformity -- a celebration of rebellion against societal norms/conformity - Spontaneity and improvisation (jazz) -- inspired by jazz music - Celebration of sexual freedom -- rejection of traditional morality - Eastern spirituality and mysticism -- e.g. Zen Buddhism **MILESTONES** - **1947** - the First Festival of Modern Poetry in San Francisco - **1955 - Lawrence Ferlinghetti** founded **City Lights Bookstore,** a hub for Beat writers - **1950s** - **Jack** **Kerouac** and **Gary Snyder** study Zen - **1955 - The Six Gallery reading (in San Francisco)** -- Ginsberg debuted Howl - **Philip Lamantia, Michael McClure, Allen Ginsberg** and **Gary Snyder** ("the Thoreau of the Beat Generation") - **New York City\'s Greenwich Village --** became an epicenter for Beat culture - **1954 -** Ginsberg visits Neal and Carolyn Cassady - Peter Orlovsky and Allen Ginsberg - Allen Ginsberg and Neal Cassady **Jack** **Kerouac** -- style (***spontaneous prose***) - Known for his "spontaneous prose" style of writing, which is a combination of stream-of-consciousness with jazz rhythms - On the Road -- defining Beat work, chronicles Kerouac´s cross-country journey - The Dharma Bums -- work explores Zen Buddhism and nature - Influences -- A. Breaton´s surrealism, V. Woolf, W. C. Williams, Darwin, Jazz Trials -- 1950s and 1960s Ginsberg -- Howl - Subject of a landmark obscenity trail -- due to the work featuring themes of sexuality, mental illness, and critiques of conformity W. S. Burroughs -- Naked Lunch - Faced bans and obscenity trials -- due to the explicit content of the book and the fragmented "hallucinatory" narration style Lenore Kandel - Work "The Love Book" (1966) sized by the police and deemed too obscene -- due to the depiction of frank eroticism and sexuality Diane di Prima and LeRoi Jones (Amiri Baraka) - Works explored themes of sexuality, racial issues, and radical politics The Beats influenced - The Counterculture of the 1960s -- celebration of nonconformity which inspired the hippie movement - The Black Arts Movement - Amiri Baraka´s works - Postmodernism -- the experimental style of the Beats´ helped shape postmodern narratives - Music and Pop culture -- Bob Dylan, the Beatles, The Doors, Rock and Roll, Improvisational music - Film and Media -- Easy Rides (1966), One Flew Over the Cuckoo´s Nest (K. Kesey), Hell´s Angels (H. S. Thompson) - Social movements -- inspired movements advocating for civil rights, sexual liberation, environmental awareness, and anti-war activism ***Tom Robbins*** *"Humanity has advanced, when it has advanced, not because it has been sober, responsible, and cautious, but because it has been playful, rebellious, and immature."* - Another Roadside Attraction - Even Cowgirls get the blues - Fierce invalids home from hot climates []{#anchor-27}[]{#anchor-28}[]{#anchor-29}[]{#anchor-30}[]{#anchor-31}Contemporary Poetry ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ecopoetry, ecofeminism - Poetry which intertwines themes of nature, environmentalism, and feminist perspectives - E.g. E. Bishop, D. Levertov, G. Brooks, S. Plath, A. Rich, T. Roethke) - Writers explore humanity´s relationship with the natural world through their works, often critiquing the way people exploit it - E. Bishop -- "One Art" -- a focus on humanity´s fragility - D. Levertov -- combined ecological concerns with activism - M. Oliver -- nature poetry, work focused on a deep spiritual connection with nature Themes and Goals - Emphasizes interconnectedness, aims to undermine the human/nature binary - Criticizes consumerism, damage to the environment, materialism, and the alienation of people from the natural world **The New York School** (John Ashbery, Frank O´Hara) **Black Mountain School** (Charles Olson, Robert Duncan) **San Francisco School** (Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Robert Duncan, Gary Snyder, Kenneth Rexroth) **Nature poetry:** Mary Oliver **L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E Poetry (1978)** "turning language into a commodity for consumption; instead, it involves repossessing the sign through close attention to, and active participation \[by the reader\] in, its production" (Bernstein, , 1981, x.) - A movement which challenged the traditional forms of meaning in poetry - E.g. C. Bernstein - Emphasized the materiality of language, rejected the commodification, and encouraged active reader participation - Bernstein described it as an attempt to "repossess the sign" by breaking down conventional communication and reconstructing how language functions in poetry **Ecopoetry** 'ecopoetics' - 'not a genre or a movement', but 'fact of writing in a world of accelerated environmental change'. (E. Reilly, 2013) "ecological poetry is... willing to engage with, even play with, postmodern and poststructuralist theories associated with **L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E** poetry and the avant garde.... \[But\] the risks for ecological poetry include hyperintellectualism and emotional distance or detachment" (Fisher-Wirth and Street 2013, xxix) "Domination is built into such dualisms because the other is negated in the process of defining a powerful self." (Gaard) Mary Oliver: "The Summer Day" - Reflective poem -- celebrates the beauty of the natural world, questions humanity´s place and purpose in it - Characterized by its simplicity, reverence of nature, and mindfulness **Robert Frost: "The Gift Outright"** - *Poem recited at John F. Kennedy\'s Inauguration by Robert Frost* - Poem speaks of the historical connection between the land and national identity (themes of possession, heritage, and belonging) **Juliana Spahr - "Some of We and the Land That Was Never Ours" (Well Then There Now, 2011)** - About the complex relationship people have with the land, engages with themes of displacements, colonialism, and belonging - Key elements -- repetition, collective voice, ethics of possession, mutual dependence of nature and humanity, interconnectedness of humanity with nature - Poem questions the legacy of colonialism, particularly the colonialist relationship to the land (exploitation) **"Gentle Now,** **Don't Add to Heartache" (Well Then There Now, 2011)** - Explores humanity´s connection to the natural world - Poem expresses a deep love for the stream, how it shapes the speaker´s being -- the stream´s qualities being described to create a sensory experience for the reader - Poem blurs the line between people and nature -- shows interconnectedness (humans as part of the environment, rather than separate from it) - Use of juxtapositions -- "rotten" vs. "clean" **Adriene Rich: 'Planetarium'** *Thinking of Caroline Herschel (1750---1848)\ astronomer, sister of William; and others.* - Poem is a meditation on the life and work of astronomer Caroline Hershel, whose contributions were overlooked, and so the poem celebrates the contributions of women - Key themes -- women´s contributions to science, interconnectedness of human and nature (vastness of the cosmos and societal constraints), feminism, celestial imagery **Brenda Hillman:** "**Sediments of Santa Monica**" ***(2001)*** - Poem focuses on the intersections of geological time, human history, and ecological consciousness - Key themes -- geological history of Santa Monica, natural and human history, fragility and resilience "**A Geology**" - Poem focuses on natural processes, e.g. erosion and sedimentation, and uses them as metaphors for human memory and experience - Key themes -- time, interconnectedness, ephemeral nature of human existence in comparison to nature **Evelyn Reilly: Styrofoam** ***(2009)*** - Important work of ecopoetry, poem deals with the topic of environmental crisis and the complicity of people in face of it - Key themes -- Styrofoam (human wastefulness), persistence (synthetic materials), critique of consumerism, detachment and complicity of people, environmental degradation, repetition, fragmentation, **Adam Dickinson:** ***The Polymers*** **(2013)** - Poem that focuses on the consequences of plastics and synthetic materials in the current world -- the us of polymers as metaphors for humanity´s entanglement with plastics - Key themes -- pervasiveness of plastics, pollution, geopolitics, social inequality, fragmentation, interconnectedness, consumption and consequences, []{#anchor-32}[]{#anchor-33}[]{#anchor-34}[]{#anchor-35}[]{#anchor-36}Fiction after 1945 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Post-War Fiction and Realism E.g. J. Irving, N. Mailer, J. Heller, J. D. Salinger, W. Styron, J. Updike, P. Roth - Works dealing with themes of family, loss, fate, post-war America, post-war culture, absurdism, alienation, disillusionment, trauma, identity, and societal norms **Counterculture / postmodernism** E.g. J. Baldwin, J. Kerouac, W. S. Burroughs, T. Pynchon, R. Brautigan, K. Vonnegut, K. Kesey - Works dealing with themes of race, sexuality, identity, morality, spirituality, society and decay, absurdity, countercultural ideals, cultural critique - Non-linear narratives, fragmented structures, emphasis on individuality, freedom, resistance to authority, integration of pop culture, intertextuality, irony, existential questioning Dirty realism (1980s): R. Carver (What We Talk About When We Talk About Love) - Aims to capture the struggles of everyday life, and the disconnection one might feel -- does so with using stark, unadorned prose, focuses on the lives of ordinary, struggling people - Themes of everyday experiences, despair, fleeting moments of beauty and happiness in an otherwise mundane life, isolation, unfulfilled lives **New Journalism (1960s and 70s), (Truman Capote, Tom Wolfe, Joan Didion)** - A movement/technique which blends literature with journalistic inquiry - Aims to capture the subjective and emotional truth of the given subjects, where the writers often insert themselves into the narrative (first person perspectives, creative storytelling) - Focuses on themes of subjectivity, cultural and social phenomena, blurring the lines between fact and fiction **Literature of the American South** (Tennessee Williams, Faulkner, Warren, Porter, McCullers, Flannery O'Connor -- Southern Renaissance) - Works reflect the cultural identity, social changes, and complex history of the area - Writers explore themes of race, class, family, tradition, and the past of the South (often in contrast to the decay of Southern aristocracy and society) - Themes -- "southern gothic", race, civil rights, family, tradition, religion, landscape **Literature after 1945**, **Counterculture** **Historical overview** JFK -- assassination in 1963 Bob Dylan -- figure of counterculture music, blended poetry and activism, lyrics became the anthem for social and political change MLK -- Civil Rights Movement, Civil Rights Act 1964 Vietnam War -- 1955-75, influenced anti-war literature, aided the disillusionment of people National Organization of Women -- 1966, advocated for gender equality, influenced feminist literature 1969 -- Woodstock, Moon landing, etc. 1972/74 -- Watergate Scandal -- government corruption, distrust in authority LITERATURE 1950s - Ray Bradbury -- Fahrenheit 451 -- critique of censorship and social conformity - Arthur Miller -- The Crucible -- allegory for McCarthyism, + paranoia, mass hysteria - Ralph Ellison -- Invisible man -- examination of race and identity in America 1960s - J. Baldwin - The Fire Next Time -- essay collection which addresses racial injustice in America and focuses on finding personal identity - "Whoever debases others is debasing himself." **Postmodern Fiction after 1945** Themes and Techniques - realism, satire, irony, black humor, sexuality, anti-war - The Catcher in the Rye -- coming of age novel, teenage angst and alienation - Catch 22 -- absurdities of war, satire, bureaucracy - K. Kesey - One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest -- critique of institutions, oppression - P. Roth - Portnoy´s Complaint -- Jewish-American identity and sexuality - J. Irving - The World according to Garp -- comedy and tragedy, parenthood, feminism - Slaughterhouse-five -- black humor, anti-war, (maybe autobiographical?) - N. Mailer - The naked and the dead -- realistic portrayal of war **Postmodern dissent and experiment in fiction** - D. Barthelme - Snow White - satirical retelling in a fragmented style - T. Pynchon - Crying of lot 49 - labyrinthine narrative, paranoia and conspiracy - V. Nabokov - Lolita -- exploration of obsession and morality through the eyes of a reprehensible person **1965 Trial of Naked Lunch** "Burroughs captures that speech like no American writer I know. I found it absolutely fascinating because it draws me to read it further and further, the way ULYSSES did when I read that in college" (**N. Mailer)** **THE COURT:** It is not offensive to you? **GINSBERG:** No. Burroughs is defending the Jews here. Don't you realize he is making a parody of the monstrous speech and thought processes of a red-necked Southern, hate-filled type, who hates everybody, Jews, Negroes, Northerners. Burroughs is taking a very moral position, like defending the good here, I think. - The novel faced obscenity trails in Boston -- censorship in literature - It was defended by N. Mailer and A. Ginsberg, as they defended its literary merit - The trial itself was a significant moment in the fight for postmodern literature´s artistic freedom (resistance to censorship) - N. Mailer compared the stream-of-consciousness style to James Joyce´s style of Ulysses -- innovative approach to narrative - A. Ginsberg´s stance on it was that Burroughs used satire and parody to critique the bigotry of people ("Burroughs defending the Jews, Negroes, Northeners,") -- a moral work with provocative content 1966: Timothy Leary - **\"Turn on, tune in, drop out\" --** Leary´s mantra, symbol of the psychedelic movement -- encouragement to expand the consciousness through the use of substances like LSD 1967: The Human Be-In - Took place in San Francisco´s Golden Gate Park -- brought together various countercultural figures and various figures of the hippie movement - Precursor the the Summer of Love (1967) -- peace, love, community celebrated through music, poetry, and activism **Literary aftermath of Postmodernism** - The influence of postmodernism persisted well into the 20^th^ century, influencing a variety of genres, styles, and movements Between the Beat Generation and hippie/counterculture - "hippie narratives" -- works that captures the themes of the hippie movement -- rejection of societal norms, rebellion, free-spiritedness, psychedelics, etc. - Hell´s Angels (H. Thompson) -- biker gang culture, themes of alienation, violence, and freedom - The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test (T. Wolfe) -- K. Kesey´s psychedelic bus trip, as documented by T. Wolfe, is the embodiment of the experimental spirit of the counterculture movement **"Creative nonfiction" -- New Journalism (1960s)** - New journalism -- a new, revolutionary approach to reportage, blends factual accounts with literary techniques - E.g. Truman Capote *In Cold Blood* (1966), Tom Wolfe *The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test* (1968), Hunter S. Thompson *Hell's Angels* (1966) - Gonzo Journalism -- a style of journalism popularized by Thomson, subgenre of New Journalism -- rejected objectivity in favor of a highly-subjective, first-person approach of reporting, e.g. *Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas* (1971) **Tom Robbins** "Humanity has advanced, when it has advanced, not because it has been sober, responsible, and cautious, but because it has been playful, rebellious, and immature." - T. Robbins celebrated rebellion and creativity as essential to human progress - E.g. works -- Even Cowgirls Get the Blues, Another Roadside Attraction []{#anchor-37}[]{#anchor-38}[]{#anchor-39}[]{#anchor-40}[]{#anchor-41}Postmodernism ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- E.g. (Nabokov, Don DeLillo, Pynchon, Vonnegut, Coover, Barth, Barthelme, Palahniuk, Burroughs, Doctorow, Ellison, Roth, Auster) **Postmodern Literature** John Barth: "The Literature of Exhaustion" (1967) - Argued that traditional literary forms have reached their limit, and that authors should now embrace self-referential, parodic works (e.g. The Sot-Weed Factor, Lost in the Funhouse -- works that exemplify this approach) John Barth: "The Literature of Replenishment" (1980) - Author re-evaluated his earlier stance on postmodernism, suggesting that authors should integrate pre-modernist and modernist innovations, so rather than rejecting its predecessors it should create a revitalized literary tradition John Barth: "Frame-Tale" (1968) - A work that is a loop of a narrative, where the text is instructing the readers to cut an twist the page itself into a mobius strip (a reflection of an endless recursion and metafictional play) John Barth: "Lost in the Funhouse" (1968) - The story of a boy visiting a funhouse -- story is layered with commentary about the storytelling itself, blurs the line between critique and narrative Donald Barthelme: "The School" - A short, absurdist story critiquing current societal norms and existential concerns through dark humour - Story centers a classroom setting where it focuses on a series of deaths (plants, animals, people, etc.) **Postmodernism -- theory** (**1960s and 1970s: Poststructuralism)** - Postmodernism emphasizes the breakdown of universal truths, the instability of meaning, the fluidity of identity and reality - Emerged alongside post-structuralism - Postmodern theory -- scepticism towards overarching narratives, traditional structures *Jacques Derrida - **Deconstruction*** - Questions binary oppositions (e.g. light vs. dark, truth vs. lies) that support Western thought - Argues that meaning in language is unstable and constantly delayed *Roland Barthes - "**The Death of the Author"*** - Shifts the focus from the creator to the variety of meanings in the text - Asserts that how the text is interpreted is determined by the reader, and not by the author´s intent *Jean-Francois Lyotard - **The Postmodern Condition*** - ***'Incredulity towards metanarratives'** **--** * term that defines postmodernism (grand, unifying stories) *Leslie Fiedler **-** **'Cross the Border -- Close the Gap'*** - Advocates for the rejection of distinguishing between "high" art and "low" art, suggests that literature should embrace diverse voices and popular culture **Postmodernism -- theory** (**1980s)** Jean Baudrillard - ***Simulacra and Simulation*** - ***Hyperreality** **--*** a concept where representations of media replace and shape reality itself - Work is about how in a hyperreal world, the distinctions between the real and the artificial collapses and blurs Donna Harraway - ***A Cyberg** **Manifesto*** - The work examines how technology blurs the boundary between human and machine -- critiques essentialist notions of identity Brian McHale - ***Postmodernist Fiction*** - Work differentiates between modernism and postmodernism - Modernism focuses on how we know something - Postmodernism focuses on what is real Linda Hutcheon - ***A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction*** - ***Historiographic metafiction** **--** * works that blend historical fact with self-aware fiction (questions the nature of historical truth) - Interplay of narrative, history, and fiction ** - \"there are no facts, only interpretations.\" (Nietzsche; 1886) Ihab Hassan - "***Toward a Concept of Postmodernism" (1987)*** - Contrasts modernism and postmodernism through binaries, e.g: