ALSHAWABKEH Introduction to Cell Biology & Genetics PDF

Introduction to medicine {L8} ‫م‬ SHAWABKEH ‫ب‬ ‫ش‬‫ل‬...

Introduction to medicine {L8} ‫م‬ SHAWABKEH ‫ب‬ ‫ش‬‫ل‬ ‫د وا كة‬‫ا‬ ‫م‬‫ح‬ Introduction to Cell biology & Gentics  Introduction (‫ ﺟﺴﻢ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬:‫ھﻮ دراﺳﺔ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة واﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﺤﯿﺔ )ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‬ - Biology : is the study of life and living organisms(for example: the human body) - The Cell : The fundamental unit of life& basic structural ‫اﻟﻮﺣﺪة اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﯿﺎة واﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺐ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬ A) Unicellular organisms (ONE CELL) (Bacteria) B) Multicellular organisms (TWO OR MORE CELLS) (Human body&Plant body) Prokaryotes Do not contain a true nucleus or membrane-bounded organelles inside them. like Bacteria and Archaea. Eukaryotes Contain a true nucleus and membrane-bounded organelles. Its larger than prokaryotic. like animal cells, plant cells, fungi, etc Panoramic view of the cell - The plasma membrane is the boundary that separates the environment inside the cell from the one outside the cell. Its principal components are lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. - The predominant lipids forming the plasma membrane are phospholipids, which are amphipathic compounds that contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions on the same molecule. Share some characteristics between each other : - Phospholipids have a unique arrangement in the plasma membrane, they are arranged into a bilayer (two layers) with hydrophilic regions (heads) facing the - Plasma membrane aqueous environments inside and outside the cell and hydrophobic regions (tails) - Genetic information encoded by DNA being in the middle of the bilayer. - Cytosol - Another important lipid in the plasma membrane is cholesterol, which maintains the - Ribosomes for proteins synthesis fluidity and permeability of the plasma membrane. TYPE of Phospholipids a) Sphingolipids b) phosphoglycerides phosphoglycerides contain o Glycerol as a backbone. o Attached to it by ester bonds are two chains of fatty acids that may be equal in their length or different from each other. o The third carbon atom of glycerol is bonded by a phosphate group. -The two fatty acids resemble the hydrophobic tails of the molecule. -The phosphate group resembles the hydrophilic head of the molecule. Phosphatidic acid - The simplest phosphoglyceride - contains an alcohol group attached to its phosphate group, which can react with other molecules that contain alcohol group as well (for example, combining choline with phosphatidic acid to generate phosphatidylcholine. - Other example : - A component of the phospholipids Fatty acids, classified according to their structure into: Saturated fatty acids Fatty acids that have the maximum number of hydrogens their carbon atoms can carry All their carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds Unsaturated fatty acids Less that the maximum number of hydrogen atoms their carbons can carry They have at least one carbon-carbon double bond or more with a cis or trans configuration Cis configuration 2 Hydrogen atoms are on the same side (kink) Kink to maintain fluidity and prevent packaging ‫اﻧﺤﻨﺎء ﻟﻠﺤﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﯿﻮﻟﺔ وﻣﻨﻊ اﻻﻧﻀﻐﺎط‬. Found in plasma membrane Trans configurations 2 Hydrogen atoms are on the opposite side - The plasma membrane exhibits a feature called selective permeability, which makes the plasma membrane allow certain molecules to pass easily through it to inside or outside the cell. Cholesterol is one of the plasma membrane lipids that aid in maintaining such a feature of the plasma membrane. - The plasma membrane contains carbohydrates as well, which may be bound to proteins, forming glycoproteins, or to lipids, forming glycolipids. - Plasma membrane contains proteins, which are classified to integral proteins or peripheral proteins. - Integral proteins are proteins that penetrate the plasma membrane and has several functions, since they penetrate the plasma membrane, they contain hydrophobic regions composed of non-polar amino acids to make them stable in the ‫ ﻓﮭﻲ ﺗﺤﺘﻮي‬،‫ وﺑﻤﺎ أﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﺨﺘﺮق اﻟﻐﺸﺎء اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻲ‬.‫ ھﻲ ﺑﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت ﺗﺨﺘﺮق اﻟﻐﺸﺎء اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻲ وﻟﮭﺎ ﻋﺪة وظﺎﺋﻒ‬: ‫اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬ hydrophobic region of the plasma membrane. ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﺎطﻖ ﻛﺎرھﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎء ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻣﻦ أﺣﻤﺎض أﻣﯿﻨﯿﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﺠﻌﻠﮭﺎ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ اﻟﻜﺎرھﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎء ﻣﻦ اﻟﻐﺸﺎء اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻲ‬ - peripheral proteins do not penetrate the plasma membrane, they exist on the surface of the plasma membrane. ‫ ﺑﻞ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ اﻟﻐﺸﺎء اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻲ‬،‫ ﻻ ﺗﺨﺘﺮق اﻟﻐﺸﺎء اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻲ‬:‫اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﺔ‬ - FUNCTION OF PLASMA PROTEINS They have several functions which include enzymatic activity (since most of the enzymes are proteins), transportation of substances (like protein channels and carriers), cell-cell recognition, and in signal transduction. CELL STRUCTURE ‫اﻟﺨﻼﯾﺎ ﺑﺪاﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﺪﯾﮭﺎ ﻧﻮاة ﺣﻘﯿﻘﯿﺔ وﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﺪﯾﮭﺎ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﻨﯿﻮﻛﻠﯿﻮﯾﺪ ﺗﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻤﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﻨﻮوي‬ nucleus Prokaryotic cells do not have a true nucleus but have a region called nucleoid which contains their DNA. ‫اﻟﺨﻼﯾﺎ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻟﺪﯾﮭﺎ ﻧﻮاة ﺣﻘﯿﻘﯿﺔ ﺗﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﻤﺎدة اﻟﻮراﺛﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺨﻠﯿﺔ‬ Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus contains MOST of the cell’s genetic material nuclear envelope - Nucleus is enclosed by a double-membraned structure ‫اﻟﻐﻼف اﻟﻨﻮوي‬ - Separates the nuclear components from the cellular components outside nuclear pores - Openings that allow certain substances (like RNA and proteins) to enter and ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺎم اﻟﻨﻮوﯾﺔ‬ exit from the nucleus chromosomes - The genetic material is organized into discrete units ‫اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت‬ - Each chromosome is composed of one long DNA molecule associated with many proteins that aid in coiling the DNA molecule so that it can fit inside the nucleus chromatin ‫ اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﺎﺗﯿﻦ‬Complex of DNA molecules associated with their proteins nucleolus The place where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized, and ribosomes are ‫اﻟﻨﻮﯾﺔ‬ assembled Ribosomes - Protein factories that are assembled in the nucleolus from ribosomal RNA and proteins, they are composed of two subunits: large subunit (50S) and a small subunit (30S), which combine together to carry out protein synthesis. - A large number of ribosomes= High rate of protein synthesis. - Ribosomes are existed either in the cytoplasm as free ribosomes or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum as bound ribosomes. ‫ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ اﻟﺮﯾﺒﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت‬،‫اﻟﺮﯾﺒﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺤﺮة ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﺑﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت ﻣﻮﺟﮭﺔ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺨﺪام داﺧﻞ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت ﻣﻮﺟﮭﺔ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺧﺎرج اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ أو ﻓﻲ ﻏﺸﺎء اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﺎ اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ‬ - The free ribosomes produce proteins that are directed for use inside the same cell, while bound ribosomes produce proteins that are directed for use outside the cell or on the plasma membrane of the same cell. ‫اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺑﺄﻛﻤﻠﮭﺎ ﺗﺒﺪأ داﺧﻞ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﺨﻀﻊ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﯾﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﺠﯿﻦ ﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﻨﺴﺦ‬ 1) The whole process starts inside the nucleus, where a piece of DNA called gene undergoes a process called TRANSCRIOTION..(pre-mRNA) ‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﻧﺴﺦ ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻞ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﻓﻲ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺣﻤﺾ ﻧﻮوي رﯾﺒﻮزي رﺳﻮل أوﻟﻲ‬ 2) Transcription that copies its sequence of DNA in the form of RNA called pre-messenger RNA (pre- mRNA), the pre-mRNA undergoes certain modifications to become a mature mRNA. 3) The mRNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores ‫ﯾﺨﺮج اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﺮﯾﺒﻮزي اﻟﺮﺳﻮل ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﻮاة ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﻤﺴﺎم اﻟﻨﻮوي‬ 4) Goes to a ribosome that can read the codes that are carried on the mRNA and, with the help of transcriptive RNA (tRNA), translates the codes into a sequence of amino acids in a process called translation. ↳ ‫ﯾﺬھﺐ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺮﯾﺒﻮﺳﻮم اﻟﺬي ﯾﻘﺮأ اﻷﻛﻮاد اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﺮﯾﺒﻮزي اﻟﺮﺳﻮل وﺑﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي‬ ‫( ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻷﻛﻮاد إﻟﻰ ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺣﻤﺎض اﻷﻣﯿﻨﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‬tRNA) ‫اﻟﺮﯾﺒﻮزي اﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬ endomembrane system - This system includes the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and the plasma membrane. (we’ve talked about the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope) - It’s responsible for protein synthesis, transportation of proteins to organelles or outside the cell, metabolism, movement of lipids, and detoxification of poisons. The endoplasmic reticulum membranous structure that is composed of an extensive network of membranous tubules and ‫اﻟﻮظﺎﺋﻒ اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺒﻜﺔ‬ sacs that are found within the cytoplasm and its lumen is continuous with the space between ‫ إﻧﺘﺎج‬:‫اﻹﻧﺪوﺑﻼزﻣﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﺴﺎء‬ the two membranes of the nuclear envelope. ‫ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺴﺘﯿﺮوﯾﺪات‬،‫اﻟﺪھﻮن‬ ‫ ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﻜﻮن‬،‫واﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮﻟﯿﺒﯿﺪات‬ Two regions of the endoplasmic reticulum ‫اﻹﻧﺰﯾﻤﺎت اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة داﺧﻞ اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ‬ o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) ‫ وﺗﺴﺎھﻢ‬.‫اﻟﻤﻠﺴﺎء ﻣﮭﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻌﮭﺎ‬ - no ribosomes ‫ﺑﺪون رﯾﺒﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت‬ ‫اﻹﻧﺰﯾﻤﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ ﻓﻲ إزاﻟﺔ‬ ‫ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻲ‬،‫ﺳﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﻘﺎﻗﯿﺮ واﻟﺴﻤﻮم‬ - The major functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum: Synthesis of lipids, such as ‫ﺧﻼﯾﺎ اﻟﻜﺒﺪ‬ steroids and phospholipids, since the enzymes inside the SER are important in their synthesis, other enzymes in the SER aid in detoxification of drugs and poisons, especially in liver cells. SER enzyme also play a role in the metabolism of carbohydrates. Finally, the SER plays a role in the storage of calcium ions..‫ﺗﻠﻌﺐ اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﺴﺎء دوًرا ﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﻘﻼب اﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮھﯿﺪرات‬ o Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) ‫ ﺗﻠﻌﺐ اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ دوًرا ﻓﻲ ﺗﺨﺰﯾﻦ أﯾﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﯿﻮم‬،‫وأﺧﯿًﺮا‬ - ribosomes are existed ‫ﺗﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ رﯾﺒﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت‬ ‫ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت‬ - is responsible for production of proteins that are directed for use outside the cell, it ‫اﻟﻤﻮﺟﮭﺔ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺧﺎرج اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ‬ ‫ وﺿﻤﺎن‬،‫ ﺗﻌﺪﯾﻞ‬،‫ﺗﻘﻮم ﺑﺈﻧﺘﺎج‬ produces, modifies, and ensures proper folding of proteins inside its lumen. ‫اﻟﻄﻲ اﻟﺴﻠﯿﻢ ﻟﻠﺒﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت داﺧﻠﮭﺎ‬ The secretory proteins depart from the RER from a zone called transitional ER inside transport vesicles to go for other endomembrane structures like Golgi apparatus ‫ﺗﻐﺎدر اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت اﻹﻓﺮازﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ اﻟﺨﺸﻨﺔ ﻋﺒﺮ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ھﯿﺎﻛﻞ أﺧﺮى ﻣﺜﻞ ﺟﮭﺎز ﻏﻮﻟﺠﻲ‬ Golgi apparatus The Golgi apparatus is composed of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae, which look like a stack of pancakes. ‫ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﺒﮫ ﻛﻮﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺎﻧﻜﯿﻚ‬،‫ﯾﺘﻜﻮن ﺟﮭﺎز ﻏﻮﻟﺠﻲ ﻣﻦ أﻛﯿﺎس ﻏﺸﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﻣﺴﻄﺤﺔ ﺗُﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﺼﮭﺎرﯾﺞ‬ It receives the transport vesicles coming from the RER which fuse with Golgi apparatus on the cis face of it, which is the receiving face that faces the RER, and sends the modified and packaged proteins to the plasma membrane from the trans face. The Golgi apparatus is like a warehouse for receiving, sorting, and shipping the ER products. ‫ وﺷﺤﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ اﻟﺨﺸﻨﺔ‬،‫ ﻓﺮز‬،‫ﺟﮭﺎز ﻏﻮﻟﺠﻲ ﯾﺸﺒﮫ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮدع ﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎل‬ Lysosomes Lysosomes are membranous sacs filled with hydrolytic enzymes that are used by the cell to digest macromolecules. ‫اﻟﻠﯿﺴﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت ھﻲ أﻛﯿﺎس ﻏﺸﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﻣﻠﯿﺌﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﻧﺰﯾﻤﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﮭﺎ اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ ﻟﮭﻀﻢ اﻟﺠﺰﯾﺌﺎت اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮة‬ These enzymes work in the acidic environment, that’s why the cell has a kind of protection ‫اﻷﻣﯿﺒﺎ واﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﺤﯿﺔ‬ from these enzymes (pH= around 7). ‫أﺣﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ اﻷﺧﺮى‬ Lysosomal enzymes and membrane are made by the RER and then transferred to Golgi ‫ﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻐﺬاء ﻋﻦ‬ apparatus for further processing, then they exit the Golgi apparatus through the trans face. ‫طﺮﯾﻖ اﺑﺘﻼع ﺟﺰﯾﺌﺎﺗﮭﺎ‬ ‫داﺧﻞ ﻓﺠﻮة ﻏﺬاﺋﯿﺔ ﺛﻢ ﺗﻨﺪﻣﺞ‬ They carry out intracellular digestion in a variety of circumstances. ‫ﻣﻊ اﻟﻠﯿﺴﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت ﻟﺘﺤﻠﻞ‬ Amoeba and other unicellular eukaryotes get their food by engulfing its particles inside the ‫ﻣﺤﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻔﺠﻮة ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ‬ cell in a food vacuole and fusing it with the lysosome to make the hydrolytic enzymes digest ‫ ﺗﺤﺪث ھﺬه‬.‫ﺗُﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﺒﻠﻌﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﻀﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮع ﺧﺎص‬ ً ‫اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ أﯾ‬ the food vacuole’s contents in a process called phagocytosis, this process also occur in a ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺨﻼﯾﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺴﻢ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬ special type of cells in human body called the macrophages, which aid in protecting the ‫ﯾُﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﺨﻼﯾﺎ اﻟﺒﻠﻌﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ‬ human body against microorganisms by engulfing and digesting them. ‫ﺗﻠﻌﺐ دوًرا ﻓﻲ ﺣﻤﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺠﺴﻢ‬ ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻘﺔ ﻋﻦ‬ Another function of the lysosomes is their contribution in a cellular process called ‫طﺮﯾﻖ اﺑﺘﻼﻋﮭﺎ وھﻀﻤﮭﺎ‬ autophagy, in which the cell digests its own old organelles using lysosomes to reuse their components inside the cell. ‫ ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﮭﻀﻢ‬،‫وظﯿﻔﺔ أﺧﺮى ﻟﻠﯿﺴﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت ھﻲ ﻣﺴﺎھﻤﺘﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺧﻠﻮﯾﺔ ﺗُﺴﻤﻰ اﻻﻟﺘﮭﺎم اﻟﺬاﺗﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ ﻋﻀﯿﺎﺗﮭﺎ اﻟﻘﺪﯾﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻠﯿﺴﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت ﻹﻋﺎدة اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺗﮭﺎ داﺧﻞ اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺔ‬ mitochondria - Primary function is to generate energy in the form of ATP. - The powerhouse of the cell. - Mitochondria have two membranes that are separated by a space called the intermembrane ‫ﻧﺎﻋﻢ وﯾﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﻗﻨﻮات ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺗﺘﻜﻮن‬ space: ‫ﻣﻦ ﺑﺮوﺗﯿﻦ ﯾﺴﻤﻰ‬ ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺠﻌﻞ‬،‫ﺑﻮرﯾﻦ‬ Outer membrane that is smooth and contains special channels formed by a protein called porin ‫اﻟﻐﺸﺎء ﺷﺒﮫ ﻧﺎﻓﺬ‬ ‫ﻟﻤﻌﻈﻢ اﻷﯾﻮﻧﺎت‬ that makes the membrane semi-permeable to most of small ions and molecules. ‫واﻟﺠﺰﯾﺌﺎت اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة‬ Inner membrane that is impermeable to most of the small ions, and convoluted with infoldings called cristae that increase the surface area of the inner membrane, inside the inner membrane we have the mitochondrial matrix that contains the mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes. ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻧﺎﻓﺬ ﻟﻤﻌﻈﻢ اﻷﯾﻮﻧﺎت‬ - The enzymes of an important series of protein complexes called the electron transport chain are ‫ وﺑﮫ‬،‫واﻟﺠﺰﯾﺌﺎت اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة‬ embedded in the inner membrane, these series of protein complexes transfer electrons from one ‫طﯿﺎت ﻣﺘﻌﺮﺟﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ‬ carrier to the next, (Cristae) ‫اﻷﻋﺮاف‬ ‫ﺗﺰﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬ starting from NADH and FADH2 molecules, which are products of carbohydrates metabolism, ‫اﻟﺴﻄﺤﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﺸﺎء اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ‬ and as the electrons move through the complexes. the complexes pump protons (H+ ) from the matrix into the intermembrane space, which will create an electrochemical gradient that drives the protons to go back into the matrix through a protein called ATP synthase (also called complex V), the movement of protons through the ATP synthase causes conformational changes in the protein that drive the formation of ATP molecules from ADP molecules and inorganic phosphate. ‫ح‬‫ت ب‬ ‫م و مد الله‬ ‫ڡﻮم ﻫﺬه اﻟﺴﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ‬66‫ ٮ‬.‫ﺣﲇ‬#‫ﻌﺸﺎء اﻟﺪا‬H‫ى اﻟ‬F‫ڡ‬# ‫ﺤﺔ‬3‫ﺣﺪ ﻣﺪﻣ‬3‫ﻮ‬6‫ٮرون ٮ‬6‫ڡﻞ اﻹﻟﻜ‬6‫ٮ‬# ‫ ُﺴﻤﻰ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ‬6‫ٮﺎت ٮ‬#‫ٮ‬76‫ٮروٮ‬3‫ٮزيﻤﺎت ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟ‬#‫إ‬ ‫ڡﺎل‬6‫ٮ‬6‫ٮ‬#‫ وﻣﻊ ا‬،‫ٮﺪرات‬7‫ٮﻮﻫ‬3‫ﺾ اﻟﻜر‬7 ‫ﺤﺎت أٮ‬3‫ٮ‬6‫ٮ‬#‫ى ﻣ‬F‫ وه‬،FADH2‫ و‬NADH ‫ﺣزيﺌﺎت‬3 ‫ٮﺪًءا ﻣﻦ‬3 ،‫ﺣﺮ‬#‫ڡﻞ إﻟﻰ آ‬6‫ٮﺎ‬# ‫ٮﺎت ﻣﻦ‬#‫ٮرو‬6‫ڡﻞ اﻹﻟﻜ‬6‫ٮ‬#‫ٮ‬3 ‫ٮﺎت‬#‫ٮ‬76‫ٮروٮ‬3‫اﻟ‬.‫ٮﺎت‬#‫ٮ‬76‫ٮروٮ‬3‫ٮﺮ ﻫﺬه اﻟ‬3‫ٮﺎت ﻋ‬#‫ٮرو‬6‫اﻹﻟﻜ‬ ‫ى‬F‫ٮﺎﺋ‬7‫ٮﻤ‬7‫ﺪرج ﻛﻬروﻛ‬6‫ﻜويﻦ ٮ‬6‫ﺆدي إﻟﻰ ٮ‬7 ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ٮ‬،‫ى‬F‫ﻌﺸﺎﺋ‬H‫ٮيﻦ اﻟ‬3 ‫ڡﻀﺎء‬#‫ڡﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬#‫ڡﻮ‬#‫( ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺼ‬H+) ‫ٮﺎت‬#‫ﻮ‬6‫ٮروٮ‬3‫ٮﻀﺦ اﻟ‬3 ‫ٮﺎت‬#‫ٮ‬76‫ٮروٮ‬3‫ڡﻮم ﻫﺬه اﻟ‬66‫ٮ‬ ‫ٮﻦ‬76‫ٮروٮ‬3‫ٮﺮ ﻫﺬا اﻟ‬3‫ٮﺎت ﻋ‬#‫ﻮ‬6‫ٮروٮ‬3‫ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ اﻟ‬.(V ‫ٮﺎﻟﻤﺮﻛﺐ‬3 ‫ﻀﺎ‬ً 7 ‫ )اﻟﻤﻌروف أٮ‬ATP ‫ٮﺎز‬%‫ٮ‬$‫ٮ‬#‫ُﺴﻤﻰ ﺳ‬7 ‫ٮﻦ ٮ‬76‫ٮروٮ‬3 ‫ٮﺮ‬3‫ڡﺔ ﻋ‬#‫ڡﻮ‬#‫ٮﺎت ﻟﻠﻌﻮدة إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺼ‬#‫ﻮ‬6‫ٮروٮ‬3‫ڡﻊ اﻟ‬#‫ﺪ‬7 ‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺮ اﻟﻌﻀوي‬7‫ﻋ‬# ‫ڡﺎت‬#‫ڡﻮﺳ‬#‫ واﻟ‬ADP ‫ﺣزيﺌﺎت‬3 ‫ ﻣﻦ‬ATP ‫ﺣزيﺌﺎت‬3 ‫ٮﻜويﻦ‬6‫ڡﻊ ﻟ‬#‫ﺪ‬6‫ٮﻦ ٮ‬76‫ٮروٮ‬3‫ى اﻟ‬F‫ڡ‬# ‫ٮﺔ‬7‫ٮكﻠ‬7‫ٮيرات ﻫ‬7‫ﻌ‬H6‫ﺆدي إﻟﻰ ٮ‬6‫ٮ‬ AlshAwAbkeh