Regional Geography Sample Essays PDF

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY Sample Essays (30 marks) Created by: Ms Blount Essays adapted from: ‘Earth’ by Michael Organ ‘Landscapes’ by ‘Exam Skills Geography’ by Sue Honan 1  Brea...

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY Sample Essays (30 marks) Created by: Ms Blount Essays adapted from: ‘Earth’ by Michael Organ ‘Landscapes’ by ‘Exam Skills Geography’ by Sue Honan 1  Break-down of essays you need to know: Concept of a region Irish regions European regions Continental/Sub-Continental region ​GDA -CORE ​ Paris Basin – CORE Brazil ​West of Ireland – PERIPHERAL ​ Mezzogiorno – PERIPHERAL Map of region Map of region Map of region Climatic regions Physical factors Physical factors Physical factors Geomorphic regions Primary economic activities Primary economic activities Primary economic activities Administrative regions Secondary economic activities Secondary economic activities Secondary economic activities Cultural regions Tertiary economic activities Tertiary economic activities Tertiary economic activities Regions in industrial Development of an urban area – Development of an urban area – Development of an urban area – Sao decline. Dublin city Paris city Paulo Population distribution Population distribution Population distribution Comparison of core and peripheral Comparison of core and region. peripheral region. 5 essays 7 essays 7 essays 6 essays 25 essays 2  CONCEPT OF REGION 1. ​ Examine how geomorphology or climate can be used to define regions, with reference to examples you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : Geomorphological regions are areas of unique physical features, such as relief, rock type and drainage, that give them a different appearance to the surrounding landscape. In this essay I will discuss the geomorphic regions of the Burren found in Co. Clare and the North European Plain. The Burren The Burren is a karst region. A karst region is one which is covered in limestone rock that has been exposed on the surface. The Burren is the largest karst region in Europe and covers a total area of 250km2, some of which is a designated national park, with many surface and underground karst features. The limestone of the Burren was formed 350 million years ago (MYA), when most of Ireland was submerged by a shallow tropical sea near the equator. It was raised above sea-level during the Armorican folding period 250 MYA, but the limestone remained covered in a thin layer of mud and silt. This thin layer of mud and silt protected the limestone underneath and prevented it from weathering and erosion. The limestone wasn’t exposed on the surface until the glaciers eroded the overlaying mud and silt during the last ice age. Once the limestone becomes exposed, erosion from rivers and the chemical weathering process of carbonation shapes the limestone, creating surface and underground features. Surface features include limestone pavements, which make up 60% of the Burren. Underground features include caves, stalagmites and stalactites, which can attract tourists from all over the world, for example the Aillwee Cave in the Burren. A number of temporary lakes and rivers appear on the surface during the winter months, before disappearing again in the drier months of the summer. These lakes are known as turloughs. The North European Plain The North European Plain (NEP) is a lowland region which lies between the Alps and Scandinavian uplands. The lowland region stretches from Northern France as far as Bulgaria and the Black Sea, making it distinct from the surrounding upland regions. This region began to form underneath a shallow sea as layers of sedimentary rock formed on its floor. When the African and Eurasian plates collided 40-60 MYA, the NEP was uplifted above sea-level. Unlike the surrounding regions, the NEP was not folded. Instead, it became gently warped, forming its undulating landscape. The region was shaped by glaciers, while wind later covered the region in limon soils from glacial deposits to form fertile farming land. This, combined with drainage from rivers such as the Rhine, has made the region suitable for agriculture. As a result, the NEP is one of the most densely populated regions in Europe, which is aided by its favourable climate. The region has a long history of intensive agriculture, with its flat terrain and fertile soils suiting large scale mechanised farming. 3 2. ​ Examine how geomorphology or climate can be used to define regions, with reference to examples you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER: Climate refers to the average weather conditions experienced by an area over a long period of time. Climates differ in terms of temperature and precipitation levels that occur. These differences impact on the soil types, and plants and animals that exist in the area. They also affect the type of human activity that takes place. In this answer I will discuss the key characteristics that affect a cool temperate oceanic climate. These climates are found between 40o and 55o north and south of the equator. This means that Ireland and north-west Europe are influenced by this climate type. There are many factors which influence this region, including; latitude, the sea, prevailing winds and depressions. These factors will be discussed in this essay. Latitude Ireland is located between 51.5o and 55.5o north of the equator which influences the amount of sunshine and temperatures throughout the year. Because of its latitude, one of the key characteristics of this climatic region is its moderate climate, meaning that it has mild winters and moderately warm summers. It has a small temperature range of 9oC. Summer temperatures are 15oC on average while winter temperatures average 6oC. The Sea Another key characteristic of the cool temperate oceanic climate is that is it influenced by the sea. The warm North Atlantic Drift ocean current flows along the west coast of Ireland which help keep winter temperatures warmer than they should be at this latitude. This is because the sea warms up very slowly during spring/summer and retains this heat during the winter months. This makes sea temperatures warmer than land temperatures in the winter, helping to keep land temperatures much higher than they should be. Without the influence of the sea, winter temperatures could be 10oC lower than they are. On the other hand, during the summer land heats very quickly and the sea is relatively cold. This cool sea breeze blows onshore which cools the summer temperatures in Ireland. Central parts of Ireland have slightly more extreme temperatures because they are away from the sea. Summer temperatures can reach 17oC while winter temperatures can be as low as 2oC. South-westerly prevailing winds These prevailing winds blow over several thousand km of the Atlantic Ocean before reaching the west coast of Ireland. Travelling across the sea warms and dampens these winds, thus having an influence on the temperature and precipitation levels in Ireland. As the winds travel they pick up water vapour from the Atlantic Ocean through evaporation. When these winds approach land, they are forced to rise above the mountains along the west coast of Ireland. As this occurs, the water vapour condenses to produce large amounts of relief rainfall. As a result, annual rainfall in the west is more than treble (2,800mm) than the east (800mm). Frontal depressions Another key characteristic of this climatic region is the presence of frontal depressions that pass the region. Tropical (warm) air masses meet and collide with polar (cold) air masses over the Atlantic Ocean close to latitudes of 60o north to forming polar fronts. The movement of these polar fronts create depressions which move across the Atlantic Ocean from west to east. Ireland lies in the path of these, making the weather in Ireland very changeable. Frontal rainfall (where two air masses collide) is common in Ireland as a result of depressions. 4 3. ​ Examine the causes and impacts of industrial decline with reference to example(s) you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ​ ANSWER : Industrial decline occurs when a region that was once industrially prosperous is no longer able to sustain its level of economic development. This normally occurs when raw materials, such as coal or iron ore, run out or when technology and products become outdated. In this essay I will discuss the causes and impacts of industrial decline in Limerick City and the Sambre Meuse Valley. Limerick City The causes of industrial decline in Limerick City is not based on exhausted raw materials or lack of inward investment. Instead, it was caused by its overreliance on traditional manufacturing industries. During the 1950’s, the Irish Government responded to economic recession by developing the First Programme for Economic Expansion. The aim was to attract industry to Irish cities, and led to a large increase in the number of multinational corporations (MNCs) setting up in Ireland, including Limerick City. Manufacturing grew to employ 28% of the region’s workforce. One of the major attractions for MNCs was the high number of manual workers available, as well as good transport links through Shannon Airport and the Shannon Estuary. Due to the inward investment of MNCs, many traditional industries, such as food processing, textiles and footwear, began to decline. Once Ireland joined the EU in 1973, many traditional industries were forced to close because they couldn’t compete with the MNCs. The main industries to suffer from this were textiles, timber and food processing, which led to a large increase in unemployment in the city. The Limerick Clothing factory and Limerick Shoes closed with a loss of nearly 1,000 jobs. This marked the beginning of the end of the textile industry in the region. The Ferenka Steel factory closed in 1977, leading to a loss of 1.400 jobs. This decline in industry increased in the 1980’s due to the global recession. Rationalisation and improvements in technology also led to further job losses as MNCs were much labour efficient than traditional Irish companies. Sambre Meuse Valley In the late 1880’s the Sambre-Meuse river valley in Wallonia in Southern Belgium was an industrial core region. This was due to the large deposits of coal and iron ore that were exposed by the river as it cut into its valley into the land. This industrial growth was based on coal mining and heavy industries of iron and steel, engineering and chemicals. At its peak, more than 120 mines employed over 120,000 people and produced 30 million tonnes of coal per year. However, by the 1960’s the coal mines in the region began to decline, and by 1992 they had completely stopped. This led to a decline in the iron and steel industries that depended on coal for production. There are many reasons for this decline. A physical factor leading to the decline was the size and depth of the coal reserve. Over time, the most accessible coal seams were used up and the remaining coal seams were too small or deep to be worth extracting. Several human factors also led to the decline. The EU started the European Coal and Steel Community policy, which offered financial support to the most efficient mines across Europe. The Belgian mines did not qualify for this, meaning they could not compete with mining companies in Germany and the UK. All mines in Belgium were closed by 1994. The impact of the closure of the mining industry in Wallonia was felt throughout the region. Many industries associated with mining had to close. This led to unemployment levels as high as 20%, and higher levels of poverty in Wallonia compared to Northern Belgium. People started to leave the area to seek work in richer parts of the country, which also meant that the population decreased. 5 4.​ Examine how culture can be used to define regions, with reference to example(s) you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] A cultural region is defined as the characteristics, customs, traditions and beliefs of a group of people, which is handed down from one generation to the next. Both language and religion can be used to define culture, as they are powerful indicators of identity among a group of people. Both will be discussed in this essay. Language – Belgium Language plays a very important role in cultural identity in Belgium. Within the country there are four distinct language communities; 1. The Flanders region in the North where Flemish is spoken, 2. Wallonia region in the south where French is spoken, 3. The Cantons Eupen-Malmedy in the eastern German border where German is spoken, and 4. Brussels, the capital city which is a designated bilingual area where French and Flemish have equal status. Tensions exist between the French-speaking region of Wallonia and the Flemish-speaking region of Flanders due to economics. Until the 1960s Wallonia was much wealthier than Flanders due to coal & iron ore availability here. French was the official language of government and education, meaning Flemish people were not fully represented at the government level. However, the discovery of oil and gas off the shores of Flanders in the 1960s changed the country's economy and led to conflict between the two groups. In order to respond to the conflicts, the government established a federation. Today the national parliament sits in Brussels and controls foreign policy, the budget and defence forces. Here, questions must be asked and answered in both languages. Wallonia, Brussels and Flanders each have their own regional government that manages public services in their regions. Equality is shown to both cultural groups with road signs and advertisements appearing in both languages. However, tensions still exist between the two groups. Recently, there was difficulty forming a national government, as most parties find it impossible to win a majority vote. People from Flanders voted for Flemish politicians, while people from Wallonia voted for Walloon politicians. In Brussels, urban sprawl has meant the city is expanding, leading to increasing numbers of French speakers moving into communes where Flemish is the official language, and where no provision is made for them. Demands for French speakers to be accommodated have been opposed by Flemish speakers who view it as a threat to their language, and tensions between the language groups have increased. Religion – Northern Ireland: In Northern Ireland, where two communities with different religious identities have evolved over time, religion plays an important role in cultural identity. The 17th century Ulster Plantation granted land to Scottish Presbyterian and English Protestant settlers creating a majority Protestant in the province. The new state of Northern Ireland established in 1920 contained two community groups: Protestant Unionists, who supported the union with the United Kingdom, and Catholic Nationalists, who wanted to be part of the new Irish Free State. This created conflict between the two groups. From its formation, Catholics viewed Northern Ireland as a Protestant state, which discriminated against them. The civil service, the police force and major industries such as shipbuilding employed mostly Protestants. Catholics were in lower paid, unskilled work, meaning that many of them lived in poverty. The Troubles involving sectarian conflict lasted from 1969 until 1998 ended with the Good Friday/Belfast Agreement. The Equality Commission for Northern Ireland ensures that religious-based discrimination is not tolerated. Today, religion can still be a divisive issue and in Belfast, barriers called Peace Walls erected to separate Protestant and Catholic working-class areas during the Troubles are still in place. 6 5. ​ Economic activities in a core region differ from those in a peripheral region. Examine this statement with reference to examples you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] A core region I have studied is Greater Dublin Area (GDA), which is highly developed due to a number of natural advantages. A peripheral region I have studied is the Western Region in Ireland, which is underdeveloped due to a number of natural disadvantages. Primary economic activities, such as agriculture, differ greatly between the GDA and the Western Region. Physical factors, such as levels of rainfall that is evenly distributed throughout the year has allowed commercial arable farming to develop in the GDA. In contrast to this, high levels of relief rainfall and low levels of sunshine in the Western Region have limited agriculture to less profitable practices such as pastoral and dry-stock cattle farming. The low land relief of the GDA allows for easy access by machinery, meaning there are high levels of mechanisation, allowing for intensive farming and maximum output. Due to the high levels of agriculture output, food processing occurs at a large scale in the GDA, with companies such as Largo Foods and Green Isle locating there due to the readily available raw materials from commercial farms in the region. Unlike the GDA, the Western Region only has small-scale food processing as there is a lack of raw materials due the very low output from the region’s farms. Secondary economic activities also vary greatly between the GDA and the Western Region. The GDA has a major transport hub, with all of Ireland’s major road and rail links connected to Dublin City, making it attractive for companies to locate there. In contrast to this, the Western Region has a poorly developed transport network that isolates it from the remainder of the country and is a deterrent for industry considering locating in the region. The highly developed transport of the GDA allows its manufactured produce to be quickly and relatively cheaply delivered to its large urban markets of Dublin City, and to Dublin Port and Airport for delivery to the larger EU markets. The lack of developed transport infrastructure, and a large urban market in the Western Region means that goods must be moved across the country to the larger markets in the east of the country, which therefore increases their costs. Additionally, the GDA has a young, highly educated workforce with skills that make themselves attractive for knowledge-based industries such as IT and medical supply companies. In contrast to this, the Western Region suffers from brain drain, meaning the youngest and most highly skilled workers emigrate from the region to avail of educational and employment opportunities in the GDA. The GDA has a high percentage of its workforce employed in tertiary activities such as tourism, which has developed into a year-round industry due to the increasing popularity of city breaks and an increase in the number of flights from Dublin Airport. While the Western Region also benefits from a growing tourism industry, it still remains seasonal due to its lack of city break destinations and its inaccessibility. 7  IRISH REGIONS 6. ​ Examine the physical factors that influence the development of one primary economic activity in an Irish region you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this answer I will discuss the development of agriculture in the Greater Dublin Area (GDA). 37% of agricultural land in the Dublin region accounts for pasture farming. However, the biggest percentage of agricultural land is used for market gardening (44%) which specialise in potato, fruit and vegetable farms. In this essay I will discuss how both soils and relief impact the development of agriculture in the region. Soils Fertile brown earth soils are found in the GDA, which allow for intensive arable farming. These soils are stoneless and easily worked, meaning cultivation is less labour intensive. Due to the low levels of rainfall experienced, brown earth soils are not leached and remain fertile all year. In Kildare, soils overlying limestone have a very high calcium content. This helps to produce grasses that promote healthy bone growth in animals. This has allowed cattle fattening for the beef industry to occur here, meaning the pasture farming has become an intensive, commercial industry for the GDA. Today, there are over 3,800 specialist beef farms in the GDA, earning over €670 million for the Irish economy. Additionally, Kildare is also the centre of the bloodstock industry (the breeding and training of racehorses) where Irish thoroughbred horses thrive on the grassland. In north Dublin, brown earth soils have mixed with marine sands, producing light loam soils. These soils warm quickly during the spring, which encourage plant growth, and are easily worked. This has led to a successful horticulture industry developing. Salad vegetables are grown in greenhouses while cabbage, onion and potatoes are grown in large fields. The rich alluvial soils found along the River Liffey and River Boyne has led to the development of mixed farming, as the land can support both arable and pastoral farming. In contrast, the Wicklow Mountains have thin acidic soils on the granite bedrock, and large areas of blanket bogs. Intense leaching creates a hardpan, meaning soils become waterlogged and unsuitable for cultivation. Therefore, soils hinder profitable farming in these areas. Relief The majority of the land in the GDA is gently undulating lowland and is well drained. This means that farmland is easily accessible for machinery. With high levels of mechanisation, commercial farming has developed, meaning land is intensively farmed and produces maximum output. This means that farms in the GDA are much larger than the rest of Ireland, with some farms being 42.3hectares in size. About 50% of Irish potato production comes from counties Dublin and Meath. Kerr Pink and Rooster potatoes are the main varieties grown, with potato farming worth over €85 million per year to farmers.Large machinery can easily travel on the region's flat land, which allows for the easy harvest of cereals such as wheat, barley and oats. Machinery such as the combine harvester are single-operator and can cover large areas, which reduces the need for manual labour, and therefore increases profits. Due to the flat relief, a highly developed transport network has developed in the GDA that connects the farms to the largest market in Ireland. This allows for fast and low-cost transport to Dublin City and food processing industries, as well as Dublin Port. This allows for increased profits to be made. However, not all the GDA has a low-lying relief that is suitable for farming. The Wicklow Mountains are the largest area of high ground in Ireland, with over 500km2 over 300m high. These areas are not suitable for farming but are suitable for forestry. The mild climates and relief rainfall encourages tree growth and so farmers have turned to forestry to make best use of their high land. While the land is steep and mountainous, it is still accessible to forest machinery. These trees mature earlier and are harvested sooner than in the west of Ireland, so therefore are more profitable. The steep slopes and high altitudes, combined with the acidic soils, do not allow for profitable arable farming. Instead, pastoral sheep farming occurs in small areas of uplands in Wicklow, as well as large amounts of forestry. 8 7. ​ Examine any two factors that have influenced the development of secondary economic activities in an Irish region you ​ have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this answer I will discuss the development of manufacturing in the Greater Dublin Area (GDA). The region has the most developed manufacturing industry in the country, with 25% of all manufacturing plants located here. In this essay I will be discussing the influence of raw materials and well-developed infrastructure (transport) on industry. Raw Materials The food processing industry in the GDA is very well developed due to the good supply of local raw materials. Large multinational food-processing companies such as Green Isle, Largo Foods and Jacobs have set up in the region, producing frozen and packaged foods. A combination of fertile loam soils, cool temperate oceanic climate and low-lying relief found in north Dublin and Meath are perfect for growing potatoes. As a result, 50% of Irish potato production occurs here. Largo Foods, the largest snack-food producers in Ireland, use these potatoes to produce the iconic Tayto crisps. They get 90% of their potatoes from farms located within a 30km radius of their manufacturing plant in Meath, thus also reducing their transport costs. Today, Largo Foods have an annual turnover of €100 million, hugely contributing to the Irish economy. The fertile boulder clay soils found in North Kildare and East Meath are perfect for wheat production. The wheat grains are used in the food processing and brewing industries, such as Brennans Bread and Guinness. Kepak Group in Co Meath is a meat production plant. They supply pork, beef and lamb to the large Dublin City market. The calcium rich soils in Kildare lead to high quality grassland. This means cattle are fattened within a close proximity to the processing plant. This reduces the travelling time, which helps to improve the quality of the meat being processed/packaged. Additionally, large reservoirs located in the Wicklow Mountains supply clean water to a large number of industries throughout the region, including pharmaceutical companies such as Pfizer in Grange Castle. Infrastructure (Transport) The GDA is a major transport hub, with all Irelands major road and rail networks connected to Dublin City, with this leading to the development of a very successful manufacturing industry throughout the GDA. Multinational companies locate within the GDA as it operates as the centre for distribution to the rest of Ireland, and overseas markets. Ireland’s main seaport and airport are both located in Dublin, with these providing access to European and world markets. This means that manufacturers can easily import and export raw materials and finished products. Dublin airport has hundreds of connections to destinations all over the world. Additionally, the development of Terminal 2 has seen an increase in flights and air traffic, which has helped to further develop the manufacturing industry in the GDA. For example, the silicon discs used by Intel (Kildare) are imported from the US by air for processing here, and then Intel exports processor chips around the world. The construction of the M50 motorway around Dublin City has encouraged the relocation of manufacturers to suburban locations to reduce transport costs and rents. This has led to the development of many industrial estates located close to the M50, for example Sandyford Industrial Estate. However, due to the lack of adequate public transport services, workers are forced to use their cars. This has led to significant traffic congestion, resulting in longer journey times. The introduction of the Port Tunnel has improved the transport of heavier lorries and provides easy access to Dublin Port. This has helped encourage industry to locate in the region. The good transport networks have allowed manufacturing to be dispersed across the GDA region. For example; computer chip manufacturing is located in Meath (Intel), newspaper production is located in City West and food processing in Meath (Largo Foods). 9 8. ​ Account for the development of transport OR tourism in an Irish region you have studied. ​​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this answer I will discuss the development of tourism in the Greater Dublin Area (GDA). This region consists of Dublin, Meath, Kildare and Wicklow. The GDA has the most developed tourism sector in the country, currently providing 200,000 jobs in the sector. In 2018, 11.2 million people visited the region, generating €2.6 billion for the local and national economy. There are many reasons for the development of tourism in the GDA, including the range of attractions and transport accessibility, both of which will be discussed in this essay. Transport accessibly The GDA is a major transport hub, with all Irelands major road and rail networks connected to Dublin City, which has contributed to a very successful tourism industry throughout the region, attracting over 40% of all tourists that visit Ireland. Dublin airport is Ireland's dominant airport and hosts most scheduled flights in and out of Ireland, with countless airlines flying direct to Dublin. The construction of Terminal 2 expanded this and only increased the number of tourists coming to Dublin, with a record 31.5 million people coming through Dublin airport in 2018. However, the lack of a connecting rail service to the airport is a major disadvantage, as the increase in taxis and cars leads to traffic congestion. If such a rail service was developed, it would make Dublin City much more accessible to holidaymakers. Dublin Port has passenger ferry connections to the UK and France. In 2018, it handled 151 cruise ships, carrying over 250,000 people to and from Ireland. The UK accounts for 25% of all visitors to the GDA. This contributed €60 million to the local economy. However, Brexit may create challenges for the tourism industry, with tourist numbers expected to decline. With the value of the pound sterling falling, many tourists from the UK may not visit Ireland because it will be too expensive. Additionally, Dublin City is also very accessible by foot and public transport, with very good services on the DART, Dublin Bus and Luas. This makes it very attractive for people interested in short city breaks, as it is easy to travel around and visit all the sites. Range of attraction Tourism is a year-round industry in the GDA and caters for people wishing to experience a city break as well as visiting nearby countryside attractions. Over 3 million domestic tourists visit the region each year, meaning it does not solely rely on visitors from outside the country. There are many historical sites located throughout the region, including Dublin Castle, Kilmainham Gaol, Newgrange in Meath and the Hill of Tara. In 2016, Ireland's Ancient East was launched to try to encourage more people to visit the historical heritage sites outside Dublin City. Additionally, there are many cultural heritage sites, such as the National Gallery and the National Museum. Dublin is officially a UNESCO city of literature, recognising the literature contribution of James Joyce, WB Yeats etc. The Wicklow Mountains and Powerscourt Waterfall will attract people who are interested in hill walking and natural beauty. The GDA is also very popular for event-based tourism. Croke Park is a major attraction for domestic tourism. Thousands of hurling and Gaelic football fans visit the stadium each year for the All-Ireland matches. In recent years, Sky Sports have started broadcasting the GAA matches, meaning that Croke Park has started to attract international tourists too. The Aviva Stadium attracts people from all over the world for both rugby and football matches. Outside Dublin, the K Club hosted the 2006 Ryder Cup, which attracted tourists from all over the world interested in golf. Dublin has become one of the most popular cities for weekend-breaks in Europe. There are many reasons for this; the thriving nightlife that can be experienced in Temple Bar, shopping facilities on Grafton Street and high-end shopping in Kildare Village, as well as a wide range of hotels to stay in. 10 9. ​ Examine the factors that influenced the development of one urban area in an Irish region you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : The urban area I have studied is Dublin City, which is in the GDA region. Dublin is the primate city of Ireland, meaning it is the largest city in the country. Its boundaries have been continuously expanding since the 1950s. There are many factors that have influenced this expansion, including migration, urban renewal and regeneration and urban sprawl, all of which will be discussed in this essay. Migration Due to the higher levels of employment and better education opportunities, Dublin has always attracted internal and international migrants. Today, 33% of the population of the GDA was born outside the region, in other parts of Ireland or in other countries. Areas such as nursing, teaching and civil services have attracted people for decades. These jobs provide a lot of incentives, such as good pensions, which will attract and benefit the people working in them. Additionally, two large universities (UCD & TCD) are located in Dublin, providing excellent educational opportunities and thus attracting young people from all over Ireland. Dublin is also a very attractive location for industry to set up. It has excellent communications; such as road, rail, port and air links that connect it to the rest of Ireland and Europe. It has access to a young, well educated workforce with graduates coming from top universities of TCD and UCD. These factors have encouraged a wide range of industries to locate in Dublin (for example food processing, light engineering and financial services). Again, these job opportunities act as a pull factor encouraging people to leave rural areas and migrate to Dublin City. In recent times this has resulted in urban sprawl, whereby the city spread into the surrounding countryside to accommodate for its growing population. Small villages to the west of the city were transformed into new satellite towns, such as Tallaght. These villages began to grow to accommodate the large population. People living in these new satellite towns began commuting into the city for work. Improvements to transport systems, such as the LUAS and quality bus lanes have been developed to ease the traffic congestion created by the growing population in the suburbs. The growth of the Dublin City region has increased so much that its zone of influence now covers much of the east of Ireland rather than just Dublin city and county. Urban regeneration Poorer people tended to live in poorer quality housing in the city centre, where rents were cheaper. This led to social stratification as the city’s housing became divided by wealth. In the 1980’s, government-supported schemes were introduced to tackle decaying and derelict properties. The Custom House Docks Development was set up to oversee development in the dockland area. The creation of the IFSC and a mix of residential, social and commercial developments have completely transformed the area. The Grand Canal Docks area is now home to the Bord Gais Energy Theatre and a variety of residential and commercial properties. This has massively benefitted the area as it attracts people to visit and spend money there. Areas such as Ballymun have also been redeveloped, with modern housing, shopping centres, offices, community centres, schools and public amenities. Successful sports clubs, such as Ballymun Kickhams have also helped through providing an increased sense of community and identity in the area. 11 10. ​ Account for the distribution of population throughout an Irish region you have studied. ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER: In this essay I will discuss the population distribution in the Western region in Ireland. The population of the Western region has changed greatly over time. In 1841, before the Great Famine, there were over 1 million people living in the Western region. The majority of this population were rural dwellers and subsistence farmers, who grew potatoes for their main food source. However, the Famine led to a rapid decline in the population as it affected the west more than the east. After the Famine, mass emigration continued as younger people looked for a better quality of life in the UK and the USA. By 1971, the population of the west had fallen by over half a million people to 312,000. Today the population of the Western Region is still lower than the east of Ireland. The 2016 census recorded the average population density in Ireland was 70 people per km2. However, all the counties in the Western Region are lower than this. The distribution of the population here is uneven, with areas such as Connemara and West Mayo sparsely populated and urban areas such as Galway City and Castlebar more densely populated. There are many physical and human factors that influence this distribution, which will be discussed in this essay. Physical factors: The upland relief throughout the region has led to a low concentration of people in these areas. The steep slopes have made the construction of roads impossible, making areas isolated and unattractive. For example, mountain ranges such as the 12 Bens are too steep and rocky to build on, leading to a low population density as people avoid living there. In contrast, there are higher densities of people in lowland, coastal areas where most towns and villages are located. Here the flat relief allows for better construction of roads, meaning transport is a lot more accessible. In parts of Mayo, the wet cool temperate climate has led to the formation of large areas of peatland. This means the soils are wet and waterlogged, making them infertile and unsuitable for agriculture and settlement. This means that the population density is lower in these areas. In Achill, the narrow coastal plain between the sea and mountains supports a higher population density. Here, the flat land enables farming, settlement and road construction. Bays and headlands along the coast of the region are scenic and provide shelter, meaning that small towns have developed along these areas. Economic activity in these areas are usually based around fishing and tourism, for example Westport in Mayo. Soils also play an important role in the distribution of the population in the Western Region. Areas which have fertile soils tend to have a higher population density, for example Galway has a higher population density due to the presence of brown earth soils. Human factors - migration: The 2016 census found that there was a higher than average number of people living in rural areas in the Western Region than elsewhere in Ireland. However, all areas in the region continue to experience rural depopulation caused by the lack of employment and the impact of the economic downturn. This migration has had a huge impact on the population distribution in the region. In the early 2000’s, natural increase and immigration associated with the Celtic Tiger economic boom contributed to population growth, and the reversal of the out-migration trend that had been experienced in the region. This is most evident in the outward expansion of Galway city during this time. However, between 2007 - 2011, after the economic crash, the region experienced mass out-migration, which slowed population growth. And since 2012, while there has been significant population growth in Galway city, other areas have only seen very small growth. The impact of this migration can be seen in the population structure of the region. According to the 2016 census, the percentage of old dependents was much higher in the Western region than any other part of Ireland. Young people are leaving rural areas seeking better education and employment opportunities in urban centres. This depopulation in the rural areas has resulted in the abandonment of farms, reduction in public services, and the closure of Garda stations, banks, post offices and schools. This makes it even harder to encourage people to return to these rural areas. 12 11. ​ Examine the physical factors that influence the development of agriculture in two contrasting Irish regions that you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] Answer: The two contrasting regions I have studied are the Greater Dublin Area (GDA) and the Western Region in Ireland. In the Western Region, 13.6% of the population is employed in agriculture. However, this is due to traditional family practices, rather than profitability. Whereas in the GDA, while only 2.6% of the population are employed in agriculture, it is highly productive and commercial. In this essay I will discuss how climate and soils impact the development of agriculture in both regions. Climate : The cool temperate climate experienced in the Western region hinders the type of agriculture that can take place. The high levels of relief rainfall prevent profitable arable farming, as soils are heavily leached and become infertile. The high moisture content stunts the growth of cereals and makes them more prone to fungal diseases, thus reducing their value. As well as this, the high cloud cover, as a result of frontal depressions, reduces the daily sunshine to just 3 hours on average. This means that arable crops, such as wheat and oats, are unable to ripen. Overall, arable farming accounts for just 2% of the total agriculture due to the unfavourable climatic conditions. In contrast, the cool temperate climate experienced in the GDA benefits arable farming. The rain-shadow effect of the upland areas means there is less rainfall and cloud cover, meaning there is longer hours of sunshine and drier conditions. Arable crops, such as wheat and barley are grown throughout the GDA region, with 15% of the national output of wheat grown here. The climate in the Western region is more suited to the growth of grasses, meaning pastoral farming is more common. However, the cooler temperatures and higher levels of rainfall mean the growing season is much shorter. This means that cattle have to be kept indoors for longer periods of the year, increasing the cost for farmers as they have to pay for silage etc. In contrast, the drier, warmer conditions in the GDA leads to a longer growing season and the early growth of grass. As a result, cattle can be fed grass for longer periods of the year, reducing the cost for the farmers. In saying this, in order to protect soils, ‘zero-grazing’ is becoming more popular. Due to the high costs, it is unprofitable for farmers in the Western region to keep cattle for more than 2 years. Instead, they sell the cattle to farmers in the GDA to fatten them, who then sell them to factories. Soils: Brown earth soils are located in the GDA. These are stoneless which means they can be easily worked, making cultivation on farms less labour intensive. In Kildare, these soils are formed on a bedrock of limestone, meaning they have a high calcium content. This helps to promote healthy bones in animals, which led to the development of intensive pastoral farming and bloodstock industry. In contrast, glaciers, which formed during the last Ice-Age, have scraped away much of the overlaying soils in the Western region. This means soils located here are thin, stony and infertile. As a result, the soils are very difficult to cultivate, making farming much more labour intensive. In north Dublin (GDA), brown earth soils mixed with marine sands to form light loam soils. These soils warm quickly when exposed to the sun. This helps to encourage plant growth and has led to the development of a commercial market gardening industry. In contrast to this, the boulder-clay soils found in the Western region have disrupted the drainage in the area and led to the formation of marshland. This land is unsuitable for arable farming, meaning pastoral farming is more common here. However, it is less profitable with farmers earning a subsistence income rather than commercial profits. Additionally, the high levels of rainfall in upland areas mean the soils are prone to leaching and waterlogging. This has led to the formation of blanket bogs, which limits the agriculture to the rough grazing of sheep. 13  EUROPEAN REGIONS ​ 12. Account for the development of agriculture in a European region (not Ireland) that you have studied, with reference to two of the following: Relief ​​ ​ Climate ​​ ​ Markets ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this answer I will examine the development of agriculture in the European core region of the Paris Basin. The Paris Basin is one of the most productive, diverse and intensely farmed regions in the EU due to many physical and socio-economic factors. In this essay, I will examine the influence of climate and soils. Climate There are two main climate types that dominate the Paris Basin region and assist in the development of agriculture in the region; cool temperate oceanic climate to the west of the region and cool temperate continental climate in more inland areas to the east of the region. The cool temperate oceanic climate in the west is influenced by the sea, resulting in mild, frost free winters (average 5oC) and warm summers (average 16oC). It experiences an average rainfall of 800mm of rainfall, which is evenly distributed throughout the year. These conditions are perfect for grass growing, meaning that pastoral farming is a common form of agriculture in this part of the region. The healthy grass allows for high numbers of livestock to be supported resulting in the development of intensive farming. Dairy farming and the rearing of beef cattle are commonly found in Brie and Normandy, with both regions producing world-famous dairy products, for example Brie and Camembert cheese. These farms also provide raw materials to food manufacturing plants, for example Danone gets milk from Brie. The cool temperate continental climate in the east is not influenced by the sea, resulting in hotter summers (average 19oC) and colder, frosty winters (average 2oC). It is also drier here, with an average of 700mm of rainfall per year, mostly convectional rainfall in the summer months. This has resulted in the development of specialised agriculture in the eastern part of the region. The long growing season of 280 days, long hours of sunshine and convectional rainfall are ideal conditions for ripening arable crops. Beauce specialises in the growth of cereals such as wheat, canola and barely, and today they have the highest wheat output per hectare in the EU. The climate here also helps produce grapes with a high acid content, which is perfect for the production of Champagne. Such vineyards can be found in the north of the Paris Basin in the Dry Champagne region. Soils There is a large variation of soils throughout the Paris Basin region, all of which have influenced the type of farming located there. The limestone bedrock found in Normandy and Brie have led to the formation of calcium-rich boulder clay soils. These soils have led to the development of pastoral farming, as well as the growth of apple orchards. This region has specialised in the growth of Golden Delicious apples. The fertile limon soils in Beauce and Il-de-France allow for the intensive growth of wheat. Sugarbeet is also grown here as a rotation crop to allow the limon soils to recover their nutrients. In the Dry Champagne region, soils are formed from the weathering of underlying chalk, resulting in dry and infertile soils. However, these soils are suitable for viticulture, but need to be irrigated during the dry months. If the soils are unable to support the growth of vines, the land is used for extensive sheep rearing. 14 13. ​ Explain the impact of climate on the development of agriculture in any two contracting European regions (not Ireland) that you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this essay I will explain the impact of climate on the development of agriculture in both the Mezzogiorno and the Paris Basin. The Paris Basin has a cool temperate climate which encourages agricultural activities, while the Mezzogiorno has a warm temperate climate which hinders agricultural activities. Climate in the Paris Basin There are two main climate types that dominate the Paris Basin region and assist in the development of agriculture in the region; cool temperate oceanic climate to the west of the region and cool temperate continental climate in more inland areas to the east of the region. The cool temperate oceanic climate in the west is influenced by the sea, resulting in mild, frost free winters (average 5oC) and warm summers (average 16oC). It experiences an average rainfall of 800mm of rainfall, which is evenly distributed throughout the year. These conditions are perfect for grass growing, meaning that pastoral farming is a common form of agriculture in this part of the region. The healthy grass allows for high numbers of livestock to be supported resulting in the development of intensive farming. Dairy farming and the rearing of beef cattle are commonly found in Brie and Normandy, with both regions producing world-famous dairy products, for example Brie and Camembert cheese. These farms also provide raw materials to food manufacturing plants, for example Danone gets milk from Brie. The cool temperate continental climate in the east is not influenced by the sea, resulting in hotter summers (average 19oC) and colder, frosty winters (average 2oC). It is also drier here, with an average of 700 mm of rainfall per year, mostly convectional rainfall in the summer months. This has resulted in the development of specialised agriculture in the eastern part of the region. The long growing season of 280 days, long hours of sunshine and convectional rainfall are ideal conditions for ripening arable crops. Beauce specialises in the growth of cereals such as wheat, canola and barely, and today they have the highest wheat output per hectare in the EU. The climate here also help produce grapes with a high acid content, which is perfect for the production of Champagne. Such vineyards can be found in the north of the Paris Basin in the Dry Champagne region. Climate in the Mezzogiorno The Mezzogiorno is characterised by a warm temperate oceanic climate, commonly referred to as a Mediterranean climate. This means the region experiences hot, very dry summers (average 29oC) and warm, moist winters (average 11oC). Unlike the Paris Basin, the climate of the Mezzogiorno provides a constant challenge for farmers in the region, as water supply is scarce due to the lack of rainfall. The region suffers from drought during the summer months of June to September due to the high evaporation rates, which stunts growth and lowers crop yields. As summer temperatures are so high, most farming is carried out during the winter, as it is still mild but experiences more rainfall. Wheat is planted in the winter months so it is ready to be harvested in May, before the high temperatures cause it to wilt. Olives are grown throughout the summer months as they are drought resistant, with thick barks and waxy leaves that help them retain moisture. The high summer temperatures have also led to intensive growth of citrus fruits as cash crops. The high temperatures allow for early ripening of fruits, which are then sold to the wealthier markets in north Italy and the EU. For example, Sicily produces nearly 2/3 of Italy’s citrus fruits. However, the growing of citrus fruits is limited to low-lying areas where more fertile soils and irrigation are available. Despite government incentives in irrigation, high evaporation rates and decreases in river volume during the summer months means it is not sustainable for the future. Grass growth is also limited due to the low levels of rainfall, meaning pastoral farming is limited to sheep and goat rearing along the upland slopes in the region. 15 14. ​ Describe and explain any two factors that influence the development of secondary economic activities in a European region you have studied. ​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this answer I will discuss the Paris Basin, which is the most developed manufacturing region in France. It is the economic centre of the country and employs more than 25% of the French workforce, of which 44% of these work in the manufacturing industry. There is a wide range of materials being produced in the region, which include; high quality luxury items such as expensive clothing (Chanel); car manufacturers have assembly plants in the city suburbs (Citroen). There is also heavy industry located in the Paris Basin, with steel manufacturing located close to the river on the Canal St. Denis. There are many human and physical factors, such as transport, labour supply and raw materials that have influenced the development of manufacturing in the Paris Basin which I will discuss in this essay. Transport The Paris Basin is one of the most accessible regions in Europe. The low-lying relief has enabled the construction of rail and road networks across the region and so it has excellent transport infrastructure and low transport costs which hugely benefits the manufacturing industry in the region. The River Seine runs through Paris for over 13km which has an inland port with access to the Atlantic Ocean through Le Havre. This has encouraged industrial development as the import and export of heavy, bulky raw materials and finished goods is made easier. Rail construction is easier on the low-lying landscape. The French high-speed rail network TGV has its centre in Paris so business people can reach the rest of France and Europe easily. It links Paris to other French cities, such as Marseille and Perpignan as well as European cities such as London (through the English Channel) and Brussels. This has attracted many companies to the regions (for example. Lancome). Raw Materials Having quick and easy access to raw materials is essential for the development of manufacturing in the Paris region. The wide range of agricultural raw materials has allowed the food and drink processing industries to flourish within this region. Champagne is the most famous product produced in the Paris Basin. Grapes that are grown on vineyards on the south-facing scarp of Ile de France are then aged in underground cellars (in towns such as Reims) and then produced into world famous Champagne wine. This is then exported internationally to countries all over the world. Wheat produced in Beauce is processed into flour which is then used in the baking industry for products such as bread. The good transport links in Paris has made it easy for exportation to European markets where there is high demand for such products in countries like Germany and Britain. The Brie region is a dairy farming region which provides raw materials such as milk for the production of Brie cheese which is then sold internationally. Labour supply There are 22 million people living in the Paris Basin. One third of this population is aged between 20-39, with many of them having management skills. The education system in France is considered to be one of the best in the world. The region offers 17 world class universities such as The University in Sorbonne in Paris, supplying many high-quality graduates to footloose industries (spin-off manufacturing industries such as Cartier). These footloose industries can locate themselves wherever best suits them and are not restricted on location. The highly skilled workforce leads to a very wealthy population. This then increases the demand for luxury items to be produced which in turn attracts these types of industries to the Paris Basin. 16 15. ​ Account for the development of one tertiary economic activity in a European region (not Ireland) that you have studied.​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this answer I will account for the development of tourism in the Paris Basin. Today, France is the number one tourist destination in the world. 45 million people visit Paris each year, of which 18.4 million are from overseas. Tourism has become a major contributor to the economy, generating €19.2 billion per year, with tourism accounting for 11% of all employment in Paris. In this essay I will discuss the influence of transport (accessibility) and services (range of attractions) on the development of tourism in the region. Accessibility/Transport Paris is a gateway to Europe and the rest of the world due to well-developed transport links. The low-lying relief has allowed for the easy construction of road and rail networks that connect to Paris, making the city a nodal point of national and international transport. A range of high-speed TGV trains link the region with the rest of France and other European countries, while the Eurostar and Eurotunnel provide direct train services to and from Great Britain. Paris is also a global air transportation hub; Charles de Gaulle Airport is the number one passenger and freight airport in Europe, Le Bourget Airport is popular for business travel and Beauvis Airport to the east of Paris is commonly used by low-cost airlines. These three airports carry over 100 million passengers per year, with Charles de Gualle being the second-busiest airport in Europe. There are also two large ports within the region, at Le Harve and Cherbourg, which facilitate passenger ferries and cruise liners. The large range of transport available into the region helps to attract a wide range of tourists, from young people looking for budget travel to wealthier people wanting to experience luxurious travel. The region itself has excellent internal transport networks, including the Metro, RER, suburban trains, buses and trams. This allows for easy transport for tourists when they visit, allowing them to explore larger areas within the region. Range of attractions (services) There is a wide variety of tourist attractions available in Paris which appeal to a range of tourist types, from young to old. Paris has over 4,000 historic sites and monuments that attract tourists from all over the world, including Notre Dame Cathedral and the Eiffel Tower. The Eiffel Tower attracts 7 million people per year alone. It also has many cultural attractions to attract people who might be interested in art, for example. The Lourve is located in Paris City, which attracts people who want to see the world-famous painting Mona Lisa. Disneyland Paris theme park is located 35 minutes outside Paris and this will attract younger tourists and families. Today, the theme park provides direct and indirect employment for over 55,000 people, while also generating over €40 billion in revenue since they opened. Paris is also an important player in sporting and event-based tourism. It hosts many national and international sporting fixtures and cultural events, including the 6 Nations rugby tournament, the Tour de France and Paris Fashion Week. Outside of the City of Paris people visit many other areas within the region. Medieval towns such as Caen attract people who are interested in history. Additionally, the Normandy beaches on the west coast of the Paris Basin region are visited by thousands of tourists who wish to remember lost relatives from World War II or to trace the development of the war in France. The city of Provins in Il-de-France is one of the best-known and best-preserved towns in France, which attracts tourists who want to see the preserved architecture. 17 16. ​ Discuss the factors which influence the development of one urban area in a European region (not Ireland) that you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this answer I will discuss the growth of Paris City, which is located within the Paris Basin region. Paris is a primate city and has grown rapidly over the past two centuries. The population of Paris is more than 11 million people, with the inner-city population exceeding 2.1 million people. Paris is a multifunctional city, meaning it has political, administrative, retail, educational, research and tourist functions which has led to its growth. There are many contributing factors that have led to the growth of Paris, including location, redevelopment and transport – which will all be discussed in this essay. Location of Paris City: In medieval times, defence was an important factor encouraging the growth of Paris. It developed at a bridging point on the River Seine. The location provided a defensive settlement, meaning that the city began to grow as people moved here for safety and communications. The River Seine links Paris with the coastal port of Le Havre, and contributed to the city’s growth as a centre of manufacturing and employment. Another factor that has influenced its growth are the natural soils that are found in the location of Paris city. Paris lies at the centre of a fertile, limon-covered lowland area (the Paris Basin). This region is the most important cereal-growing region in France and many industries developed to process the grains. This made Paris city the centre location for employment and attracted many people to live there, contributing to the growth of the city. Transport in Paris City: The gentle relief in Paris facilitated the construction of a well-developed transport network, which helped Paris develop as a nodal site and the focus of all major transport modes in France. It has a well-developed rail network which radiates out from Paris to destinations across France and Europe. The gentle relief also led to development of roads and motorways, resulting in a highly efficient road transport. Additionally, the city was able to expand and grow without any physical constraints and facilitated the development of a number of airports, which contributed to the economic growth of the area, allowing Paris to become connected to Europe and the rest of the world. However, this has also contributed to urban sprawl (the spreading of urban areas into the surrounding rural areas) within the city. The excellent transport facilities available in the city had allowed for the growth of a very successful primary and secondary economic sectors in the region. The transport of raw materials and finished products throughout the Paris Basin is much more efficient and cost effective due to the transport systems stemming from Paris City. To reduce the pressure on services, city planners encouraged decentralisation of manufacturing industries away from Paris. They introduced incentives which encouraged companies to move, including Renault which is now located in Flins, north of Paris. Many cosmetic companies also moved away, which led to the creation of the now-famous Cosmetic Valley in Chartres area. Inward migration in Paris City: After WWII, economic growth stimulated immigration, leading to a population increase in Paris City. To cater for this, huge apartment blocks were constructed in the suburbs. Such migration still continues today, as people are attracted to the many advantages of living in Paris City. Today Paris has a migrant population of 1.4 million people. This is expected to grow continually over the coming years with the population expected to reach over 14 million people by 2050. This has also led to urban sprawl as many migrants live in the suburbs and commute to the city for work. Five new towns have been built around the city – for example St Quentin-en-Yvelines located 30km west of Paris city. This town now houses 150,000 people and provides over 40,000 jobs. 18  ​ 17. Account for the population distribution throughout a European region (not Ireland) that you have studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this essay I will examine the population distribution in the Mezzogiorno region in Italy. The Mezzogiorno region has a population of approximately 21 million people, with 65% of these people living in rural areas. The average population density (the number of people per km2) is 40/km2. However, the population distribution is very uneven throughout the region. This is due to a number of human and physical factors that affect the region which I will discuss in this essay. Physical factors – relief and soils Soils and relief affect where people can live. The areas that surround Naples and Mt. Vesuvius has the highest population density (400/km2) due to the fact that it has a low-lying landscape covered with fertile volcanic and alluvial soils. These areas will have a higher level of economic activities which attracts people to live in these areas. The lowest population density is in Basilicata (less than 99/km2), which is located in a remote upland region with very poor soils. This makes transport and agriculture here difficult, meaning people won’t want to live there. The Apennine Mountains stretch north to south throughout the Mezzogiorno region. These Alpine fold mountains contain limestone and have very few rivers. This means the Apennines have low population density because the land is very steep, 45% of the area is over 400m above sea level and soil erosion is a major problem. These mountains prevent profitable farming and are a barrier to communications because there are very poor transport links available due to the difficulty and high costs involved in constructing effective transport networks. A lot of these mountains will be snow covered during the winter months which isolates them even further. Human factors – out-migration and Government incentives The Mezzogiorno attracts just 1% of Italy’s FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) which means there is a lack of well-paid industrial work. With unemployment rates at 25%, out-migration is a major problem. Young, well-educated people leave the region in search of better job opportunities and lifestyles in the north of Italy. Over 4 million people left the region between 1950 and 1970, mostly from rural areas which lowered the population density even further. From 1950, a government policy called Cassa Per Il Mezzogiorno Scheme funded agriculture and industrial development. This had an effect on the population distribution in the region. Drainage of marsh land, irrigation schemes and reclamation of land of coastal lowlands in the south made these areas suitable for farming and settlement. People were encouraged to relocate from upland villages to lowland coastal areas, thus changing the population distribution of people in the region. The Cassa Scheme also developed heavy industry in towns such as Bari, Taranto and Naples which attracted people to live in these areas as there were new job opportunities such as oil refining and steel production leading to an increase in population density. There was also investment into the tourism industry under the Cassa Scheme which attracted people to work in scenic coastal areas such as Sorrento. Airports and rail networks were improved which provided more job opportunities. Today, the population density in Sicily is increasing rapidly due to the arrival of African migrants and Syrian refugees. They travel by boat from Libya and arrive in Sicily daily, putting huge strains on housing and medical services. 19  SUB-CONTINENTAL REGION - BRAZIL 18. ​ Account for the development of agriculture in a continental/sub-continental region (not in Europe) that you have studied.​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this answer I will discuss the development of agriculture in the subcontinental region of Brazil. Brazil has many natural resources and is ranked top in the world for the production and export of coffee, beef, sugar and oranges. Agriculture and agribusiness are worth 25% of Brazil’s GDP, with farmland occupying over 60 million hectares of the land of Brazil. The EU buys roughly 42% of Brazil's agriculture exports of coffee, cattle, sugar cane, crops and wood. There are many factors which influence the development of agriculture in Brazil, including the climate and the markets, both of which will be discussed in this essay. Climate Over 90% of Brazil experiences a tropical climate and this has influenced the type of agricultural products people can grow. The tropical climate has high temperatures ranging between 28oC-32oC all year. Humidity is very high and frost is very rare in these regions. Precipitation varies from 1,000-2,000mm and falls throughout the year. These characteristics of a tropical climate allow the production of sugar cane, coffee and timber. Sugar cane plants thrive in hot and humid climates, with sugar cane production being concentrated in the north-east coast of Brazil. Sugar cane is used for fuel. The cane gets crushed and ethanol, which is a biofuel, is extracted and used as a more environmentally friendly fuel to run cars etc. (more than half the vehicles are run on biofuel in Brazil). Raw sugar cane is also exported to Europe and North America. The main coffee producing region in Brazil is in the south-eastern state of Minas Gerais. Coffee production requires a climate that has high temperatures (15-24oC) and plenty of rainfall (1,500-2,00mm/year) which are both provided with a tropical climate. These climatic conditions encourage the flowering of coffee plants and show how climate can directly impact the economic activities taking place in a region. Today, Brazil grows one third of the world’s supply of coffee beans with over 10 million people employed in its production throughout the country. In 2015, coffee production was worth over €8 billion to the economy. Markets With a population of over 209 million people, Brazil has a very large domestic market. Brazil has 17 cities with a population of over 1 million people, most of which are located along the eastern coastline. This means there is a constant demand for fresh farm produce. Additionally, exports of agricultural produce earn Brazil €47.7 billion. Brazil is a member of Mercosur, which is a political free trade agreement between the South American countries. This then gives Brazil free access to an even larger market of over 187.5 million people. Multinational corporations (MNCs), such as Nestle, have located in Brazil to produce coffee. Brazil exports 30% of the world’s coffee, making it the largest producer of coffee in the world. Soya bean became increasingly popular as feed for cattle, poultry and pigs in the USA and EU. The increased global demand led to Brazil becoming the second-largest producer and exporter of soya bean in the world. The production of soya beans is highly mechanised, with only one farmer needed to work every 200 hectares of land. This means that the production and exportation of soya beans is hugely profitable for the economy of Brazil. In 2019, Brazil exported 120 million tonnes of soya, generating €14 billion for the economy. 20 19. ​ Examine how any two factors have influenced the development of secondary economic activities in a continental/sub-continental region (not in Europe), that you have studied ​​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER : In this essay I will discuss the development of manufacturing in the subcontinental region of Brazil. Brazil is a newly industrialised country (NIC), meaning that it is experiencing rapid industrialisation and increased foreign direct investment. As a result, today more than 20% of the workforce are employed in the manufacturing industry, a figure which is growing every year. Factors such as the availability of raw materials and Government incentives have both influenced the development of manufacturing, both of which will be discussed in this essay. Raw Materials Today Brazil is the 9th largest producer of steel worldwide. This is because of the supply of the raw materials of iron ore and limestone, found in the south-east region of Brazil. These are raw materials that are used to produce steel, meaning that there are a large number of steel factories found in the south-eastern states of Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro. Additionally, Brazil uses charcoal generated from the burning of the Amazon Rainforest to help produce steel. Another raw material that is very valuable to the manufacturing industry is sugar cane. The tropical climate in Brazil provides the perfect conditions for the growth of sugarcane, which is then used to make ethanol. The ethanol is then mixed with oil to produce ‘flex fuel’ which reduces oil consumption and carbon emissions in Brazil. Today, 42% of oil needs have been replaced with ethanol and over 70% of cars in Brazil use ‘flex fuel’. The clothing industry is another industry that benefits greatly from the raw materials available throughout Brazil. Leather is sourced from the very large cattle industry, while wool is sourced from the sheep rearing in the Brazilian highlands. There is now increased demand for clothing due to the ever-improving standard of living, meaning that of the 9.5 million garments manufactured each year, only 15% of them are exported to other countries. This further benefits the Brazilian economy. Another important natural resource for manufacturing is hydro-electric power (HEP). With huge investment HEP helps to provide power to heavy energy-hungry industries, such as the steel manufacturing in the southeast region. This helped encourage companies to locate in this location as there was access to cheaper power, reducing their production costs. Today, Brazil is the 2nd largest producer of HEP in the world, after China. Government Incentives Brazil has been able to develop into an NIC due to the Government incentives that have been in place over the last few decades. After WWII international trade was disrupted, and Brazil found it difficult to import goods. As a result, the Government started an import substitution scheme, which aimed to produce goods in Brazil rather than import them from the US and Europe. With a number of incentives and policies, manufacturing rapidly grew from the 1970’s onwards. One policy introduced was the National Ethanol Programme. The aim of this was to reduce oil imports and over dependence on oil. Car manufacturing using fossil fuels was replaced with cars using ethanol. Additionally, the formation of Mercosur in 1991, a free-trade agreement between South American countries, also benefited the car manufacturing industry. It helped attract multinational corporations (MNCs), in particular car manufacturers from Europe and Asia. With huge investment from the MNCs, technology improved and workers became more skilled, which helped Brazil become the leading car manufacturer it is today. The government still implements policies to protect the car manufacturing industry, including protectionism policies. Today, cars that are not produced within the Mercosur region are required to pay an extra 30% tax. This was to protect the market from cheaper Chinese imports. By 2017, 10 out of the 12 steps in car production must occur in Mercosur countries to be exempted from the 30% tax. Additionally, they removed taxes on cars manufactured in Brazil, encouraging people to buy new cars from their own country. Today, there are more than 1,000 new cars bought in Sao Paulo each day, and 65% of all new cars bought in South America are produced in Brazil. 21  ​ 20. Account for the development of one tertiary economic activity in any continental/sub-continental that you have ​​ studied. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER: The sub-continental region I have studied is Brazil. Although Brazil is located a long distance from the wealthy markets of Europe and the US, the tourism sector has rapidly grown over the last decade. Today, the tourism sector accounts for 8% of the country’s GDP, and 7% of Brazil’s direct and indirect employment. Factors, such as the range of attractions and accessibility have helped develop the tourism industry in Brazil. Range of Attractions: There is a wide range of physical attractions that bring tourism to Brazil. For example, the Amazon Rainforest, which contains over half of all the plants, animals and insects in the world. This will attract tourists who want to experience unique habitats. In recent years there has been an increasing number of tour operators offering tour guides, where tourists can partake in a range of activities including swimming with pink dolphins and visiting native tribes. And while this form of ecotourism is more profitable than clearing the forest for agriculture, it still only accounts for a small percentage of tourism income in Brazil. Brazil is becoming an increasingly popular destination for sun holidays. Brazil has over 9,000 km of eastern coastlines, with many long sandy beaches. This, along with the warm tropical climate, promotes more traditional sun holidays. For example, Copacabana beach in Rio, is one of the most famous and visited beaches in the world. Brazil has a very long history, and as a result, there are many cultural attractions for tourists to visit. For example, the city of Olinda has a famous heritage site dating back to Portuguese colonization. Preservation of the site dates back to 1930, and is one of the best examples of a Portuguese colonial town in the world. Brazil is also famous for its carnival festival, which takes place in the lead up to Ash Wednesday. The most famous Carnival takes place in Rio, with over 2 million people visiting for the 4 day event. Over 250,000 people are employed part-time for the festival, and it generates €590 million for local hotels, restaurants etc. Finally, sporting events attract a huge number of tourists to Brazil. Securing the 2014 FIFA World Cup created a new market for tourism within the country. People from participating countries visited Brazil for the 4 week tournament, with a further 3 billion people watching on TV. Brazil had exposure like it never had before, with over 1 million people visiting, 60% of which visited for the first time. This generated an interest in people from all over the world, and resulted in increased tourism in the years that followed. Accessibility: Given the size of Brazil, construction of an extensive transport network creates huge challenges. However, transport is improving in areas which receive the most tourism. Although many Brazilians can’t afford it, air travel is becoming increasingly important due to the growing demand created by tourism. International airports are limited mainly to the south-east. São Paulo, Rio and Manaus have the largest airports, with over 30 million people travelling through them each year. As a result of this, a lot of tourism in the country is concentrated to the south-east, meaning that most of the country is not able to benefit from this industry. More recently, internal flights are becoming more accessible from the main international airports. This is allowing tourists to visit more remote locations throughout the country. Again, the most developed rail network is concentrated along the south-eastern coast. It is very underdeveloped in the rest of the region, and as a result, prevents travel beyond the coast. A modern underground Metro system was developed in both Rio and Sao Paulo, which allows for the easy movement of people around these cities. There is also a high-speed rail link connecting both Rio and Sao Paulo, allowing passengers to complete the journey between the two cities in 90 minutes. This has massively boosted tourism between both cities. Plans are in place to increase rail links to more remote locations in Brazil by 2025, to help encourage more people to travel to other regions in the country. While tourism is growing in Brazil, it is still faced with many challenges. Its reputation of crime makes lone travellers nervous to visit. In addition to this, there has not been enough money invested in tourism infrastructure, and as a 22  result a lot of it still remains underdeveloped. For example, there is a lack of high-end hotels, well-trained staff and tour guides, all of which prevent tourism. ​ 21. Account for population distribution throughout a Continental/Sub Continental region (not in Europe) that you have studied. ​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER: In this essay I will examine the population distribution in the sub-continental region of Brazil. Today, Brazil has a population of 209 million people, with a population density of 24 people per km2. However, the population is very unevenly distributed, with over 80% of the population living within 320 km of the east coast. In this essay I will discuss the factors that have influenced the distribution of the population including; historical factors, location of industry/raw materials, and improvements in standard of living. Historical factors & location of industry: When the Portuguese colonists first arrived in Brazil, they founded cities and towns along the eastern coast as it was the location where they first landed. As well as this, the coast had a much more tolerable climate than regions further inland, which the Portuguese colonists had not yet become accustomed to. As a result, these regions started to become more densely populated, which continued for centuries. In the 1950’s, the Government attempted to move the population away from the overcrowded cities along the east coast. The capital Brasilia was built over 1,200 km inland, to help attract migration of people to the new city. The tactic worked, and today Brasilia is the fourth-largest city in the country, with over 2.9 million inhabitants. Migrants were also attracted to move west and more inland to exploit the country's natural resources. This has resulted in the destruction of the Amazon Rainforest, as trees are being cleared for industrial activity and agriculture. Today, the south-east remains the most densely populated region in Brazil, due to the concentration of industry in the area. The industrial triangle of Sao Paulo, Rio and Belo Horizonte attract millions of internal economic migrants, who abandon rural areas in search of a better standard of living in these cities. However, this continues to place pressure on services in these cities, for example, housing. As a result, the lack of housing has led to the development of slums known as favelas. Today, over 8 million people live in favelas in Sao Paulo. The north-east of the country remains the least densely populated area in the country. This is due to the harsh climate which discourages settlement. Improved standard of living: Brazil has more than half the total population of South America. Between 1900 and 2019, the population increased from 17 million to 209 million. This is a result of a number of factors, including improvements in standard of living. With improved technology and healthcare, meant that more children were surviving childhood, and life expectancy increased. However, this improved standard of living has meant that the rate of growth has slowed over the last 2 decades. In 2019, Brazil’s fertility rate was 1.73 per woman, down from 6.2 in 1960, indicating that women are having far fewer children in more recent years. This is due to better education and improved status of women in Brazilian society. As more women are staying in education for longer, they are pursuing careers, and therefore delaying starting a family. In addition to this, the lower infant mortality rate, means that mothers are having fewer children. Life expectancy is also increasing, with males expected to live to 68, and women expected to live to 76. These factors mean that the population remains high throughout the country. 23  ​ 22. Examine the factors that have influenced the development of one urban area in a continental/sub-continental region that you have studied.​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] ANSWER: In this answer I will discuss the growth of Sao Paulo, which is located in the sub-continental region of Brazil. Sao Paulo is the largest, most economically important city in Brazil. The population of the city is 21.1 million people, and it is continually increasing. The population of the inner city is 12.1 million people, which makes it a megacity (a city with a population of over 10 million people). In this essay I will discuss the historical development of Sao Paulo, and the influence of industrialisation and inward migration. Historical development: Sao Paulo was founded in 1554 by the Portuguese colonists who had settled along the eastern coast. It was originally developed as the centre for exporting raw materials. Then in the 18th century, gold was discovered in the state of Sao Paulo, causing it to grow in economic importance. The population of the city grew, as the gold trade attracted more people to settle here. At this time, São Paulo also became the core market for the sale and export of sugar. In 1934, Sao Paulo became a university city, which created a more skilled workforce. With this the city became the financial centre, which encouraged more wealthy people to the area. Industrial development: Industrial development was slow until the start of WWII. In wartime, Brazil was unable to import the goods it needed, so the Brazilian government invested in producing its own goods. And Sao Paulo was chosen as the main city for manufacturing due to its developed transport system, large population and availability of raw materials. Today, 50% of Brazil’s industrial production occurs in Sao Paulo. Petrochemical, agrichemicals and fertilisers are some of the main products of the city. While industrial development makes the city much wealthier, it comes at a cost. Air pollution caused by manufacturing and traffic congestion has led to Sao Paulo being nicknamed ‘cough city’. There are approx. 7.6 million cars in the city, and over 2,000 industrial plants. With this level of air pollution, comes mainly health problems. The government has implemented several policies to help reduce the amount of air pollution. Policies include restricting driving and to reduce emissions from vehicles, and to reduce industrial pollutants. These policies have helped to reduce air pollution by 21% over the last 4 years. Inward migration: With the abolition of slavery in 1888, large numbers of former slaves moved to Sao Paulo in search of work on sugar and coffee plantations. Today, many of their descendants continue to live in the city. As industry developed in the city, large numbers of migrants moved there in search of employment. However, the rapidly growing population placed huge pressure on the services in the city, leading to many families living in terrible conditions. roughly 20% of the population live in favelas, which lack basic services, such as sanitation, water and healthcare. On top of this, rubbish collections are not possible in favelas due to the narrow streets, leading to the high risk of fires, and the spread of diseases. Today, the favelas continue to grow, because it is cheap, and often close to work for the inhabitants. In order to receive electricity, authorities developed a method of burning methane gas emitted from landfill sites. However, given the high level of timber and uncollected rubbish on the streets, devastating fires are common. 24  THE EU Discuss the potential challenges facing the future development of the European Union with reference to factors such as political union, economic union and sovereignty. ​ ​ ​ ​ [30 marks] The European Union is an example of a region whose boundaries have changed overtime. When Croatia joined the EU in 2013 it became the 28th member state of the union, which now has a population of over 506 million people and 24 official languages. More recently, the United Kingdom left the union, once again changing the boundaries. One future challenge facing the EU is increased resistance to effective migratory policy, while another is ensuring the economic stability across its member states. Both of these challenges will be discussed in this essay. Migratory Policy – political union: A rise in anti-migrant feeling has occurred in EU countries that have experienced terrorism, economic recession and austerity. The rise in far-right, anti-EU parties has made many governments fear that accepting more migrant will lead to the growth in popularity of Eurosceptic politicians. Much of this began to occur during the refugee crisis of 2015, in which over 1 million refugees entered the EU, most of which came from war-torn Syria. The crisis revealed how fragile much of the EU’s migratory policy was. The Dublin Agreement, which declares that the first state in which a person seeks asylum is responsible for processing their claim, was abandoned by many countries such as Italy, Greece and Germany. These countries were overburdened with migrants and they declared that they would no longer be applying the Dublin Agreement to asylum seekers from Syria. Many other member states saw this as a refusal of these countries to do their lawful duty, while they themselves felt that other member states had not supported them, with this leading to increased political tension within the EU. In response the EU attempted to implement a resettlement programme that would see all EU members share responsibility for giving asylum. However, this continues to be challenged today, as many member states are opposed to agreeing to such conditions, meaning little progress has been made. Today, over 900,000 asylum seekers continue to wait for their claims to be processed across countries in the EU, including Ireland who have over 1,500 people living in Direct Provision centres across the country. Economic Union – economic stability: One of the largest economic challenges facing the EU is implementing its Fiscal Compact, which aims to prevent its member states from getting into debt. However, resistance to this policy has been strong, as in order to do this, countries must be willing to allow their domestic budgets to be examined by the EU. While some countries see this as a step towards economic unity, many others see it as a step towards losing independence and sovereignty. If the EU is to avoid future issues such as the Eurozone Debt Crisis in 2008, then it will require more control over borrowing and lending to and from member states. Furthermore, the bailouts granted to highly indebted members such as Ireland and Greece highlighted different views within the EU, with many countries disagreeing to the terms of the bailouts. With Brexit, the EU will lose an annual €10 billion contribution from the UK and see a reduction in the market size. This will reduce the economic growth and introduce further uncertainty amongst its members, making the future of the economic union very difficult. This also raises the question as to whether the EU will be able to support future enlargements, with the 2004 enlargement coasting €25 billion. EU enlargement is a drain on economic resources and there is a concern that with the future enlargement the EU may not be able to support new member states. 25