A History of Korea PDF

A History of Korea  Understanding Korea No. 10 A HISTORY OF...

A History of Korea  Understanding Korea No. 10 A HISTORY OF KOREA Written by Song Ho-jung Jeon Deog-jae Lim Ki-hwan Kim In-ho Lee Kang-hahn Choi E-don Understanding Korea Series No. 10 Chung Yeon-sik A History of Korea Suh Young-hee Chun Woo-yong Published in December 2019 Published by The Academy of Korean Studies Hahn Monica Chung Chang-hyun The Academy of Korean Studies 323 Haogae-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13455, Korea Translated by Daniel Kane Phone: 82-31-739-9725 Jong-Chol An Fax: 82-31-739-9726 Homepage: www.aks.ac.kr Keith Seidel Copyright © 2019 The Academy of Korean Studies All rights reserved No portion of the contents may be reproduced in any form without written permission of The Academy of Korean Studies. ISBN 979-11-5866-604-0 03910 Edited and designed by Korea Sharing Welfare Association Printed in the Republic of Korea Contents 8 Foreword Chapter 4. Goryeo and East Asia 10 Introduction 90 Emergence of the Later Three Kingdoms 94 Goryeo Reunification and the Nature of Goryeo Society 103 The Goryeo Dynasty and the States of East Asia Chapter 1. P  rehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities Chapter 5. G  oryeo and the Mongol Empire 16 Prehistoric Society and Culture 112 Goryeo’s Resistance to the Mongol Invasion (1231-1259) 22 The Establishment and Development of Gojoseon 116 Diplomacy with the Mongols, and Management of Domestic Affairs 30 Ancient Korean Society and the Lelang Commandery (1260-1307) 125 A New Era for Goryeo: Mixed-blood Monarchy (14th Century) 137 Changes in the Goryeo-Yuan Relationship (1350s and ’60s) Chapter 2. Th  e Foundation and Development of the Three 141 Shifting Northeast Asian Order: Goryeo, Northern Yuan and Ming Kingdoms (1370s, ’80s and ’90s) 38 Establishment and Expansion of the Three Kingdoms 48 Administrative Systems and Social Makeup of the Three Kingdoms 54 Culture and Religion of the Three Kingdoms Chapter 6. The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 146 Founding of Joseon Chapter 3. The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of 151 Political Structure and Conditions of the Commoners Northern and Southern States 158 Economic Structure and Status of the Common People 66 Goguryeo’s Wars with Sui and Tang China 163 Structure of and Changes in the Status System 71 The Silla Wars of Unification 77 The Flourishing of Unified Silla 82 Founding and Development of Balhae  Chapter 10. N  ational Division and the Korean War Chapter 7. C  hanges of the Late Joseon 242 Liberation and Division 170 The Japanese and Manchu Invasions: Trial and Resurgence 256 The Korean War and Permanent Division 178 A New Society 185 A New Crisis Chapter 11. T  oday’s Korea Chapter 8. Th  e Modern World and the Korean Empire 266 The Spread of Industrialization and Popular Culture (Daehan jeguk) 274 The Expansion of the Democratization Movement and Establishment of a Democratic System 194 Opening of Ports and the Enlightenment Policy 278 Policies for the Unification of North and South Korea and Striving 199 The Empire of Korea and Movement to Establish a Modern State Towards Unification 209 Diplomacy of the Korean Empire and the Road to Colonization Chapter 9. Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean 284 About the Authors Independence Movement 286 Translators 218 Japanese Aggression in Korea and the Korean National Movement after the Russo-Japanese War 220 Japanese Annexation of Korea and the March First Movement 226 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement in the 1920s 233 Japanese Invasion of Mainland China and the Korean Independence Movement 8 9 FOREWORD The Academy of Korean Studies(AKS) has made contribution to the thank Daniel Kane, Professor An Jong-chol and Keith Seidel for their studies of history and culture of Korea internationally for the past four excellent translations. Our thanks should go to the institutions that decades. The Center for International Affairs (CEFIA) at AKS has allow pictures to use in this book including the National Museum of committed to the Understanding Korea Project since 2003. It aims Korea, Cultural Heritage Administration, Kyujanggak Institute For to promote the better understanding of Korea by various methods in- Korean Studies, Seoul National University Library, Buyeo National cluding the development of sources on Korean history and culture and Museum, Gyeongju National Museum, Northeast Asian History investigation of Korea-related articles in the international textbooks. Foundation, Korea University Museum, Jangseogak of AKS, National With this objective in mind, CEFIA has published the Understanding Palace Museum of Korea, Royal Portrait Museum, National Folk Korea Series. This series offers in-depth knowledge to international Museum of Korea, The Museum of Silhak, Kansong Art and Culture community who wants to understand Korea. As the series covers a Foundation, Myongji-LG Korean Studies Library, The Independence variety of Korea-related topics, we hope it would be available to many Hall of Korea, Seodaemun Prison History Hall and National Archives readers. of Korea. A History of Korea is the tenth volume in the Understanding Korea It is our hope that this book will contribute to a better understanding Series. It explains the history of Korea from prehistoric times to the of Korean history and to raising the interest of the international com- present. This book, divided by periods, helps readers to understand munity in the history of Korea. the main events and overall characteristics of Korean history. It covers each era’s political systems, culture, society, and foreign relations. As a concise introduction to Korean history, this book would be suitable for international Koreanists and students, textbook authors, and the general readers. Center for International Affairs Academy of Korean Studies Many people have assisted us to make this publication possible. We appreciate authors of chapters such as Professor Song Ho-jung, Professor Jeon Deog-jae, Professor Lim Ki-hwan, Professor Kim In- ho, Professor Lee Kang-hahn, Professor Choi E-don, Professor Chung Yeon-sik, Professor Suh Young-hee, Professor Chun Woo-yong, Professor Hahn Monica and Director Chung Chang-hyun. We also 10 11 INTRODUCTION Korea has an ancient, rich, and dynamic history. These experiences peninsula anew, and describes Goryeo’s relationship with other East have shaped the identity of the Korean people and created their unique Asian states. Chapter 5, “Goryeo and the Mongol Empire,” deals with culture, characteristic mindset, and ideological values. Outside of the Mongol invasion, Goryeo’s resistance, and the unique form of co- Korea, Korean history is typically viewed from a Chinese or Japanese existence that emerged between Goryeo and Mongol Yuan dynasty in perspective or in the context of East Asian history. This has resulted in China. This chapter helps readers understand how Goryeo was able a general lack of understanding and an abundance of misconceptions to maintain its national sovereignty and identity even as other coun- regarding Korea’s history. We live in a time of increasing informatiza- tries were swallowed up by Mongol Yuan Empire. Chapter 6, “The tion and globalization. Understanding each country’s history and cul- Founding of Joseon and Formulation of its State System,” recalls the ture is needed more than ever, and that understanding must be from a disorder of the late-Goryeo period and describes the political, social, worldwide and comparative point of view. To this end, this book was and economic characteristics of the new dynasty that appeared in its designed to help readers outside of Korea easily understand the main wake, the Joseon dynasty. Chapter 7, “Changes of the Late Joseon,” events in the development of Korean history describes Joseon’s tax reforms and efforts to improve agricultural The eleven chapters in this book cover the totality of Korean his- productivity following its struggles with both Japan and the Manchus. tory, from the peninsula’s ancient civilizations to present-day Korea. This chapter also explains the social changes and external threats that Chapter 1, “Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Joseon experienced during the subsequent eighteenth and nineteenth Politics,” details the ancient civilizations and the development of centuries. Chapter 8, “The Modern World and the Korean Empire,” de- Gojoseon, the first nation on the Korean Peninsula. Chapter 2, “The lineates Joseon’s efforts to enact modernization policies and establish a Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms,” describes modern nation called the “Korean Empire” (Daehan jeguk) in order to the establishment and development of the early Korean kingdoms combat both external and internal threats. This chapter examines the of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. Chapter 3, “The Wars of Korean Korean people’s hopes and efforts to maintain an independent nation Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States,” explains even as the international powers around them sought to seize control the political and diplomatic dynamics between the Three Kingdoms of the peninsula. Chapter 9, “Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean and the process of their eventual unification into one nation. It goes Independence Movement,” covers the Japanese seizure of Korea, on to detail the formation and development of the state of Balhae, Japan’s colonial rule of its new colony, and the independence move- which existed in what is today northern area of the Korean Peninsula ment that emerged amongst the Korean people. Chapter 10, “National and northeast China. Chapter 4, “Goryeo and East Asia,” deals with Division and the Korean War,” describes Korean efforts to establish an the establishment and characteristics of Goryeo, which unified the independent, unified nation against the backdrop of the global Cold 12 War following World War II. This chapter goes on to examine the es- tablishment of opposing governments in North and South Korea, the outbreak of the Korean War, and the hardening of national division. Chapter 11, “Today’s Korea,” describes how Korea went on to indus- trialize after the destruction of the Korean War and the subsequent blossoming of democratization after decades of military dictatorship. It also covers efforts to build a peace regime on the Korean Peninsula. The scholars who authored these chapters are the foremost experts in their respective periods of Korean history, and they have imparted to these chapters their wealth of knowledge and insights. Despite space limitations, this book also includes visual aids and maps to help readers understand the contents more clearly. It is our hope that this book will increase understanding of and interest in Korean history and convey Korea’s historical experiences to a larger audience. 14 BCE 500th millenium~BCE 108 BCE 500th millenium Paleolithic Age begins Chapter 1 BCE 10,000 Neolithic Age begins BCE 2333 Dangun Wanggeom founds Gojoseon (Dongguk tonggam) BCE 2000~1500 Bronze Age begins BCE 400 Iron Age begins BCE 4th century Jin is founded in the southern region of the Korean Peninsula BCE 3rd century Buyeo is founded in Manchuria PREHISTORIC CULTURE BCE 194 Wiman becomes king of Gojoseon after ousting King AND THE FORMATION OF Jun CENTRALIZED POLITIES BCE 108 Gojoseon falls after Han China’s invasion Song Ho-jung translated by Daniel Kane 16 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 17 Prehistoric Society and Culture ince (in present-day North Korea), and following this at Seokjang-ri in Gongju and in the caves of Mt. Seungni in Deokcheon. Among Life and society of the Paleolithic period these discoveries, the mandible bones and molars excavated from the caves of Mt. Seungni in Deokcheon have become important evi- The Paleolithic Age, during which humanity lived in closest connec- dence pointing to human habitation of the Korean Peninsula dating tion with nature, refers to the period from about 2.5 million years back to the Paleolithic period. ago to 10,000 years ago. During this time, humans survived through On the Korean Peninsula as throughout the world, Paleolithic hunting and gathering, using various tools fashioned of chipped peoples dwelled in caves or rocky outcroppings and acquired food stone. resources through hunting and foraging. The remains found at Paleolithic remnants in Manchuria and on the Korean Peninsula Jeongok-ri in Yeoncheon and at Suyanggae in Danyang were situ- date back to about fifty thousand years ago. On the Korean Peninsula, ated in an expansive river basin, well-placed for finding cave shelters an increasing number of bone remains confirmed as belonging to and access to water. Paleolithic humans have been found, beginning with the first dis- For the purposes of foraging, they fashioned thrushes, fist axes, covery in 1962 at Gulpo-ri in Unggi, North Hamgyeong-do prov- and stone cleavers to suit their purposes. They also made small, sharp objects such as various scrapers and picks, and fashioned tools from animal bones and horns. Notably, they used fire to cook their food. Because the primary concern in the Paleolithic period was subsis- tence through hunting and gathering, the number of people required for this decided the size of a given social group, with the standard size seeming to be about twenty-five people. As no socioeconomic gaps differentiated rich from poor, the hunting duties would have been distributed equally within the group. Life and society of the Neolithic period Fist axe from Jeongok-ri, Yeoncheon National Museum of Korea The Paleolithic came to an end approximately ten thousand years Fist axes were originally thought to have been used only in Africa and Europe. This fist axe gained worldwide attention following its discovery in 1977 amongst Early Stone Age artifacts in Jeongok-ri, before the present era as the climate warmed and the world entered Yeoncheon. 18 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 19 the postglacial age. During this period conditions were warm and teriors might contain simply a hearth and cooking pot. Dwellings humid and with the rise in sea levels flora and fauna also changed. were typically of a size to accommodate a household of 4 to 5 people The retreating glaciers also shaped the landscape of the Korean while about 15 to 20 such dwellings would comprise a collective Peninsula into what it is today. With warming temperatures plant settlement. life increased and forests grew denser and smaller animals such as With settled life, people began to build dwellings on the plains, deer, wild boar, and rabbits began to supplant the larger mammals and these dwellings began to include places for the storage of seed that inhabited the ice age landscape. In this transformed environ- and food. Production of pottery for the cooking or eating of food ment humans first began to produce their food through primitive increased. People engaged in fishing, hunting, and foraging while agricultural practices and animal husbandry. carrying out communal life in groups made up of scores of clans. With such changes in the natural environment, humans began to Neolithic peoples fashioned hempen garments using spindles and fashion the polished stone tools required of their new livelihoods. needles made of bone, a work done largely by women. Neolithic peo- The bow was developed as were various stone implements like ples also made objects representative of fertility, such as figures of knives, axes, adzes, and whetstones. Developed as well were var- pregnant women and goddesses, as a way of praying for abundance. ious other tools for fishing as well as agricultural implements such In a context where agriculture was so completely dependent on as semicircular blades and mortar and pestles. During the Neolithic natural conditions, nature and its forces held a compelling interest to period the primary means of livelihood consisted of hunting, fishing, the peoples of the Neolithic. During this period, people had animist and the foraging of wild plants. In the early period, subsistence was notions, wherein not only humans but all natural objects possessed aided through the fashioning of spears and fishing hooks from such souls, including the sun, water, and mountains, and they maintained things as deer antlers, while those living on the sea coasts or along a totemic belief system that saw the worship of certain animals. rivers were also able to gather and eat things like shellfish. The late Further, there was the belief that the soul lived on after death, and Neolithic saw the emergence of primitive agriculture in some regions. thus emerged worship of the soul and of ancestors, and shamanism During the Neolithic, those inhabiting the Korean Peninsula and also appeared with its soothsayers and the attendant belief in the Manchuria largely cultivated minor cereals such as millet or sesame. power of magic. With the adoption of agriculture, the field became the locus of daily The people of the Neolithic lived together based on clan affilia- life. People of the Neolithic commonly dwelt along rivers and on tion. In this period, because children came to know intimately only low hills. The floors of dwellings were burned with fire and made their mother’s side, groups naturally formed around the mother’s hard, with pillars and rafters then built to support a roof. Their in- lineage group. And because harvests were not only impossible to 20 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 21 store for long periods, but were the result of collective labor, they opment of rice paddies. Although we can find traces of rice farming were distributed equitably among group members. Therefore, so- in the previous Neolithic era, rice cultivation began in earnest during ciety from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic period is termed primi- the Bronze Age. With the development of settled agriculture, people tive communal society. came to inhabit the banks of rivers, the lower slopes of mountains, or the bases of hills. Farming and animal husbandry now became much more important than hunting and gathering. From Bronze Age to Iron Age culture The Bronze Age saw the collapse of primitive communal societies. About a thousand years before the Common Era, the use of bronze Gradually, the various tribal groups established economic ties with tools emerged on the Korean Peninsula. With the advent of this one another, and rivalry between the tribes regarding the right to Bronze Age, the former egalitarian relationships vanished and social use major resources intensified, leading to both domination and classes emerged among the populace while discord and confronta- subordination among them. In the villages, moats and wooden bar- tions frequently led to war. ricades were erected for defensive purposes, Geomdan-ri in Ulsan During this period, tribal chiefs possessed the power of priest- and Songguk-ri in Buyeo being examples of this. Over time, these hood, and they made display of their dignified status through wooden barricades gave way to earthen walls. This trend is similar symbols of religious authority, such as bronze swords and bronze to the emergence of walled city-states in the West. These walled mirrors. In addition, the development of various wooden tools led to significant advances in farming and animal husbandry. The use of bronze implements allowed for the production of sharper and more precise tools. Although farming implements such as hoes, scythes, and plowshares continued to be fashioned of stone and wood as before, their quality improved. Bronze was a very valuable commodity in itself, and thus difficult for ordinary people to possess. Rulers alone used bronze to augment the prestige and authority that befitted their status. In this period, the people primarily cultivated varieties of millet, such as Foxtail millet, proso millet, and sorghum. During the Bronze Dolmen located in Bugeun-ri, Ganghwa-gun ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration Age, water began to be diverted into low-lying ground for the devel- Dolmen are thought to be the graves of important persons from the Bronze Age. In 2000, areas in Korea with many dolmen were registered as World Heritage Sites, including Gochang, Hwasun, and Ganghwa. 22 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 23 fortress towns became political and religious centers controlling the various villages of their given area. Powerful rulers (chieftain) possessing power and wealth came to establish control over larger populations, and then established laws to protect authority and property. They set up administrative apparatuses and formed armies to enforce the law and punish trans- gressors. From such a process states or polities were born. In Korea, Gojoseon emerged as the first centralized state. The Establishment and Development of Samguk yusa Kyujanggak Institute For Korean Studies / Seoul National University Library Samguk yusa ’s chapter on Gojoseon containing the Dangun legend about the founding of Gojoseon. Gojoseon period of Gojoseon’s founding. Dangun Wanggeom (or Dangun) is The Dangun myth and Gojoseon said to have ruled for 1500 years, though such a figure is just a way Every country in the world has its foundation myth. For Korea, the of expressing how Dangun Joseon (or Gojoseon) existed a very long Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms; 1281) relates time. the foundation myth of the first Korean state, Gojoseon. This is the This ancient society seems to have been a communal farming oldest extant record of Dangun, and subsequent Korean historical society because mugwort and garlic appear prominently in the records refer to Dangun as the first ruler and progenitor of the Dangun myth. This period bears similarities to Liaoning bronze Korean nation. dagger culture that emerged in what is today northeastern China The Dangun myth reflects the Korean Peninsula’s historical ex- (1000 BCE-300 CE). perience of state-founding. The story of Dangun communicates how a political power based in Bronze Age culture consolidated Founding and development of Gojoseon several tribes to establish Gojoseon. Further, the myth also seeks to demonstrate the justness and legitimacy of the establishment of this The word “Joseon” originally denoted a region and the name of a rule. Embellished as it may be with mythological elements, the story tribe of peoples. When this area called Joseon grew and became a of Dangun relates in an implicit manner the historical facts of the state, the name of the region was adopted as the name of the state. 24 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 25 Spatially, the Joseon people inhabited an area centered on what its power increased to rival the Chinese state of Yan. The Chinese is today Liaodong in southern Manchuria and the northwestern people were dismissive of the people of Gojoseon, calling them bar- Korean Peninsula. The area saw the very early development of ag- barians. They referred to the populace of Gojoseon as the Yemaek, riculture, and its population consisted mainly of members of the Ye to mean people inhabiting dirty and wild lands, and described them and Maek tribes. At first, this region saw the emergence of a small as “haughty and violent.” number of political groupings, which were then subdued and con- The representative culture left by the Yemaek and Gojoseon solidated by the dominant among them. people who lived in the region of Liaodong and the northwestern In the “Treatise on the Xiongnu” (Xiongnu liezhuan) chapter Korean Peninsula is the mandolin-shaped (i.e., Liaoning style) of the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) of Sima Qian it is bronze dagger culture. Besides the eponymous mandolin-shaped recorded that to the west of Joseon were found such tribes as the bronze dagger, other representative features of the mandolin-shaped Sanyung (Ch. Shanrong) and Dongho (Ch. Donghu) and that bronze dagger culture of southern Manchuria include dolmen (jis- “none can unite these one hundred or so barbarian tribes into one.” eokmyo), Misongni-type pottery, and Paengihyeong-type (or sharp- The situation with the “Rongdi” (a pejorative Chinese term for bottomed-type) pottery. The fact that the table-style (or north- non-Han tribes living in the area) on Gojoseon’s right (or eastern) ern-style) dolmen is found spread from Liaodong to the northwest flank would have been very similar. Thus, in this period, as in the of the Korean Peninsula speaks to the wide-ranging influence case of the barbarians to the west, Gojoseon was unable to establish Gojoseon life and cultural patterns exerted during the Bronze Age. administrative control, with the chiefs of each political grouping From the 5th to 4th centuries BCE, the diffusion of the more seeming to come together to form a loose alliance. advanced culture of China along with movement of peoples led The name “Joseon” makes its earliest appearance in the Guanzi, to a cultural change in the region of Liaodong and on the Korean where it is recorded that around the 7th century BCE Joseon sent Peninsula, to include the emergence of iron culture and so-called as tribute items to the state of Qi, located in what is today China’s pit burial (ummudeom). Gradually, Gojoseon came to be perceived Shandong Peninsula, specialty products such as tiger pelts at the as a political entity or state by polities in China and by surrounding request of that state’s Duke Huan. This record notes that the state of ethnic groups. Joseon was some 8000 ri distant from Qi, a hyperbolic expression The “Weilüe” (Brief History of Wei) found in the Sanguozhi that meant simply it was a great distance away. (Record of the Three Kingdoms), records that in the 4th century At first, Gojoseon maintained only loose control over various BCE, the “Joseon feudality” (huguk) adopted the title of kingdom ethnic groups, but over the course of the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, and launched an attack on the Chinese state of Yan of the Warring 26 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 27 States period. At that time, the king of this “Joseon feudality” served emerge out of China and move into the northwestern part of the as the chief of a confederation of regional ethnic groups and pos- Korean Peninsula. Based on these historical movements, at the start sessed a rudimentary bureaucratic system with such offices as baksa of the second century BCE an independent political power developed (an academician of sorts) and daebu (minister). Gojoseon already in this region: Wiman Joseon established by Wiman (Ch. Weiman). displayed at this date the characteristics of an ancient state. According to the “Record of Joseon” ( Joseon yeoljeon) in the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), Wiman was a subject of the Yan state and a deputy commander under Lu Wan, whom the Han Wiman Joseon emperor had set up as the king of Yan. At the time of Empress Lü In the course of the 3rd century BCE, the Iron Age culture of Warring of Han, when Lu Wan fled to the Xiongnu, Wiman chose to strike States China spread into southern Manchuria and the Korean off on his own, traversing the Qianshan (K. Cheonsan) Mountains Peninsula. With this, the former mandolin-shaped dagger culture and arriving in the area of the Cheongcheon River. At the end of the was supplanted by a slender-shaped dagger culture centered on an second century BCE, Wiman came to settle in this area and there area south of the Cheongcheon River in the peninsula’s northwest. established so-called “Wiman Joseon.” From the 4th to the 3rd centuries BCE migrant forces began to With Pyeongyang (present-day Pyeongyang in North Korea) as their base, Wiman and his descendants extended their authority not only throughout the northwestern part of the Korean Peninsula but also to the south and east, subjugating Jinbeon and Imdun, and also conquering the Eastern Okjeo located to its north. In this way, after conquering and establishing its administrative control over neighboring territories, Wiman Joseon was able to prevent the many tribes and lesser polities under its control from offering tribute to or trading with Chinese commanderies and settlements in neigh- boring Liaodong. Although such an assertive posture by Wiman Joseon was cer- tainly made possible by its own native strength, it also seems to have Ironware excavated in Yongyeon-dong, Wiwon-gun, Pyeonganbuk-do province, North Korea benefited from a close relationship with the empire of the Xiongnu, National Museum of Korea which was a powerful political power in north Asia at the time. These ironware relics are representative of the iron culture in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. 28 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 29 Wiman Joseon saw the emergence of wooden chamber tombs from That the ruling system of Wiman Joseon was based on the local pit-burial tombs, while the slender-shaped (or Korean-style) dagger community can be confirmed also by its strict censure of any in- culture distinct to Gojoseon was further developed. This slen- fringement upon private property and aspects of retributive justice, der-shaped dagger culture is distinguished by the slender bronze as reflected in that state’s “Eight Prohibitions” (beopgeum paljo). The daggers, wagon accessories, and ironware that have been found in extant three articles of the “Eight Prohibitions” hint at the emerging its wooden tombs. power and economic disparities in Wiman Joseon society and that When King Jun of Gojoseon lost his throne to Wiman he fled slavery and the system of punishments developed with the emer- south down the Han River with some of his people and loyal re- gence of private ownership. tainers. He settled there and adopted the title of king of the Han. If out of penury a person stole and was caught, the thief became In Korean history, the Han dynasty commences with this King Jun. a slave to the victim of the theft. To avoid this fate by payment of a The administrative system of Wiman Joseon is characterized by fine, that amount was 500,000 coin (jeon). In the case of injuries to such features as all of its civilian offices carrying the name of sang, others, this was compensated with grain. In the end, it can be seen and military offices carrying the name general (janggun). Perhaps that the Eight Prohibitions were formulated to protect the lives and the most distinctive feature of the Wiman Joseon government of- property of the Gojoseon rulers and to give these rulers arbitrary fice system was its incorporation of indigenously based patriarchal authority over the general population. forces into its central bureaucracy. Leveraging its geographical position, Wiman Joseon was able to The centralized monarchy of Wiman Joseon basically exercised prevent direct trade or intercourse between the Ye to its east and its dominance over local society through the Daegeosu or Geosu, the Jin to its south and Han China, and so monopolized the benefits while the position of Sang (chief minister) was granted to those of middleman. Naturally, based on these economic and military de- powerful figures at the local level who were drawn into the service velopments, Gojoseon came into conflict with the Han dynasty in of the centralized monarchy. At the end of Wiman Joseon, King China. An angry Emperor Wudi of Han first launched an invasion Ugeo (grandson of Wiman) came into conflict with a high official by land and sea, coming at Wiman Joseon from two sides. In the first (Joseonsang) called Yeokhyegyeong, who then took some 2,000 round of fighting Gojoseon was victorious, tenaciously holding off families and migrated with them south to the state of Jin. At this the Han army for about a year. However, the prolonged war created period, such a massive migration of peoples would have been all internal divisions among the Wiman Joseon leadership, and the but impossible were there were no bonds of kinship between the state’s capital of Wanggeomseong ultimately fell in 108 BCE and Yeokhyegyeong and the migrants. with it Gojoseon was destroyed. 30 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 31 Ancient Korean Society and the Lelang population of Nangnang at that time was approximately 280,000, Commandery divided into about 45,000 households. Among these households, 86 percent were native peoples of Gojoseon. In the region around Structure and historical character of the Lelang Pyeongyang that was the heart of the Lelang Commandery, there (Nangnang) Commandery were many native forces that had been inhabiting the area since the Gojoseon period. The Han China established the Lelang After its destruction of Gojoseon, the Han Empire took adminis- Commandery, dividing it up into administrative units of gun and trative control over the former Gojoseon territory. There it estab- hyeon, while still recognizing the local indigenous communities. lished a total of four commanderies, what came to be known as the Among the residents of the Han China system in Korea, there “Four Han Commanderies,” though two of these—the Zhenfan were the “Han Chinese”, who arrived after the establishment of (K. Jinbeon) and Lintun (K. Imdun)—were soon abolished. the Lelang Commandery, and then the “native Chinese ethnics”, The Xuantu(K. Hyeondo) Commandery fell to the rising state of who had settled in the area during the time of Gojoseon prior to Goguryeo when that latter polity expanded into the Liao River the establishment of the Lelang Commandery. Those migrants basin area. The Lelang (K. Nangnang) Commandery survived until arriving in the Lelang Commandery from Han China played a key 313, but it too was eventually absorbed by Goguryeo. role in settling the peripheral northwestern region of the Korean The Lelang Commandery proved a conduit for the advanced cul- Peninsula, and spreading there the advanced material culture of the ture of China into the Korean Peninsula and it had a defining impact central plains (that is, the Yellow River Valley of China). With the on the formation and development of both the Three Han confed- prolonged dominance of the Chinese administration of the region, a eracies and the Three Kingdoms. To the south of the Daedong River fusion was gradually affected between the indigenous tribal peoples that runs through Pyeongyang, at the center of what was the Lelang of Gojoseon and the Han China interlopers. Commandery, have been discovered around three thousand tomb By the late second century CE, the strength of the Lelang sites. In addition, many relics from this period can be found in the Commandery had weakened considerably. At this time, the Pyeongan-do and Hwanghae-do areas. Gongsun clan began to grow in power in the region of Liaodong. The Lelang Commandery was divided into 25 prefectures and During the period of upheaval that characterized the end of the supported a population of about 406,748, a number that gradually Later Han China (around the year 204), Gongsun Kang in Liaodong decreased over time. According to a hogubu (household registry) conquered the territories of the former Zhenfang (K. Jinbeon) dating to the fourth year of the Chuyuan era of Han (45 BCE) and Commandery south of Tunyou (K. Dunyu) prefecture (what is discovered in tomb no. 364 in Jeongbaek-dong in Pyeongyang, the 32 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 33 ruling forces. It is thought that the primary function of the Lelang Commandery was in coordinating the dispatch of specialty prod- ucts, such as tiger pelts, from the Gojoseon region to the Han China. During the period of its existence, the Lelang Commandery, rather than being a “Chinese colony,” served more as a Chinese base for relaying trade between the territory of Gojoseon and the Chinese mainland. Therefore, the Lelang Commandery, though once the locus of Chinese power, must also be understood as a part of Korean history. Gold buckle excavated at Seogam-ri, Pyeongyang National Museum of Korea This is the oldest object of metalwork discovered to date on the Korean Peninsula. This artifact shows that various cultures were represented in the traditions and tastes of the indigenous people before the The formation of early Korean states establishment of the Lelang Commandery. After the fall of the first Korean state of Gojoseon to Han China, today Hwangju in North Korea’s Hwanghaebuk-do province) in a strong political entity did not appear on the Korean Peninsula the Lelang Commandery, and renamed this region the Daifang (K. or Manchuria for some time. In this period (around the third cen- Daebang) Commandery, and established it as his power base. Even tury CE), according to the description of historical conditions on as a growing Gongsun clan was styming the expansion of the Han the Korean Peninsula as described in the “Record of the Eastern polities of the peninsula, commanderies and districts were being Barbarians” (“Dongyi zhuan”) of the “Book of Wei” (“Weishu”) established beyond the Lelang Commandery—the traditional arm in the Sanguozhi (Chinese Record of the Three Kingdoms), the of influence of the dynasties of the central Yellow River plains. These primary Korean political groupings were the Buyeo, Goguryeo, the new polities would gradually increase in power. This had the effect Eastern Okjeo, the Ye, and the Han. of squeezing the Lelang Commandery from the south. According to the aforementioned “Record of the Eastern Barbarians” Though the Han period of dominance over this region was brief, of the Sanguozhi (Chinese Record of the Three Kingdoms), the state it did manage to subjugate and control the native forces, though of Buyeo arose in the region of Manchuria at an early date, and the its control never went beyond that. The officials of the Lelang state of Goguryeo then emerged from the collapse of Buyeo. Further, Commandery were always limited to the indirect control of the it records that in the later stages of Gojoseon, the Okjeo and Dongye local population through the mediation of indigenous Gojoseon (or Eastern Ye) polities emerged in the eastern coastal regions of 34 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 35 the peninsula. In middle and high school Korean history textbooks seen destruction since its founding,” one can surmise that as late as and general histories of Korea, this period is often referred to as the late 2nd-early 3rd century it remained a formidable power. But the “early confederated kingdoms period” or “proto-state period.” by the end of the 4th century, Buyeo territories had fallen to the con- Among these many early polities, Gojoseon was the first. Following quest of King Gwanggaeto and were under the control of Goguryeo. this came the emergence of the Buyeo-Goguryeo state. Notable in Following this, the power of the Buyeo monarchy rapidly weakened, the southern region of the peninsula, among the lesser chieftains and though it maintained its power until the end of the 5th century, that emerged from out of the Three Han (Samhan), Baekje and Saro ultimately in 494 the Buyeo king and royal family were exiled to would develop into the kindgoms of Baekje and Silla, respectively. Goguryeo, and the final vestiges of Buyeo power were destroyed. These early states enlarged their territories through campaigns of One should mention that in the case of Buyeo, which existed for conquest, establishing political structures to govern their enlarged such an extended period of time alongside the Three Kingdoms, holdings. In these early states as well, power came to be centralized there were significant social differences between it and the early in a monarchy and administrative systems were set up. Though these states of the peninsula. early polities began as largely classless confederated chieftains, as From the first century BCE the three kingdoms of Goguryeo, their territories expanded, kingly power increased and administra- Baekje, and Silla, from their position on the periphery of Gojoseon tion became more systemized. society, resisted the direct and indirect domination of the Chinese The governmental systems and state functions of the early ancient Commanderies, while at the same time being influenced by the states of the peninsula seem to have been largely similar among the advanced Chinese culture they offered. It is also necessary to under- three early states of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. However, between stand the period of the Three Kingdoms as an extension of Buyeo- the earliest society of Gojoseon and the social character of the Three Three Han society. For instance, in the case of Goguryeo, the forces Kingdoms there was a large gap. As for Buyeo, though this state belongs represented by Jumong (later King Dongmyeong, the founding among the early states, its history stretched back more than 700 years monarch of Goguryeo) broke away after a power struggle among so it is problematic to describe as one of the proto-Three Kingdoms. the ruling groups of Buyeo to establish a new state. In the case of Until its destruction at the hands of King Gwanggaeto of Silla and Baekje, in the petty states represented by Baekje and Saro, Goguryeo, the Buyeo state preserved its administrative system and power became centralized and they then absorbed other polities functioned as an ancient state to the north of the Three Kingdoms. migrating from the periphery to form the states of Baekje and Silla, Considering the Chinese history Weilüe (Brief History of Wei; ca. respectively. 250 CE) described Buyeo as “a wealthy state that has never once BCE 57~562 BCE 57 Silla is founded Chapter 2 BCE 37 Goguryeo is founded BCE 18 Baekje is founded 42 Gaya is founded 313 Goguryeo destroys Lelang commandery 427 Goguryeo transfers its capital from Gungnaeseong to Pyeongyang 433 Alliance is formed between Silla and Baekje 475 THE FOUNDATION AND Goguryeo succeeds in capturing Hanseong, the capital of Baekje, and Baekje transfers its capital to Ungjin DEVELOPMENT OF THE 494 THREE KINGDOMS Buyeo is absorbed by Goguryeo 538 Baekje transfers its capital to Sabi 552 Baekje disseminates Buddhism to Japan 553 Silla captures the region around the Han River 562 Silla conqueres Gaya Jeon Deog-jae translated by Daniel Kane 38 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 39 Establishment and Expansion of the power of Goguryeo grew greatly. Three Kingdoms In the 3rd century, during the reign of Goguryeo’s King Sansang, the monarchy was changed from a fraternal system of succession to Foundation and growth of Goguryeo that of father-to-son, and the kingdom was further strengthened. By about the 4th century, Goguryeo had developed into an ancient In the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, there appeared along the middle state, the central power in a federated kingdom of five polity groups, reaches of the Hun River in Huanren and Amnok(Ch. Yalu) River, or 5 bu, to include Gyerubu and Biryunabu. Liaoning province, China, small political groupings called “Na”. In the 240s, Goguryeo went through a period of crisis when it was Around 75 BCE, Goguryeo people, following their successful at- attacked by General Guanqiu Jian of the Wei kingdom, but quickly tacks on the Chinese Xuantu (K. Hyeondo) Commandery, formed regained its strength. In the 4th century, when China’s Western Jin a coalition state they named Goguryeo, which was centered on the dynasty became preoccupied by internal struggles for succession as Sono (Biryuna) polity group. well as invasions by the five barbarian tribes (the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Sometime after this, Jumong, an emigrant from the state of Buyeo, Jie, Di, and Qiang), King Micheon of Goguryeo in 313 seized the established his power base at Jolbon (corresponding to Huanren opportunity to annex the Lelang Commandery around modern in what is today Liaoning, China), centered on the Gyeru polity Pyeongyang, and the following year did the same to the Daifang group. Then around 37 BCE Jumong vanquished the Sono polity Commandery located in present-day Hwanghae-do. Goguryeo then group and established the kingdom of Goguryeo. It is the Samguk made plans to advance into Liaodong. sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms; 1145) that records Jumong established the kingdom of Goguryeo at this date of 37 BCE. Around the first century CE, King Taejo of Goguryeo conquered Establishment and growth of Baekje, Silla, and Gaya the Okjeo polity along the peninsula’s eastern coast and subjugated By the mid-3rd century CE, the “Three Han” confederated states of the surrounding petty states. In addition, having proved him- Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan comprised more than 70 lesser pol- self victorious in his attacks on both the Chinese Liaodong and ities that together spanned the middle and southern regions of the Xuantu Commanderies, he then seems to have moved his capital Korean Peninsula. In this situation, King Jin of the polity of Mokji to Gungnaeseong in what is today Ji’an, Jilin province, China. As a (located in the area of today’s Chungcheongnam-do province), result of this policy of foreign conquest during the era of King Taejo, which led the Mahan confederation, seems to have communicated and the resulting acquisition of prisoners of war and looted mate- with the Chinese kingdoms on behalf of the Three Han confedera- rials as well as increase in tribute given by local subordinates, the 40 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 41 tions. Around the beginning of the Common Era, descent groups the second half of the third century, the Silla king, representing the of Baekje and Goguryeo came to settle in the Han River basin and Jinhan confederacy, managed relations with the Chinese Western there founded Baekje. For a period Baekje was under the control Jin dynasty, indicative of the fact that Silla authority had grown suf- of Mokji before expanding its own power considerably during the ficiently by this time to make it representative of the Jinhan. reign of its King Goi in the mid-to-late 3rd century. It was in the late 4th century, during the reign of its King Namul, King Goi was able to annex the polity of Mokji and to occupy that Silla grew into a centralized state. It was during this time that the central region of the peninsula, making Baekje the representa- Silla monarchs adopted the title of “king” from the former maripgan tive power of the Mahan confederation. And when Wei’s General (meaning essentially “great chieftain”), and the Kim clan came to Guanqiu Jian attacked Goguryeo in concert with the governors of monopolize the throne. Externally, with the assistance of Goguryeo, the Lelang and Daifang Commanderies, King Goi seized the op- Silla dispatched an emissary to the Former Qin in China informing portunity and had his Commanding General Jin Chung attack and that state of its existence, and then with the assistance of some fif- absorb some of the peripheral regions of the Lelang Commandery. ty-thousand troops dispatched from Goguryeo’s King Gwanggaeto, The result of such an active policy of conquest by King Goi was Silla was able to fend off an invasion by troops from Wa ( Japan). the expansion of Baekje territory northward to the Pae River For a period, Silla fell under the powerful influence of neigh- (today’s Yeseong River in North Korea), south as far as the Ung boring Goguryeo, but in the process it acquired the products of a River (today’s Anseong River in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea), west more advanced civilization leading to a breakthrough in its own de- to the Yellow Sea and east to Juyang (today’s Chuncheon city in velopment and its emergence as a centralized kingdom by the early Gangwon-do, South Korea). In order to effectively govern such an 6th century. enlarged domain and its populace, King Goi established a system Around the time Baekje and Silla were established, the polity of of official ranks centered on that of “minister” (jwapyeong), with an Guya, around what is today Gimhae in the Nakdong River basin, attendant color scheme for official dress based on one’s rank. emerged as the representative power of the Gaya confederation. After the fall of Gojoseon, refugees from that state had settled Guya (also known as Geumgwan) led the Gaya confederation for in the area of present-day Gyeongju and around the dawn of the some time, going into eclipse following an invasion by Goguryeo Common Era established the polity of Saro (later Silla). In its early forces in 400. In the 5th century, Daegaya, centered around what is period, the power of the Silla king was weak, with the Bak, Seok, and Goryeong, emerged to take the place of Geumgwan (or Geumgwan Kim clans occupying the throne on a rotational basis. Though these Gaya) as leader of the Gaya confederation, which was ultimately clans intermarried, they sometimes competed for the kingship. In incorporated by Silla in 562. 42 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 43 Expansion of Baekje and Goguryeo Amidst the turmoil and confusion that characterized the region Mt. Baekdu in the 4th century, Goguryeo was able to annex the Lelang and r ive eR Daifang Commanderies, but its plans to advance into Liaodong Gungnaeseong oh Lia Goguryeo were stymied by the Former Yan, a Xianbei state established by the Former Qin Murong clan. With this check, Goguryeo turned its sights south Pyeongyang and sought to advance toward Baekje. Meanwhile Baekje’s King Geunchogo (r. 346–375) actively established diplomatic relations East Sea Baekje with Gaya, the Wa of Japan, Silla, and the Eastern Jin in southern Hanseong China, and prepared for the Goguryeo onslaught. When Goguryeo Yellow Sea Silla attacked Chiyang Fortress (in today’s Baecheon, Hwanghaenam-do, Geumsung North Korea) in 369, Baekje fended it off and in its turn attacked Gaya Goguryeo’s Pyeongyang in 371, winning a great victory. In the after- math of the battle of Pyeongyang, Goguryeo curtailed its outward Easten Jin expansion, instead concentrating on putting its own house in order through such things as accepting the religion of Buddhism from the Map of the development of the Three Kingdoms state of Former Qin and proclaiming a code of administrative law. Growth of Baekje in the 4th century It was during the reign of its King Gwanggaeto (r. 391–413) that Goguryeo once more took up an active policy of foreign conquest. cial title of Silla) Kim Daeseoji to Goguryeo as a hostage. And when After assuming the throne King Gwanggaeto launched numerous in the year 399, Wa from Japan launched raids against Silla’s coast, attacks against Baekje, and after putting extreme pressure on the Silla called upon Goguryeo for assistance. In response, the next Baekje capital of Hanseong (modern Seoul), in 396 he obtained the year, King Gwanggaeto dispatched 50,000 troops to Silla, defeating submission of Baekje’s King Asin along with some 700 villages and the Wa forces and advancing all the way to Gimhae in the state of 58 fortresses north of the Han River. Geumgwan (or Geumgwan Gaya). After King Gwanggaeto ascended the throne of Goguryeo, Silla’s After 396, when the Later Yan fell into turmoil due to succes- King Namul personally acknowledged Silla to be a client state of sion struggles, King Gwanggaeto attacked that state and occupied Goguryeo, and sent Silseong, son of the ichan (a high-ranking offi- the Liaodong region. He then went on to subjugate in succession 44 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 45 the Khitan to the northwest, the Sushen that occupied the entire advanced culture of China diffused widely among peripheral states, Maritime region of Siberia, and Eastern Buyeo in the Tumen River and a common East Asian cultural sphere became more definitively basin. During his reign King Gwanggaeto pushed the borders of established. Goguryeo outward, greatly expanding the territory of that state. With the growth in power of the Northern Wei dynasty in Thus did the people of Goguryeo give him the name of Gwanggaeto, northern China, in 427 Goguryeo’s King Jangsu decided to transfer meaning “expander and opener of lands.” his capital from Gungnaeseong to Pyeongyang, which was more easily defendable in the event of a Northern Wei attack. Following this, Goguryeo began its southern push in earnest, and in response Goguryeo's southward push and the Baekje-Silla response Baekje and Silla cemented an alliance against Goguryeo in 433. In the 5th century, the Northern Wei established by the Xianbei After the Baekje capital of Hanseong fell to Goguryeo’s attack, tribe unified North China in 439, while the Song destroyed the Baekje’s King Munju moved his capital to Ungjin (today’s Gongju in Eastern Jin and occupied South China in 420. In South China, the Chungcheongnam-do) in 475. Following this, Goguryeo continued Song was succeeded by the Qi, Liang, and Chen dynasties. Until its southern advance, eventually seizing more than two thirds of the the Sui unified China in 589, this period of confrontation between Korean Peninsula. By 494, Goguryeo had completed its annexation the Northern Wei in the north of China and by turns the Song, Qi, of the Buyeo state and attained the apex of its power. Liang, and Chen in the south is called the “Northern and Southern dynasties period.” In the Northern and Southern dynasties period the Northern Silla's advance to the Han River basin Wei was dominant. However, the Rouran Khaganate founded by In the mid-6th century, in contrast to the relative calm that char- northern nomadic people and the state of Tuyuhun established by acterized the international situation, on the peninsula momentous the Xianbei on the Tibetan Plateau together were able to keep the change was afoot. In 544, as Goguryeo’s King Anwon ailed, a dis- Northern Wei in check and prevent its southward expansion. With pute erupted over the succession to the throne. Though this was the division of China during this period, Goguryeo also obtained resolved, from this point onward internal conflict among the ruling a preponderant position on the international stage. During the elite of that state would be a chronic condition. Northern and Southern dynasties period, the Rouran, Tuyuhun, In 551, Silla and Baekje attacked Goguryeo, which was then and Goguryeo all maintained a vigorous and formal exchange in wracked by internal dissensions, and occupied both the upper tribute and investiture with the Chinese dynasties. As a result, the and lower reaches of the Han River. At this time, when the Tujue 46 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 47 (Turks) broke the truce and menaced Goguryeo from the north- west, Goguryeo allied with Silla and saw to its internal affairs in an attempt to avert existential crisis. In 553, Silla’s King Jinheung, now with the support of Goguryeo, seized territories of its Baekje along the lower reaches of the Han River. Against this backdrop, in 554, Baekje’s King Seong made Mt. Baekdu Chungju Goguryeo Stele from the 5th century(Left) ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration Goguryeo Monument on Bukhansan Mountain commemorating the border inspection by King Jinheung of Silla from the 6th century(Right) National Museum of Korea As they expanded, the Three Kingdoms erected monuments to claim territory. East Sea common cause with Daegaya and the Wa (of Japan) and attacked Gwansan Fortress (today’s Okcheon in Chungcheongbuk-do), but Silla met with a great defeat at the hands of Silla forces, losing his life in the process. Thus was frustrated Baekje’s dream of national resur- Yellow Sea gence that had been launched in 538 with the establishment of its new capital at Sabi (today’s Buyeo in Chungcheongnam-do). Following its victory at the battle of Gwansan Fortress, Silla was Baekje able to leverage its new foothold in the Han River basin to establish direct relations with China in preparation for its effort to unify the Three Kingdoms. In 562, Silla conquered Daegaya, annexing all of the Gaya territory, and advanced into the Hamgyeong region. Map of the development of the Three Kingdoms Growth of Silla in the 6th century Through the active conquests by its King Jinheung (r. 540–576), 48 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 49 Silla managed to triple its territory. In the 7th century, when a was called the Jega Council. These early councils of Goguryeo, Goguryeo-Baekje alliance began to press upon Silla, Silla responded Baekje, and Silla later evolved into such institutions as the Daero by reaching out first to the Sui and then Tang dynasty of China. Council, Jeongsaam Council, and Hwabaek Council. Administrative Systems and Social Makeup of Maintenance of centralized governance the Three Kingdoms In Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla this so-called bu administrative system was succeeded by a centralized state apparatus in the 4th, Administrative systems of the early Three Kingdoms late 5th, and early 6th century, respectively. In establishing this Like Gojoseon and Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla have their centralized authority, all of the Three Kingdoms had to absorb the origins as members of political confederations that included nu- various bu rulers to make possible this new form of government. In merous other polities. Goguryeo and Baekje were each part of a Goguryeo and Baekje a new system of official ranks was established, confederated state made up of five bu, while Silla formed part of a centered on such offices as the saja and hyeong in Goguryeo and confederated state of six bu. In the early Three Kingdoms period, it sol and deok in Baekje. Silla, meanwhile, established a system of 17 was the leader of the most powerful bu in each of these confedera- ranks, beginning with ibeolchan and ichan, for the ruling elites of the tions that emerged as king. In addition, the rulers of each member six districts of the royal capital, while granting separate ranks, such bu had some authority over the king while maintaining sovereignty as sulgan and gogan, to the ruling class outside the capital. over their own territory and subjects. Because this system of bu—be In Goguryeo, five officials, led by the Daedaero, were appointed it five or six—played such a critical role in state operations during to sit in on the Daero Council to deal with important affairs of state. the early Three Kingdom period, this administrative system is re- The Daedaero had a term of three years, during which time he led ferred to as the “bu administrative system” (bucheje). the Daero Council and managed the overall state administration. In the early days of the Three Kingdoms, the weakness of kingly In Baekje, by the Sabi period (that is, after the mid-6th century authority was such that the monarch could not rule all five or six bu when Baekje transferred its capital to Sabi), central administrative directly. Rather, the important work of the kingdom was dealt with tasks were divided among 6 jwapyeong (ministries) and 22 bu (de- in deliberative bodies made up of the king and nobility representing partments). In the first half of the 6th century, during the reign of the various bu. As a result, the conference system developed in the its King Beopheung, Silla established the office of sangdaedeung early Three Kingdoms period. The early Goguryeo council system to manage affairs of state. Then, in the mid-7th century, during 50 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 51 the reign of King Jindeok, the jipsabu, along with numerous other during the reign of King Beopheung, and later established the left government offices, were established to manage the administrative and right ibangbu (akin to a ministry of justice) as the administrative affairs of a growing Silla state. offices responsible for the law code’s implementation. All of the Three Kingdoms worked to formalize and improve A law code consists of laws prescribing punishments as well as the regional administrative functions as they strengthened central au- ordinances and regulations necessary for the administrative func- thority. In the late 3rd century, Goguryeo dispatched officials such tioning of the state. Chinese historiographical works detail the strict as the susa or jae to manage regional administration, but from the law code of Goguryeo, wherein traitors or those who attempted to 6th century, these responsibilities were assigned to offices such as foment revolt were put to death and their surviving family members the yoksal and cheoryeo geunji. For administrative purposes, Baekje made slaves. It is further described how the enemies of Goguryeo initially divided its territory into 22 districts called damno, but by who surrendered or were captured in battle were also put to death, the Sabi period, the kingdom was divided administratively into 5 and those who stole had to pay back an amount ten times the value bang, with each of these subdivided into counties (gun) and walled of the stolen property. Baekje and Silla enacted laws similar to those towns (seong). These units were administered by such offices as of Goguryeo. the bangnyeong (governor of a bang) and county chief (gunjang). Major statutes of these law codes included regulations on the at- As for Silla, it divided its territory administratively into provinces tire of officials. In Silla, the official robes of those with rank daeachan (ju), followed by counties (gun), and then villages (chon) or walled to taedae gakkan were purple, while ranks geupchan to achan wore towns (seong), which were administered by such offices as the gunju, scarlet, daenama and nama wore blue, and those of rank daesa or dangju, and dosa, dispatched by the central government. below wore yellow. Baekje and Goguryeo also regulated official at- tire and headgear according to rank. In the process of establishing a centralized ruling apparatus, all of Law codes and systems of social stratification the Three Kingdoms created a stratified ruling class. The represen- All of the Three Kingdoms had centralized ruling regimes, and to tative example of such a system of stratification is Silla’s so-called maintain administrative order and structure for such rule they insti- bone-rank system (golpumje). The bone-rank system comprised the tuted administrative codes of law. Goguryeo established its law code seonggol (or sacred bone) at the top, followed by the jingol (or true in 373, during the reign of King Sosurim, while Baekje seems to have bone), and then the head-ranks six, five, and four. The Silla royal established and promulgated its code of law sometime between the family belonged to either the seonggol or jingol class, while the ruling late 4th and late 5th century. Silla established its code of law in 520, class of the capital’s six districts were of head-rank six or below. By 52 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 53 the mid-7th century, the size of one’s house and carriage, as well as and military duties imposed by the state. In Goguryeo, a tax of five one’s clothing and even the utensils one was permitted to use, were rolls of cloth (be) and five seok of grain was uniformly imposed on determined by one’s “bone status.” In Goguryeo and Baekje, as well, each household, while a differential rate of grain tax (jo) was also limitations were placed on one’s potential for official advancement imposed based on a household’s relative wealth. This grain was then based on lineage, reflecting the existence in those states of status used as a source for relief loans (jindae). Silla and Baekje imple- systems analogous to the bone-rank system of Silla. mented taxation systems similar to that of Goguryeo. In addition, in the Three Kingdoms, contributions of tribute goods (gongbu) were imposed on each village or administrative unit, and men aged 15 Life of the nobility and peasantry or older were liable for corvee duty to construct such things as for- Members of the ruling aristocracy of the Three Kingdoms period tresses or reservoirs as well as to perform three years of military duty. were granted rank and office according to their social status and At the bottom of the social ladder, slaves (nobi) in this period were received their official emolument from the state. For Silla specifi- subjected to toilsome labor, either as private or government prop- cally, aristocratic officials were paid in the form of a stipend village erty. In the early Three Kingdoms period, slaves derived largely from (nogeup), that is, a piece of land granted to an official while he was either prisoners of war or convicted criminals, but as the societies of in office that came with the right to tax the produce of that land the Three Kingdoms grew in complexity, an increasing number of in lieu of an official emolument. Members of the royal family and people were pushed into slavery due to economic hardship. high nobility, or in some case those who had performed a notably In order to reduce the proliferation of slavery, when farmers suf- meritorious service, could also be granted so-called salary land (si- fered from flood or drought, the state distributed or lent grain to geup) or landed estates (jeonjang)—which unlike nogeup could be the most impoverished. Notable in this respect is the relief loan law held in perpetuity—or slaves. In addition, nobles often possessed (jindaebeop) of Goguryeo, instituted under King Gogukcheon in large-scale landed estates and slave households inherited from their the latter half of the 2nd century. In addition, not only were farmers ancestors, and thus were able to maintain a comfortable lifestyle. In supplied with iron farming implements and encouraged to use ox- the capital cities of the Three Kingdoms, markets were established driven plows, the state also promoted the cultivation of wasteland where the nobility could also procure goods. and the expansion of arable land, as well as the construction and A large proportion of the commoner class was composed of maintenance of reservoirs in order to alleviate the damages of flood peasant farmers. A great many of these peasants owned the small and drought. plots that they tilled, and they were subject to taxation and corvee 54 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 55 Culture and Religion of the Three Kingdoms Baekje, like early Goguryeo, created stone-mound tombs, the par- tial remains of which can still be found in the Seokchon-dong neigh- Tombs of the Three Kingdoms borhood of Seoul. This lends support to the account that Baekje’s founders originated from Goguryeo. In its early period Goguryeo constructed stone-mound tombs, Following the Baekje transfer of the capital to Ungjin (modern gradually shifting toward the practice of stone-chamber tombs. Gongju) in the late 5th century, the construction of shaft chamber Over 12,000 examples of stone-mound tombs—made as the name tombs using bricks became popular. The brick tomb of King implies by the piling of stones—can still be found in Ji’an county of Muryeong (r. 501–523), whose form was influenced by the styles of China’s Jilin province, including the renowned Tomb of the General, the Liang kingdom of China, has been discovered in complete form. Tomb of a Thousand Years, and Tomb of the Great King. The stone- After the transfer of the Baekje capital to Sabi (modern Buyeo) in chamber tomb with tunneled entrance is constructed by piling cut 538, stone-chamber tombs once more came into wide prominence, stone to create a burial chamber and then covering it entirely with while there was also an increase in cremation following Buddhist packed dirt to form a tomb mound. The burial chamber’s interior rituals. In the shaft stone-chamber royal tombs of Baekje found in walls and ceiling are painted with murals depicting scenes from the Gongju’s Songsan-ri and Buyeo’s Neungsan-ri have been discovered daily lives of the Goguryeo people as well as of the afterlife. mural paintings depicting the symbolic creatures of the four direc- tions (sasindo). Burial practices in Silla and Gaya before the middle of the 4th century were characterized by the use of chamber tombs or wooden chamber tombs. From the latter 4th century, wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds and shaft stone chamber tombs made their appearance, however, the wooden chamber tomb with stone mound is found only in the area of Gyeongju, the Silla capital. In this type of tomb construction, large stones would be piled over the coffin chamber and then earth packed on top of this, a process that ensured grave robbing would be difficult and contributed to Seoul Seokchon-dong stone-mound tombs ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration the preservation of such tombs in their original state. In such tombs This is a stone-mound tomb from the early Baekje period, bearing similarities to those of Goguryeo. have been unearthed gold and silver ornaments, to include golden 56 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 57 Reception of Buddhism and Daoism Prior to the acceptance of Buddhism, shamanism held great sway over ancient peoples of the peninsula. Much faith was placed in