AGR 102 Farming Based Livelihood Systems 2024-25 PDF

AGR 102 (2+1): Farming Based Livelihood Systems For I year B.Sc. (Hons) & ABM students **e-NOTES compiled by** **Dr. C. P. Chandrashekara** **Professor of Agronomy** **&** **Dr. B.N.Aravind Kumar** **Professor of Agronomy** **College of Agriculture, Dharwad\ ** **UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD** **COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD** **Extended syllabus for the B.Sc. (Hons.) Agricultural Students for First Year, First Semester** **(14/10/2024 to 08/03/2025)** **Department** **:** **Agronomy** ------------------ ------- -------------------------------------- **Course title** **:** **Farming Based Livelihood systems** **Course No.** **AGR-102** **Credit Hours** **2+1** **Detailed Extended syllabus for theory and Practical's** **Part A: Theory** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Week** | **Topics covered during the | | | particular week** | +===================================+===================================+ | **1** | Status of agriculture in India | | | and different states | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **2** | Income of farmers and rural | | | people in India, | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **3** | Livelihood-Definition, concept | | | and livelihood pattern in urban | | | and rural areas, | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **4** | Different indicators to study | | | livelihood systems | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **5** | Agricultural livelihood systems | | | (ALS): Meaning, approach, | | | approaches and framework | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **6** | **Definition of farming systems | | | and farming based livelihood | | | systems** | | | | | | **Farming System:** Meaning, | | | Definition of farming system | | | ,Objectives , Principles, Role | | | and components of farming system, | | | scope, importance, and concept, | | | Factors influencing the types of | | | Farming system Principles of | | | farming system | | | | | | Characteristics of farming | | | system, Objectives of farming | | | system, Why sustainable farming | | | system? **Three Working | | | Hypotheses of Farming Systems,** | | | Basic features of a farming | | | system, **Advantages of | | | Sustainable Farming System,** | | | Classification of Farming Systems | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **7** | **Prevalent Farming systems in | | | India contributing to | | | livelihood** | | | | | | **Integrated farming | | | system-historical background, | | | objectives and characteristics,** | | | Advantages of Integrated farming | | | system, enterprises in integrated | | | farming system, | | | | | | **IFS :** Integrated farming | | | system-Definition, Concept, | | | objectives, goals | | | characteristics, historical | | | background, Components of IFS and | | | its advantages, Site specific | | | development of IFS model for | | | different agro-climatic zones | | | (Irrigated and dryland IFS | | | models), resource use efficiency | | | and optimization techniques, | | | Resource cycling and flow of | | | energy in different farming | | | system, farming system and | | | environment Elements of | | | integrated farming system | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **8** | Types of traditional and modern | | | farming systems | | | | | | **Types and systems of farming | | | system and factors affecting | | | types of farming** | | | | | | **Farming System Components, | | | Wetland, Garden land, Dry land, | | | Enterprise linkage in IFS,** | | | Determinants of farming system | | | | | | **Classification of Farming | | | system: According to size of | | | farm. Production of land, labour | | | and capital investment, values of | | | product/income/comparative | | | advantages, water supply ,type of | | | rotation and degree of nomadic. | | | Recommended rainfed farming | | | systems based on various | | | objectives. Difference between | | | specialized farming and | | | diversified farming, subsistence | | | farming and commercial farming, | | | cropping system and farming | | | system** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **9** | **Components of farming system/ | | | farming-based livelihood | | | systems** | | | | | | **Components of IFS/ enterprises | | | selection & management of | | | different enterprises** | | | | | | Factors influencing the selection | | | and size of components in Farming | | | Systems | | | | | | Steps involved in the preparation | | | of a model Integrated Farming | | | System to a specific situation. | | | Enterprises and their management | | | (breeds, methods and management | | | of enterprises such as in | | | poultry, diary, fishery, goat, | | | duck, rabit, sheep, mushroom, | | | sericulture, apiculture, | | | Agro-forestry. Resource recycling | | | in IFS. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **10** | **Crops and cropping systems** | | | | | | **Cropping systems :** Terms and | | | definitions; cropping system, | | | farming system, cropping pattern, | | | sole cropping, solid planting, | | | mixed cropping, mixed farming and | | | crop rotation, Benefits of | | | farming system, Principles of | | | cropping system. Types of | | | cropping systems -mono and | | | multiple cropping. Difference | | | between c**ropping system and | | | cropping pattern,** Forms of | | | multiple cropping | | | --intercropping, sequential | | | cropping/non over lapping | | | cropping, multitier cropping, | | | relay cropping/over lapping | | | cropping, double, triple and | | | quadruple cropping , ratoon | | | cropping, paira/utera cropping, | | | strip cropping, alley cropping | | | and other cropping systems of the | | | area, cropping index. Cropping | | | system- definition and | | | objectives. Elements of cropping | | | systems, Factors considered for | | | while deciding cropping systems. | | | | | | **Intercropping**: Definition | | | Principles of intercropping, , | | | advantages and disadvantages of | | | intercropping. Difference between | | | intercropping and mixed cropping. | | | Rotational intensity, Cropping | | | intensity, Cropping index. | | | Companion cropping, Synergetic | | | cropping (Additive series and | | | replacement series). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **11** | **Crop rotation**: Definition-- | | | advantages and disadvantages, | | | principles of crop rotation. | | | Plant interactions in inter | | | cropping, important genetic | | | traits in developing varieties | | | for intercropping systems; paired | | | row planting, Interactions in | | | intercropping (light, moisture, | | | nutrients, allelopathy, | | | annidation in space and time), | | | **Criteria for assessing yield | | | advantages in intercropping, | | | broad categories of overall | | | effects of competition (Mutual | | | inhibition, mutual cooperation, | | | compensation)** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **12** | **Efficient cropping system and | | | their evaluation**: Efficient | | | cropping zone (yield index of | | | crop and spread index of a crop) | | | Interrelationships/interactions | | | in intercropping | | | systems-**Competitive | | | interaction, Non-competitive | | | interaction, Complementary | | | interaction (**Annidation) and | | | Allelopathy,.**Three broad | | | categories of competition in | | | intercropping system**-Mutual | | | inhibition, mutual cooperation | | | and compensation. Dominant and | | | dominated species. Legume effect, | | | sorghum effect and cotton effect. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **13** | **Farming system components and | | | their maintenance** | | | | | | Livestock (Dairy, Piggery, | | | Goatry, Poultry, Duckry etc.), | | | Horticultural crops, | | | Agro---forestry systems, Aqua | | | culture Duck/Poultry cum Fish, | | | Dairy cum Fish, Piggery cum Fish | | | etc., Interactions between | | | components, complementary and | | | competitive interaction in crop + | | | livestock farming system, crops | | | and cropping system. Dairy, | | | poultry, sheep, goat, piggery, | | | fish, duck, rabbit, agroforestry, | | | sericulture, apiculture mushroom | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **14** | Small, medium and large | | | enterprises including value | | | chains and secondary enterprises | | | as livelihood components for | | | farmers | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **15** | Factors affecting integration of | | | various enterprises of farming | | | for livelihood | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **16** | Feasibility of different farming | | | systems for different | | | agro-climatic zones, | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **17** | Commercial farming-based | | | livelihood models by NABARD, ICAR | | | and other organizations across | | | the country, | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **18** | Case studies on different | | | livelihood enterprises associated | | | with the farming | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **19** | **Risk and success factors in | | | farming-based livelihood | | | systems** | | | | | | **Resource management under | | | constraint situation & | | | optimization techniques** | | | | | | Delay and Insufficiency of Water | | | Supply, **Labour management | | | ,**Methods of efficient labour | | | management, Increasing the labour | | | productivity, **Tips for | | | efficient labour management** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **20** | Schemes and programs by Central | | | and State Government, Public and | | | Private organizations involved in | | | promotion of farming-based | | | livelihood opportunities | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **21** | Role of farming-based livelihood | | | enterprises in 21^st^ Century in | | | view of circular economy, green | | | economy, climate change, | | | digitalization and changing life | | | style | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Practicals** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Week** | **Topics covered during the | | | Practical class** | +===================================+===================================+ | **1** | Criteria for assessing yield | | | advantage in multiple cropping | | | system /Indices for evaluation of | | | cropping system/Tools for | | | determining production and | | | efficiencies in cropping system: | | | Land equivalent ratio, Relative | | | yield total, relative crowding | | | coefficient, aggressivity, | | | competition index ,competition | | | ratio, competition coefficient, | | | crop equivalent yield.Factors | | | considered for evaluating the | | | cropping systems | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **2** | Survey of farming systems and | | | agricultural-based livelihood | | | enterprises | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **3** | Study of components of important | | | farming- based livelihood models/ | | | systems in different | | | agro-climatic zones | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **4** | Study of Dairy farming and their | | | management | | | --------------------------------- | | | ---------- | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **5** | Study of **Sheep and goat | | | rearing** and their management | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **6** | Study of **Fish culture | | | practices** and their management | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **7** | Study of **Poultry rearing** and | | | their management | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **8** | Study of **Duck rearing** and | | | their management | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **9** | Study of **Pigeon rearing** and | | | their management | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **10** | Study of **Piggery** and their | | | management | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **11** | Study of **Rabbit rearing** and | | | their management | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **12** | Study of **Bee keeping** and | | | their management | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **13** | Study of production and | | | profitability of crop based, | | | livestock based, processing based | | | and integrated farming based | | | livelihood models | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **14** | Field visit of innovative farming | | | system models | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **15** | Visit of agri-based enterprises | | | and their functional aspects for | | | integration of production, | | | processing and distribution | | | sectors and | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **16** | Study of agri-enterprises | | | involved in industry and service | | | sectors (Value Chain Models), | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **17** | Learning about concept of project | | | formulation on farming-based | | | livelihood systems along with | | | cost and profit analysis | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **18** | Case study of Start-Ups in | | | agri-sectors | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Suggested Readings** 1\. Dixon, J. and A. Gulliver with D. Gibbon. (2001). Farming Systems and Poverty: Improving Farmers' Livelihoods in a Changing World. FAO and World Bank, Rome, Italy and Washington, DC, USA 2\. Ashley, C.; Carney, D. , 1999, Sustainable Livelihoods: Lessons from Early Experience; Department for International Development: London, UK, Volume 7. \[Google Scholar\] 3\. Reddy, S.R. 2016. Farming System and Sustainable Agriculture, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. 4\. Panwar et al. 2020. Integrated Farming System models for Agricultural Diversification, Enhanced Income and employment, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. 5\. Singh, J.P., et al. 2015. Region Specific Integrated Farming System Models, ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Modipuram. 6\. Walia, S. S. and U. S. Walia, 2020. Farming System and Sustainable Agriculture, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, Rajasthan. 7\. Livelihood Improvement of Underprivileged Farming Community: Some Experiences from Vaishali, Samastipur, Darbhanga and Munger Districts of Bihar by B. P. Bhatt, Abhay Kumar, P.K. Thakur, Amitava Dey Ujjwal Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar, B.K Jha, Lokendra Kumar, K. N. Pathak, A. Hassan, S. K. Singh, K. K. Singh and K. M. Singh ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region ICAR Parisar, P.O. Bihar Veterinary College, Patna 800 014, Bihar. 8\. Carloni, A. 2001. Global Farming Systems Study: Challenges and Priorities to 2030 -- Regional Analysis: Sub-Saharan Africa, Consultation Document, FAO, Rome, Italy 9\. Evenson, R.E. 2000. Agricultural Producitivity and Production in Developing Countries'. In FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture, FAO, Rome, Italy 10\. Agarwal, A. and Narain, S. 1989. Towards Green Villages: A strategy for Environmentally, Sound and Participatory Rural Development, Center for Science and Environment, New Delhi, India **CHAPTER 1: FARMING SYSTEM-SCOPE, IMPORTANCE, AND CONCEPT** What is a System? A system is a group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli: it is unaffected directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. For example, the human body is a system-it has a boundary (e.g., the skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operate the living body). A system consists of several components, which are closely related and interacting among them. In agriculture, management practices are usually formulated for individual crops. However, farmers are cultivating different crops in different seasons based on their adaptability to a particular season, domestic needs and profitability. Therefore, production technology or management practices should be developed keeping in view all the crops grown in a year or more than one year if any sequence or rotation extends beyond one year. Such a package of management practices for all the crops leads to efficient use of costly inputs, presides reduction in production cost. For instance, residual effect of manures and fertilizers applied and nitrogen fixed by legumes can considerably bring down the production cost if all the crops are considered than individual crops. In this context, cropping systems approach is gaining importune. **Farming systems:** The terms \'farming systems\' and \'mixed farming\' are used interchangeably. However, there are some subtle differences between these two. Mixed farming is defined as a system of farming on a particular farm which includes crop production, raising livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc., to sustain and satisfy as many needs of the farmer as possible. Subsistence is important objective of mixed farming while higher profitability without altering ecological balance is important in farming systems. Different scientists have defined a farming system differently. However, many definitions, in general, convey the same meaning that it is strategy to achieve profitable and sustained agricultural production to meet the diversified needs of farming community through efficient use of farm resources without degrading the natural resource base and environmental quality. Relatively recent definitions include: Farming system is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustained agricultural production to meet diverse requirements of farm livelihood while preserving resource base and maintaining a high level of environment quality (Lal and Miller 1990). Farming system is a set of agro economic activities that are interrelated and interact with themselves in a particular agrarian setting. It is a mix of farm enterprises to which farm families allocate its resources in order to efficiently utilize the existing enterprises for increasing the productivity and profitability of the farm. These farm enterprises are crop, livestock, aquaculture, agro forestry and agri-horticulture (Sharma et al 1991). Farming system is a mix of farm enterprises such as crop, livestock, aquaculture, agro forestry and fruit crops to which farm family allocates its resources in order to efficiently manage the existing environment for the attainment of the family goal. (Pandey et al 1992). Farming system represents an appropriate combination of farm enterprises (cropping systems horticulture, livestock, fishery, forestry, poultry) and the means available to the farmer to raise them for profitability. It interacts adequately with environment without dislocating the ecological and socioeconomic balance on one hand and attempts to meet the national goals on the other (Jayanthi et al 2002). **Farming systems approach** Farming is very complex system with many growth factors involved in it. The farming system enterprises like cropping system, dairying, piggery, poultry, fishery, bee keeping etc. are interrelated. The end products and wastes of one enterprise are used as inputs in others. The wastes of dairying like dung, urine, refuse etc., are used for the preparation of farmyard manure which is an input in cropping systems. The straw obtained from the crops is used as fodder for cattle. Cattle are used for different field operations for growing crops. Thus different enterprises of farming systems are highly interrelated. **Concept of farming systems** The farming system, as a concept, takes into account the components of soil, crops, livestock, labour, capital, energy, and other resources, which the family at center managing agriculture and other related activities. The farm family functions within the limitations of its capability and resources, the socio-cultural settings and interactions of those components with the physical, biological and economic factors (Raman and Balaguru 1991). Integrated farming systems are productive and profitable as they encourage habitat conservation, value addition and utilization of products and wastes as inputs in other enterprises with the farm (Chambers 1990). Farming systems concept: In farming system, the farm is viewed in a holistic manner. Farming enterprises include crops, dairying, poultry, fishery, sericulture, piggery, apiary tree crops etc. a combination of one or more enterprises with cropping when carefully chosen, planned and executed, gives greater dividends than a single enterprise, especially for small and marginal farmers. Farm as a unit is to be considered and planned for effective integration of the enterprises to be combined with crop production activity, such that the end-products and wastes of one enterprise are utilized effectively as inputs in other enterprise. For example the wastes of dairying viz., dung, urine, refuse etc are used in preparation of FYM or compost which serves as an input in cropping system. Likewise the straw obtained from crops (maize, rice, sorghum etc) is used as a fodder for dairy cattle. Further, in sericulture the leaves of mulberry crop as a feeding material for silkworms, grain from maize crop are used as a feed in poultry etc. Sustainability is the objective of the farming system where production process is optimized through efficient utilization of inputs without infringing on the quality of environment with which it interacts on one hand and attempt to meet the national goals on the other. The concept has an undefined time dimension. The magnitude of time dimension depends upon ones objectives, being shorter for economic gains and longer for concerns pertaining to environment, soil productivity and land degradation. **Principles of farming system** - Integration of two or more enterprises - Optimum utilization of all resources - Maximum productivity and profitability - Ecological balance - Generation of employment potential - Increased input use efficiency - Use of end products from one enterprise as input in other enterprise **Characteristics of farming system** 1\. Farmer oriented & holistic approach 2\. Effective farmers participation 3\. Unique problem solving system 4\. Dynamic system 5\. Gender sensitive 6\. Responsible to society 7\. Environmental sustainability 8\. Location specificity of technology 9\. Diversified farming enterprises to avoid risks due to environmental constraints 10.Provides feedback from farmers **Objectives of farming system** 1\. **Productivity**- Farming system provides on opportunity to increase economic yield per unit area per unit time by virtue of intensification of crop and allied enterprises. Time concept by crop intensification and space concept by building up of vertical dimension through crops and allied enterprises. 2\. **Profitability** - The system as a whole provides an opportunity to make use of produce/waste material of one enterprise as an input in another enterprise at low/no cost. Thus by reducing the cost of production the profitability and benefit cost ratio works out to be high. 3\. **Potentiality** -- Soil health, a key factor for sustainability is getting deteriorated and polluted due to faulty agricultural management practices viz., excessive use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, high intensity irrigation etc. In farming system, organic supplementation through effective use of manures and waste recycling is done, thus providing an opportunity to sustain potentiality of production base for much longer time. 4\. **Balanced** **food**- In farming system, diverse enterprises are involved and they produce different sources of nutrition namely proteins, carbohydrates, fats & minerals etc form the same unit land, which helps in solving the malnutrition problem prevalent among the marginal and sub-marginal farming households. 5\. **Environmental** **safety**- The very nature of farming system is to make use or conserve the byproduct/waste product of one component as input in another component and use of bio-control measures for pest & disease control. These eco-friendly practices bring down the application of huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, which pollute the soil water and environment to an alarming level. Whereas IFS will greatly reduces environmental pollution. 6\. **Income/cash flow round the year**- Unlike conventional single enterprise crop activity where the income is expected only at the time of disposal of economic produce after several months depending upon the duration of the crop, the IFS enables cash flow round the year by way of sale of products from different enterprises viz., eggs from poultry, milk from dairy, fish from fisheries, silkworm cocoons from sericulture, honey from apiculture etc. This not only enhances the purchasing power of the farmer but also provides an opportunity to invest in improved technologies for enhanced production. 7\. **Saving energy**- Availability of fossil fuel has been declining at a rapid rate leading to a situation wherein the whole world may suffer for want of fossil fuel by 2030 AD. In farming system, effective recycling of organic wastes to generate energy from biogas plants can mitigate to certain extent this energy crisis. 8\. **Meeting fodder crises**- In IFS every inch of land area is effectively utilized. Alley cropping or growing fodder legume along the border or water courses, intensification of cropping including fodder legumes in cropping systems helps to produce the required fodder and greatly relieve the problem of non availability of fodder to livestock component of the farming system. 9\. **Solving timber and fuel crises**- The current production level of 20 million m3 of fuel wood and 11 million m^3^ of timber wood is no match for the demand estimated or 360 m3 of fuel and 64,4 million m3 of timber wood in 2000 AD. Hence the current production needs to be stepped up several-fold. Afforestation programmes besides introduction of agro-forestry component in farming system without detrimental effect on crop yield will greatly reduce deforestation, preserving our natural ecosystem. 10.**Employment generation**- Various farm enterprises viz., crop +livestock or any other allied enterprise in the farming system would increase labour requirement significantly and would help solve the problem of under employment. An IFS provides enough scope to employ family labour round the year. 11\. **Scope for establishment of agro- industries**- When once the produce from different components in IFS is increased to a commercial level there will be surplus for value addition in the region leading to the establishment of agro-industries. 12\. **Enhancement in input use efficiency** -- An IFS provides good scope for resource utilization in different components leading to greater input use efficiency and benefit- cost ratio. **Why sustainable farming system ?** - - - - - - - Farming system is a decision making unit comprising the farm household, cropping and livestock systems that transform land, capital (external inputs) and labour (including genetic resources and knowledge) into useful products that can be consumed or sold. (Fresco and Westphal, 1988) Labour capital Labour capital Food cash Food cash **Population in India** **Food need** **Land area** **Scope** - The rising cost of energy - The low profit margins of conventional practices - Development of new practices that are seen as viable options - Increasing environmental awareness among consumers, producers and regulators - New and stronger markets for alternatively grown and processed farm products - 44 out of 453 dist contributing half of the total food grain - No further scope for horizontal expansion of land for cultivation ### ### Three Working Hypotheses of Farming Systems 1. 2. 3. BASIC FEATURES OF A FARMING SYSTEM **Objectives** - Increasing the total farm income as a whole - Improving the standard of living of the farmer - Effective recycling of farm products and by-products - Reduce the external input usage on the farm (LEISA- *Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture*) - Sustaining the productivity levels and soil health - Increasing the employment opportunities - Regular cash flow throughout the year **Environment** Farm as a system functions within environment consisting of natural, socio economical and political features **Resources** Various physical and material requirements generated inside or outside the system **Constraints** Problems caused by the limitation and availability of natural and artificial resources **Components** Constituent activities like crop production, dairy, poultry etc., **Interaction** Competitive interactions and complementary interactions **Advantages of Sustainable Farming System** - Effective and efficient utilization of resources available - Relies mainly on resources within the agro ecosystem by replacing external inputs - Manages pests, diseases, and weeds instead of controlling - Shifts from nutrient management to recycling of nutrients - Preserves and rebuilds soil fertility, prevents soil erosion, and maintains the soil\'s ecological health - Has minimal negative effects on the environment and release no toxic or damaging substances to the system - Uses Judiciously water in a way that allows recharge of aquifers & meeting water needs of environment and people - Incorporates the idea of long term sustainability in to overall agro ecosystem #### Classification of Farming Systems 1\. Climate Tropical, Temperate, Mediterranean ----------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- 2\. Stage of Development Shifting cultivation, Arable farming, Ranching. 3\. Components Crop based, Dairy based, Poultry based, Fish based or Mixed farm. 4\. Mode of ownership Peasant farming, Joint farming, Co-operative farming, State farming 5\. Level of profitability Subsistence, Commercial 6\. Irrigability Wet, Dry, (garden / rain fed) 7\. Degree of mechanization Mechanized, Semi-mechanized, Non-mechanized. **Farming System Components** **Wetland Garden land Dry land** **Cropping Cropping Cropping** **Fishery Milch cows Goat** **Poultry Buffalo Agro forestry** **Pigeon Bio gas Horticulture** **Goat Spawn production Tree** **Duck Mushroom Pigeon** **Pig Homestead garden Rabbit** **Mushroom Silviculture Farm pond** **Fodder Sericulture Fish** **Enterprise linkage in IFS** ***Wetland ecosystem*** **Crop + Fish + Poultry** **Crop + Fish + Duck** **Crop + Fish + Pigeon** **Crop + Fish + Poultry/pigeon + mushroom** **Crop + Fish +Mushroom** **Crop + Fish + Pig + Mushroom** **Crop + Fish + Goat** ***Garden land ecosystem*** **Crop + Dairy + Biogas** **Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Sericulture** **Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Fishery** **Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Sylvipasture** **Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Silviculture + Apiculture.** **Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Spawn production + Mushroom** **Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Spawn production + Mushroom + Silviculture** ***Dry land ecosystem*** **Crop + Goat** **Crop + Goat + Agroforestry** **Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture** **Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture + Farm pond** **Crop + Goat + Buffalo + Agroforestry + Farm pond** **Crop + Goat + Pigeon + Buffalo + Agroforestry + Farm pond** **Crop + Goat + Rabbit** **Cropping provides** **To family : Cereal grain, pulses and vegetables** **To market : Cash crops** **To animals : Fodder (dry and green)** **Livestock provides** **To family : Food** **To market : Milk, egg or meat** **To crops : Manure and power** **Farm:** It is organized economic unit in which crop and animal production is carried out with purpose of producing economic net returns. **Farm Area:** Productive land- cropped area/ fields pastures, plantations, fishponds, forest etc. + indirectly productive land- farm building, ditches, roads etc. + fallow land + unproductive land. Rocks, deserts within farm boundaries. In the system theory, the terms input and output linked with farming system. **These are Classified as:** **1. Economic Input and Output:** Are those which usually registered a farm management sheet and comprise all items which are gathering brought or sold which have a value in terms of opportunity cost. **Inputs:** Land, labour and means of production. **Outputs:** Goods sold and consumed in the farm household. **2. Non-economic Input and Output:** Are the free goods from the point of view of farmers. **Inputs:** Solar energy, Rainfall etc. **Out Puts:** Salts leaving through drainage, O2 etc. **Farm household system:** A group of usually related people who individually or jointly, provide management, labour, capital, land and other inputs for the production of crops and livestock and who consume at least part of the farm produce. Crop system: An arrangement of crop populations that transform solar energy, nutrients, water and other inputs into useful biomass. The crop can be of different species and variety, but they only constitute one crop system if they are managed as a single unit. The crop system is a subsystem of cropping system. For example, in the maize crop system, maize is the dominant crop which is grown in association with other crops. **CHAPTER 2: TYPES AND SYSTEMS OF FARMING SYSTEM AND FACTORS AFFECTING (determinants) TYPES OF FARMING** **Determinants of farming system** There are three major groups of factors, which in combination determine the type of farming system employed by framers in a given region. These factors are illustrated in Fig. 1 and discussed below. **Factor A** represent the [physical and biological elements] which set limits to the type of agricultural produce to be produced in the given region. The physical elements include [land, soil quality, topography, climate, water, location, distance etc.] The biological elements include crops and livestock physiology, diseases etc., which determine the potential farm enterprises. These elements can be altered by limited intervention by the farmers and scientists. For instance scientists can evolve improved production technology and farmers can adopt it partially or in full package. **Factor B** represent [endogenous human elements], which greatly influence the type of farming system adopted in a particular region. [The system revolves around the farmer whose family and means of livelihood are intricately linked]. The farm family has available resources under their control in terms of land, labour, capital and management. The quantity and quality of these resources are conditioned by the characteristics of the family (size, age etc), education and management skills, available labour, capital, power, attitudes and goals of the family. The farmers goals and attitudes are initial factors that determine the nature of farming system specially where there is a range of alternative operations and enterprises to increase productivity consistent with existing technical elements. The farmer could combine available resources in a manner that will maximize the goals of the family. **Factor C** represents the [exogenous human variables], which govern the [allocation of available resources by the farmers]. Farm producers need incentives to change their farming methods and production patterns in desirable directions. ![](media/image2.png) **CHAPTER 3: FARMING SYSTEM COMPONENTS** **Interactions between components, complementary and competitive interaction in crop + livestock farming system** ##### **Interaction between Components of Farming System** - **Livestock - milch cows, work bullocks - biogas plant -valuable manure and gas for cooking and lighting** - **Poultry component of such farming system can make use of the grains produced in the farm as feed and the income through this crop - poultry chains is more than direct sale of grain** - **Pigs can be raised using waste unfit for human consumption and thus they do not compete with other activities for their food requirement** - **Inclusion of other enterprises reduces risks, stabilizes production and ensures an equitably distributed income throughout the year** - **When activities integrated with crop production, one must consider complementary (maximum) & competitive (minimum)** **Relative Merits of Enterprises in Farming System** ***a) Crop and Work Animals*** - **May not exactly increase farm income very considerably** - **But power for cultivation operations is available readily and cheaply** - **Additional income possible through hiring** - **Green & dry fodder produced cheaply within the farm** ***b) Crop and Milch Animal*** - **Scope for getting higher and stable income besides manure** - **High yielding cross-bred animals must be included - demand heavy initial investment** - **Proper feeding with nutritious fodder and concentrates and timely medical care are essential to maintain quantity and quality of milk.** ***c) Biogas plant in a Crop and livestock farm*** - **Anaerobic decomposition of animal wastes and crop residues release biogas,** - **The calorific value of biogas is 3600 k cal m^-3^.** - **Biogas used for cooking, lighting and as substitute for diesel.** - **Digested biogas slurry superior organic manure, has narrow C:N, low per cent of weed seed and odourless.** - **Size of biogas plant** **No. of Cattle** **Dung Kg/day** **Family size** **Size of (m^2^) biogas plant** ------------------- ----------------- ----------------- --------------------------------- **3-4** **40 - 50** **4 -- 6** **2** **4 - 6** **60 - 75** **7 - 8** **3** **6 - 8** **80 - 100** **10 - 12** **4** **10-12** **120 - *150*** **16 - 18** **6** ***d) Crop and poultry*** - **Common feature in farmhouse backyard poultry to provide nutritious food to family** - **But income-wise may not contribute much** - **Larger units of about 100 birds can provide a steady income** - **But this needs capital, health care and proper marketing facilities for egg or broilers** ***e) Crop and Piggery*** - **Good potential for high income provided** - **Care is taken for housing and feeding the animals** - **Adequate water and good marketing facilities essential** - **Sentimental objections and possible health hazards are deterrents** - **Pig manure can be used for biogas manufacture** **COMPONENTS OF FARMING SYSTEM -- crops and cropping system. Dairy,\ poultry, sheep, goat, piggery, fish, duck, rabbit, agroforestry, sericulture,\ apiculture mushroom** **Need for integration of different components** - **83 per cent of the holdings are less than 2.0 ha** - **Majority of these are dry lands** - **Even irrigated lands depend on monsoons** - **Farmers concentrate mainly on crop production, which is subjected to a high degree of uncertainty in income and employment** **Components of Farming Systems** **1. *Low land system*** ### Fish, Poultry, Duck, Mushroom **e.g. Rice -- Fish -- Azolla** **Rice -- Fish -- Poultry / Duck** **Rice -- Fish -- Poultry -- Mushroom** **II. *Irrigated Uplands*** **e.g. Crop -- Dairy -- Biogas unit** **Crop -- Poultry -- Biogas unit** **Crop -- Sheep/ Goat rearing - Biogas unit** Crop - Sericulture ------------------ **Crop -- Piggery** **III. *Dry farming*** **Goat / Sheep rearing, Silviculture, Agroforestry, Farm Forestry, Horticultural tree crops** **e.g. Crop -- Silvi pasture \-- Goat / Sheep rearing** Crop -- Silviculture -- Hort. Fruit trees **Crops and Cropping System** - **Mixed cropping and crop rotations were followed in subsistence agriculture mainly for yield stability and minimizing risks** - **Now modified and re-oriented to intensification of cropping with simultaneous achievement of yield stability** - **For success of multiple cropping programme proper choice of crops and varieties is a pre-requisite.** - **Crops should be arranged in such a way that allelopathic effect temporary immobilisation of nutrients and depletion of nutrients from the same layer of soil do not occur** - **Crops, which add large quantities of easily decomposable residues, which benefit the succeeding crop with mobilised nutrients, should be included** - **Legumes have a definite place in any cropping system** - **Vegetables deserve their due place in intensive cropping system, because;** - - - - #### Intercropping situations - - - - ##### ***Fish culture*** - - - - - - - - - ##### ***Poultry enterprise*** - - - - ##### ***Mushroom enterprise*** - - #### Dairy enterprise Four dairy animals can be maintained in a hectare of land in such a way that two give milk throughout the year. ***Sericulture*** - - - - #### *Apiary* Few boxes for honeybee rearing can be kept in suitable places **Tree farming** - - ***Goat rearing*** - Tellicherry goats can be reared under dry land conditions - - - #### *Rabbit farming* - **A pair of rabbits produces 3,22,000 young ones over a period of five years, yielding 322 tonnes of meat** - **A single female may give birth to 50 young ones / year** - **Meat has higher and more easily digestible protein** - **Hair is used for manufacture of hats and handbags** - **A unit consists 5 females and one male** - **Important breeds are New Zealand white and California white** **CHAPTER 4: CROPPING SYSTEM DEFINITION, PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS** **Cropping system**: Cropping system is a land use unit comprising soils, crop, weeds, pathogen and insect subsystems that transform solar energy, water, nutrients, labour and other inputs into food, feed, fuel and fiber. The cropping system is a subsystem/component of farming system. **Definition**\" [It represents cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology and environment (physical, biological and sociological) which determine their makeup\".] **Elements of Cropping System** **Objective of cropping system :** Efficient utilization of all resources viz. Land, water, and solar radiation maintaining stability in production and obtaining higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource in a unit time **Benefit of Cropping system** - Maintain and enhance soil fertility - Enhance crop growth - Minimize spread of disease - Control weeds - Inhibit insect and pest growth - Increase soil cover - Reduce risk for crop failure - Use resources more efficiently **Classification of Cropping Systems** Depending on the resources and technology available, different types of cropping systems are adopted on farms, which are as below: 1\. Sole cropping (monoculture) 2\. Intensive cropping: Growing number of crops on the same piece of land during the given period of time. Multiple cropping Intercropping 3\. Sequential cropping 4\. Crop rotation **1. Mono-cropping**: This is where the field is used to grow only one crop season after season. Also known as solid planting. Disadvantages: 1\. it is difficult to maintain cover on the soil, 2\. it encourages pests, diseases and weeds 3\. it can reduce the soil fertility and damage the soil structure. **2. Multiple cropping:** Growing two or more crops on the same field in a year. Annual and perennial plants can be organized in fields together. It is a form of polyculture. **3.Intercropping:** Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field. There is intercrop competition during all or part of crop growth. It is further sub-divided as ***(a) Mixed intercropping***: Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row arrangement. Also referred to as mixed cropping. Ex: Sorghum, pearl millet and cowpea are mixed and broadcasted in rainfed conditions.***(b) Row intercropping***: Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are planted in rows. Often simply referred to as intercropping. Maize + greengram (1:1), Maize + blackgram (1:1), Groundnut + Redgram (6:1). ***(c) Strip intercropping:*** Growing two or more crops simultaneously in strips wide enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crops to interact agronomically. Ex. Groundnut + redgram (6:4) strip. ***(d) Relay intercropping:*** Growing two or more crops simultaneously during the part of the life cycle of each. A second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage of growth, but, before it is ready for harvest. Often simply referred to as relay cropping. Rice- rice fallow pulse. The overall advantages of intercropping are - Biodiversity and stability: - Better use of growth resources including light, nutrients and water - Suppression of weeds - Yield stability; even if one crop fails due to unforeseen situations, another crop will yield and gives income - Successful intercropping gives higher equivalent yields (yield of base crop + yield of intercrop), higher cropping intensity - Reduced pest and disease incidences - Improvement of soil health and agro-eco system Disadvantages, Mechanized planting and harvesting are difficult; It is more difficult to apply needed fertilizers and other chemicals as in sole cropping; Experimentation with intercropping is more complex and difficult to manage than with sole cropping. ***Sequential cropping:*** - Growing two or more crops in sequence on the same field in a farming year. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested. - Crop intensification is only in time dimension. - There is no intercrop competition. \(a) Double, triple and quadruple cropping: Growing two, three and four crops, respectively, on the same land in a year in sequence. Ex. Double cropping: Rice: cotton; Triple cropping: Rice: rice: pulses; Quadruple cropping: Tomato: ridge gourd: Amaranthus greens: baby corn \(b) Ratoon cropping: The cultivation of crop re-growth after harvest, although not necessarily for grain. Ex. Sugarcane: ratoon; Sorghum: ratoon (for fodder). The various terms defined above bring out essentially two underlying principles, that of growing crops simultaneously in mixture, i.e., intercropping; and of growing individual crops in sequence, i.e., sequential cropping. The cropping system for a region or farm may comprise either or both of these two principles. ***Multitier or multistorey cropping*** Growing crops of varying canopy height and duration in adjacent rows simultaneously in the same field for effective utilisation of space and light. **D. Border or Bund cropping** Additional crops grown along **field** borders, field bunds, bunds of beds or irrigation channels along with main crop. **4. Crop Rotation** \(a) **Meaning**: Crop rotation refers to recurrent succession of crops on the same piece of land either in a year or over a long period of time. Component crops are so chosen so that soil health is not impaired or Crop rotation refers to growing different crops in succession on a piece of land in a specific period of time with an objective to get maximum profit from least investment without impairing the soil fertility. This may also be defined as the repetitive cultivation of an ordered succession of crops (or crops and fallow) on the same land and one cycle may take one or more years to complete. \(b) **Principles**: There are certain principles, which should be adhered to, to make a rotation successful. These principles are as follows: 1\. Crops with top roots should be followed by those, which have fibrous root system. This helps in proper and uniform use of nutrients and water from the soil and the roots do not compete with each other. 2\. Leguminous crops should be grown after non-leguminous crops because legumes fix atmospheric--N into the soil and add more organic matter to the soil. Actually, non-legumes are fertility depleting crops. 3\. More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops. For example, potato, sugarcane, maize, etc need more inputs than oilseeds and pulses. 4\. Selection of the crops should be demand based. The crops, which are needed by the people of the area, can be easily sold at a higher price. 5\. Selection of crop should be problem based. For instance: -- On sloping lands which are prone to soil erosion, an alternate cropping of erosion-promoting crops e.g., millets and other row crops and erosion resisting crops, e.g., legumes should be adopted. -- Under dry land farming or partially irrigated areas, the selection of crops should be such, which can tolerate the drought spell. Similarly in low lying and flood prone areas the crops should be such, which can tolerate water stagnation e.g., paddy, jute, etc. -- Selection of crops should suit the financial condition of the farmers. -- Crops selected should also suit the soil and climatic conditions. 6\. Crops of the same family should not be grown in succession because they act like alternate hosts for insects/pests and disease pathogens. Apart from this, different types of weeds are found associated with various crops, therefore, selection of the same type of crops in rotation encourages weed problems in the field. An ideal crop rotation is one, which provides maximum employment to the family and farm labourers. Some common crop rotations followed in various parts of the country are given below: **Rotation** **Duration** -------------------------- -------------- Paddy--Wheat 1 Year Maize--wheat 1 Year Maize--potato 1 Year Soybean--wheat 1 Year Maize--potato--sugarcane 2 year Paddy--sugarcane--wheat 2 year \(c) **Advantages**: The major advantages of following proper crop rotation principles are: 1. Agricultural operations can be done timely for all the crops because of less competition. 2. Soil fertility is maintained by legumes through fixing of atmospheric nitrogen encouraging microbial activity and maintaining physicochemical properties of the soil. 3. The soil is also protected from erosion, salinity and acidity. 4. An ideal crop rotation helps in controlling insect pests and diseases. It also controls the weeds in the fields. 5. Proper utilization of all the resources and inputs could be made. 6. Farmers get better price for their produce because of its higher demand in the locality or in the market. **Alley Cropping**: Alley cropping is broadly defined as the planting of two or more sets of single or multiple rows of trees or shrubs at wide spacing, creating alley ways within which agricultural, horticultural, or forage crops are cultivated. [Classification of Alley Cropping] According to the purpose for which the alleys are raised, alley cropping may be grouped into 1\. Forage alley cropping. 2\. Green manure- cum -- mulch alley cropping. 3\. Forage -- cum- mulch- alley cropping. 4\. Forage- cum- green manure alley cropping. [Benefits of Alley Cropping:] Diversified farm enterprise Reduce erosion Improve water quality Protect crops Enhance wildlife Improve aesthetics **Cropping intensity**: Number of crops cultivated in a piece of land per annum is cropping intensity. In Punjab and Tamil Nadu, the cropping intensity is more than 100% (i.e. around 140-150%). In Rajasthan, the cropping intensity is less. **\ ** **CHAPTER 5 : PLANT INTERACTIONS** **IN INTERCROPPING** **Plant Population and Geometry** Plant population defines the number of plants per unit area or the size of the area available to the individual plants. Geometry defines the pattern of distribution of plants over the ground or the shape of the area available to the individual plant. In intercropping, both total population (all components) and component population (each component) have to be distinguished. Taking the optimum population of sole crop as 100, component populations can be expressed in a simple relative basis. A simple intercropping treatment having half of the sole crop optimum of each of the two components is described as 50:50 component population. All the intercropping situations can be described using optimum sole crop population for one crop and 50 per cent for the other can be described as 100:50 (additive series or addition series). In a replacement series, proportional populations or proportions are related to sole crops of the series whatever their population and the two proportions must always add up to 100. With regard to geometry, the proportion of area allotted to each crop should be considered. Thus in a 50:50 series, having the component crops in alternate rows, will mean allotment of areas in 50:50 proportion. This can also be obtained by altering the components in the same row or by having double rows of each component alternated. Several studies have shown that wherever intercropping gave yield advantage, the total optimum population was higher than that of either sole crop. AT ICRISAT, it was found that sorghum and pigeonpea should be planted together at their optimum sole crop populations to have maximum yield advantage (Willey, 1979). The optimum component population for maximum yield advantage is rather difficult to predict since the competitive ability of the component crop varies with its population (Baker, 1981). The predicted and actual values of LER (land equivalent ratio) seldom agree because of this fact. More dominant a component and more favourable its geometry, the more likely it is to show a population response in intercropping similar to that in **Characteristics** **Specific need for intercropping** --------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Maturity** **Short crop duration needed for under storey species, catch crops, or double cropping; long season varieties for the use of late rains or residual moisture** **Photoperiod sensitivity** **Insensitivity needed in most varieties to give flexibility in design of the cropping patterns; sensitivity needed for some specific situations** **Temperature sensitivity** **Tolerance to lower temperature needed when season length is short, high temperature tolerance needed if this condition is coincided with available rainfall** **Plant morphology** **Short, upright leaves permitting lower story crop development; differential height between components important** **Root system** **Complementary rooting habits so that two or more species explore different strata of the total soil mass** **Early seedling growth** **Vigorous growth may be needed in low temperatures, partially shaded conditions, or zero tillage in an intercrop pattern** **Population density response** **Component crops which respond to increased density give more flexibility in design of patterns; competitive ability is important** sole cropping. Where a component is dominated and has less favourable geometry its population response would greatly vary from that in sole cropping. For example in cereal legume mixture the dominant cereal component determines the level of combined mixed yield. However, the efficiency of cereal-legume intercropping systems measured in terms LER following the trend of the legume component (Ofori and Stern, 1987). Table : Following specific genetic traits may be of importance in developing varieties for intercropping systems (Francis, 1986) The technique of **paired row planting** is one way of accommodating the full population of the base crop and crating inter-space wide enough to accommodate one or two rows of intercrop. In this technique two adjacent rows of the base crops are paired reducing the inter-row space in the pair, narrow enough to create some inter-space between pairs of base crop rows but wide enough to minimize undue competition among plants of the base crop. In the paired row technique adopted in sorghum is depicted. The normal method of planting is in 45 cm rows with 12 cm space between plants in the row so as to accommodate a population of 1,80,000 plants per ha. In paired row method, a pair of sorghum rows is planted with 30 cm space between rows in the pair. The interspace between two pairs of sorghum rows is 60 cm. The space between plants in the row remains at 12 cm. In this way, the optimum population of 1,80,000 plants per ha is maintained. In the interspace of 60 cm, one or two rows of the intercrop are planted. This method is often referred to as 30/60 cm paired row planting. **Plant interactions** **Interactions between component crops** In intensive cropping, crops are grown in association (intercropping) or in sequence (sequential cropping). In such situations there is possibility of interaction between the component crops. The interaction is mainly due to response of one species to the environment as modified by the presence of other species. Interaction may be competitive or non-competitive or complementary. **Interactions in intercropping** Factors such as light, water, nutrients, oxygen and CO~2~ are required for plant growth. In mixed or intercropping situations, the component species compete for the growth factors. The close proximity of the species causes sub-optimal utilization of the growth factors and hence there is inequitable distribution of resources among the plants. Generally competition will develop between two components or within the components. **Light**: Intercropping can increase light inception by as much as 30-40%. When one component is taller than the other in an intercropping system, the taller component intercepts most of the solar radiation. In intercropping situation where the component crops have different growth durations, the peak demand for light would occur at different times. In such combinations, competition for light is less among the component crops and there is greater light use in intercropping than in pure stands. In general the component crops under intercropping situations are grown in such a way that competition for light is minimized. Proper choice of crops and varieties, adjustment of planting density and pattern are the techniques to reduce competition and increase the light use efficiency. **Moisture and nutrients**: Competition for water and nutrients results in two main types of effects on the less successful or suppressed component. First, the roots of dominated crop may grow less on the sides of aggressive component. The suppressed components adapt to such conditions by increased capacity for uptake. Also, if one part of the root system is on the depleted side, the remaining part shows compensatory activity and vigour. Secondly, plants affected by competition for soil factors are likely to have increased root/shoot ratio. **Allelopathy**. Allelopathy is any direct or indirect harmful effect that one plant has on another through the release of chemical substances or toxins into the root environment. Some crops may be unsuitable to be grown as intercrops because they may produce and excrete toxins into the soil which are harmful to other components. **Annidation**. Annidation refers to complementary interaction which occurs both in space and time. **Annidation in Space**. The canopies of component crops may occupy different vertical layers with taller component tolerant to strong light and high evaporative demand and shorter component favouring shade and high relative humidity. Thus, one component crop helps the other. Multistoreyed cropping in coconut gardens, planting of shade trees in coffee, tea and cocoa plantations use this principle. Similarly, root systems of component crops exploit nutrients from different layers thus utilizing the resources efficiently. Generally, one component with shallow root system and another with deep root system are selected for intercropping as in Setaria (shallow) + red gram (deep) intercropping system. **Annidation in Time**. When two crops of widely varying duration are planted, their peak demands for light and nutrients are likely to occur at different periods, thus reducing competition. When the early maturing crop is harvested, conditions become favourable for the late maturing crop. This has been observed to occur in sorghum +red gram, groundnut + red gram and maize + green gram intercropping systems. **Other Complementary Effects.** In an intercropping system, involving a legume and a non-legume, part of the nitrogen fixed in the root nodule of the legume may become available to the non-legume component. The presence of rhizosphere microflora and mycorrhiza on one species may lead to mobilization and greater availability of nutrients not only to the species concerned, but also to the associated species. Another example is the provision of physical support by one species to the other in intercropping system. Erect crop plants may improve the yield of a climber as in-the case of coconut + pepper, maize + beans. The taller component acts as wind barrier protecting the short crop as in maize + groundnut, onion +castor and turmeric + castor. **Interactions in Sequence Cropping** Competition for light, water and nutrients as in mixed crop communities does not occur when sole crops are grown in sequence. It occurs only in relay cropping where there is a short span of overlapping between two crops in a sequence and the relay crop experiences the shortage of light. The important purpose in sequential cropping is to increase the use of solar radiation. It is achieved by longer field duration and rapid ground coverage. Crops are raised one after another to keep the land occupied by the crop for longer period. If the crop development is slow, much of the solar radiation reaches the ground, favouring weed growth and increasing evaporation losses from the soil surface. In sequential cropping, the proceeding crop has considerable influence on the succeeding crop mainly by changes in soil conditions, presence of allelopathic chemicals, shift in weeds and carry over effects of fertilizers, pests and diseases. Field preparation is difficult after rice crop since soil structure is destroyed due to puddling. Crops like sorghum and sunflower leave toxic chemicals in the soil which do not allow germination of subsequent crops. The previous leguminous crop leaves considerable amount of nitrogen for the succeeding crop. Phosphorous applied to the previous crop is available for the succeeding crop. Weed number and species differ in the succeeding crop due to the effect of the previous crop. Wheat crop that follows rice suffers from high density of weed *Phalaris minor*. The pests and diseases in crop stubbles and other residues of the previous crop may infect the subsequent crop. Interactions in cropping systems ================================ An interaction is the response of one species to the environment as modified by the presence of another species. ***Non competitive*** *If the crops are grown in association and the growth of either of the concerned species is not affected* #### Competitive Associated species are to share limited availability of resources **Complementary (Annidation)** Component species able to help the other in supply of growth factor #### Allelopathy Chemical exudation may affect the growth of component crop Direct or indirect harmful effect that one plant has on another through the production of chemical substances that escape into the environment. ###### Alloinhibition: The chemical substances released by one species may inhibit species of plant other than the one releasing it. ###### Autoinhibition: Inhibit more strongly the plants of the producer species itself. ###### **True allelopathy: Toxic substances released as such directly from the plant** ###### **Functional allelopathy: A precursor may be released by the plants, which may be converted to toxic substances by some microorganisms** **Competitive interaction** - Plants require many growth factors such as light, water, nutrients, gases - Competition is inevitable when these resources are limited in supply - Intensity of competition will vary with the nature of component crops, their relative density and planting pattern (Crop geometry). ##### **Competition for solar radiation** Competition for gases ===================== - The competition for carbon-di-oxide is not a serious problem - Competition for soil factors - Depleting zone -- aggressive and suppressed components (over lapping) - Suppressed component - Less roots & Increased root-shoot ratio -------------------------------------------------------------- **Complimentary Interactions** (\'**Annidation\'**) Mutual benefit for each of the components or one may benefit the other. Annidation in space - Crop canopy heights (multi-tier cropping) \- Root systems of varying depth Annidation in time - Duration difference between component crops (25% of the component) ###### Other complimentary effects - - - - - Legume effect ============= When Legumes are intercropped with non-legumes or grown prior to non-legumes in sequential cropping, nitrogen fixed by the legumes is made available to the associated non-legume in intercropping or to the succeeding non-legume in sequential cropping. Legumes generally find a place in crop mixtures and rotations because of their capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Legumes are reported to contribute N to the associated non legumes. Inclusion of legumes in the cropping system helps to save upto 25% of recommended level of N application to the associated cereal and improve the soil N status. Groundnut is estimated to fix 10-60kg N/ha in a single season. Hence the crop following groundnut gets benefited. Growing grain legumes in the winter season improves soil fertility and increases the yield of following maize crop. Besides their N fixing capacity, legumes have been reported to insoluble forms of soil phosphorus. Legumes also have greater root cation exchange capacity than cereals and hence they are able to absorb more of divalent cations such as Ca^++^ and Mg^++^. Normally legumes cannot compete effectively with the cereals in the absorption of monovalent cations like K+. Inclusion of legume as a component of intensive cropping system is important for maintaining soil fertility and economizing fertilizer application. **[Criteria for assessing yield advantages in intercropping]** **Different intercropping situations may have to satisfy rather different requirements if yield advantages are to be achieved. Three distinct requirements have been identified by Willey (1979, 1981), mainly to assess the yield advantage more precisely and to plan research on intercropping on sound objectives. The three different situations are:** **i. Where intercropping must give full yield of main crop and some yield of a second crop** **There is a main or base crop that gives full yield. In addition there is an intercrop which gives some extra yield without reducing the main crop yield. Most of the Indian work is on this approach.** **ii. Where the combined intercrop yield must exceed the higher sole crop yield** **The combined yield of the component crops will exceed the yield of the sole crops, particularly that gives higher yield in pure stand. Here it is assumed that the farmer can grow the higher yielding sole corp. in case the intercropped stand gives lower yield than the sole crop.** **iii. When the combined intercrop yield must exceed a combined sole crop yield** **The farmer is in a situation to grow two crops, one crop in a portion of land and the other in the remaining portion, to satisfy dietary or fodder needs, to spread labour requirement or to reduce the market risks. In such a situation, intercropping of two crops can be adopted provided the combined intercrop yield is more than the combined sole crop yield.** **Three broad categories of overall effects of competition can be recognized** **1. The actual yields of each species is less than expected. This is called *Mutual inhibition*. This is rare.** **2. The yield of each species is greater than expected. This is called *mutual cooperation*. This is not unusual.** **3. One species yields less and the other more than expected. This is *compensation*. This is commonest of the three categories.** **The species which yields more than expected is believed to have greater competitive ability and called the *Dominant species*. The other species is called the *dominated species*.** ----------------------- -- ![](media/image9.png) ----------------------- -- **CHAPTER 5: CROPPING SYSTEM AND PATTERN, MULTIPLE CROPPING SYSTEM** **Cropping system:** The cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and available technology which determine their makeup. **Cropping pattern** means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area. Crop sequence and crop rotation are generally used synonymously. Cropping systems based on climate, soil and water availability have to be evolved for realizing the potential production levels through efficient use of available resources. The cropping system should provide enough food for the family, fodder to the cattle and generate sufficient cash income for domestic and cultivation expenses. **Need** In counties like India, the population is increasing by leaps and bounds and by 2020 A.D., it will cross 1.25 billion demanding a food grain supply of 280 m.t. per year from the present level of 175 m.t. from the 132 m.ha of cultivated land. By the end of 2030 A.D., the perceptive land availability will be less than 0.13 ha. And by all possible means like reclaiming the problem soils and wastelands the net area cultivated could be increased to 150 m.ha only. The other estimate shows that the cultivated area may be even reduced because of increasing population and due to industrialization and urbanization to meet food demand of even growing population the total production has to be increased by Increasing the area under cultivation. Increasing the productivity i.e., yield per unit area/unit time. Increasing area under cultivation is seldom possible and the alternative is to increase the productivity by intensive cropping, which means the cropping systems. **EFFICIENT CROPPING ZONES** The present concept of cropping pattern defines it as the proportion of area under various crops at a particular time in a given area. But this concept has got some limitations. The unit of classification is political and administrative. The scientific and natural features such as soil and climate did not figure with greater emphasis. The cropping pattern was determined by the spread of crop expressed as percentage of the total area of important crops. It is not necessary that spread and cropping efficiency will go together. Though the cropping pattern has been evolved after centuries of experience, in national perspective it is not necessarily the most efficient use of land and other resources. No cropping pattern can hold good for all times. It has to change with the improvement in technology and economic factors e.g., sugarcane and cotton average shrinks when the prices are more favourable for grain crops and vice-versa. Therefore, a new concept has been evolved which refers to both time and space sequence of crops. It includes the identification of the most efficient crops of the region, which is considered a homogeneous soil and climatic belt, the rotation in which the crop best fits in, and the intensity of cropping. So the cropping pattern has been scientifically defined as yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or crops and fallow in a given area (Palaniappan, 1985). According to the new concept, the most efficient crops will be identified in a homogeneous region and put in the yearly sequence (rotation) where they fit best and the space (area) of those crops, which are inefficient, will be reduced and area of efficient crops will be increased. This way, by knowing the temporal and spatial arrangement of crops in a region, we can identify the cropping pattern followed in the region. For the purpose of planning the cropping pattern, it is necessary to divide the country into homogeneous regions on some well-defined basis. There can be a number of physical, climatological and agronomic criteria, e.g., climatic index and soil groups, as both are fixed entities and can be better criteria than the political units. It is necessary to know whether crops grown are most suitable for the region; an analysis of productivity and efficiency of various crops in different regions becomes imperative. This could be done with the help of relative yield index (RYI) and relative spread index (RSI) of the crop. Mean yield of the crop in zone ---------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------- **RYI**= \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-- x 100 Mean all Indian yield Per cent area of the crop of the total cultivated area in the zone ---------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------- **RSI**= \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ x 100 Per cent area of the crop of the total cultivated area in the country Division of Cropped Area on RSI and RYI basis It is assumed that the average relative yield is below 90 per cent and a relative spread below 90 per cent can be taken as an index of relatively inefficient areas. The area under every crop can be divided into four zones *i.e.*, Zone--1--High yield and high spread, Zone--2--High yield land low spread Zone--3--Low yield and high spread and Zone--4--Low yield and low spread. The Zone--1 can be considered as the most efficient and Zone--4 as the most inefficient for production. For any important crop most efficient region can be identified and the rotation woven around it will determine the most suitable cropping pattern. The zone, which appears to be inefficient for a crop, should be identified and more efficient crops substituted. **Efficient Crop Zone:** It is the zone/area where the productivity of a crop is higher and also stable due to prevalence of optimum condition for crop growth and yield. 1. **Rice zone:** About 49% of the area is under rainfed and 51% under irrigated. In India, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are the potential zone for irrigated/low land rice. North-eastern part of the country (Assam, West Bengal, Tiripura, Meghalaya, Orissa and Bihar is the potential area for upland/rainfed rice. 2. **Wheat zone:** Efficient wheat zones are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. Higher production of wheat is from Uttar Pradesh, but Punjab recorded the highest average productivity. Nearly 85% of the wheat is grown under irrigated condition and the remaining 15% under rainfed condition. 3. **Sorghum zone:** Nearly 94% of sorghum is grown under rainfed condition. In India, potential zone for rainfed sorghum are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Irrigated sorghum is raised to lesser extent in southern part of India. **.** 4. **Maize zone:** In India, 85% of area is under rainfed. Efficient zones are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The average productivity is high in Karnataka. 5. **Bajra zone:** More than 95% of the area is under rainfed condition. It is cultivated in drought prone low rainfall areas and in shallow soils. The potential area is North-western part of India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Part of Uttar Pradesh). Rajasthan is the potential area for bajra. 6. **Finger millet (ragi):** It is an important coarse cereal in Karnataka. It is extensively grown in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and in hilly areas of Uttar Pradesh. 7. **Pulse zone:** India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world and accounts 33% of world area and 22% of world production. Nearly 90% of pulses are grown under rainfed condition. In India, potential production of pulses is from Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Karnataka. **Chickpea:** Efficient zones are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in Western zone. 8. **Red gram (pigeon pea):** Efficient zones are Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. 9. **Green gram:** Efficient areas are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. 10. **Black gram:** Efficient zones are in India are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. 11. **Horse gram:** Efficient zones are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. 12. **Forage crops:** Efficient areas are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Gujarat. **MAJOR CROPPING SYSTEMS** Cropping system vary widely from the simplest system of two crops a year in sequence to complex intercropping with many crops. Multiple cropped lands can be broadly grouped into lowlands, irrigated uplands, and rainfed uplands. **A. Lowland and Irrigated Uplands** Rice based cropping systems predominate in lowlands. Number of crops per year and the crops that follow or precede rice depends on the period of water availability and the degree of control of water. Where irrigation or rainfall (\> 200 mm per month) extends over 9--10 months, the system could be rice rice- rice, rice-rice-upland crop or upland crop-rice-rice. When this period is limited to 6--8 months, upland crop-rice-upland crop or upland crop may be appropriate. Early maturing rice cultivars are ideal for such sequences. If water is available for 4--5 months, only one rice crop is grown. **B. Irrigated Uplands** In irrigated uplands where winter is mild, upland crops that can follow rice include legumes such as green gram, black gram, soybean and groundnut, cereals such as maize, sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet and other crops such as cotton, sunflower and vegetables. Where the winter is cool, important crops, which can follow rice, are wheat, barley, mustard, chickpea and potato. One irrigable high rainfall uplands, sequential cropping with a wide range of crops is possible. The systems could be cereal-cereal and cereal-legume, oilseeds or other cash crops. In northern India, potato or mustard can be added to maize-wheat by relay plating either of these in the standing maize and delaying wheat by about 2 months. Short duration green gram or fodder crops can be grown after the harvest of wheat in summer. **C. Rainfed Uplands** Cropping systems in rainfed uplands predominantly take the form of intercropping in Alfisols, Inseptisols and Entisols during rainy season. Cereal + pigeon pea system (sorghum + pigeon pea), cereal + cotton (setaria + cotton) are popular in India. In Vertisols of high moisture retentivity, land is kept fallow during rainy season followed by sorghum, chickpea, sunflower or coriander on stored soil moisture during post rainy season. However, double cropping can be practiced if the monsoon is relatively early. Under such conditions, sorghum, pearl millet or a pulse crop can be taken during rainy season followed by sunflower, safflower, chickpea or coriander in post rainy season. **CHAPTER 6 & 7: EFFICIENT CROPPING SYSTEM AND THEIR EVALUATION** **Efficient Cropping Systems:** Efficient cropping systems for a particular farm depend on farm resources, farm enterprises and farm technology because farm is an organized economical unit. The farm resources include land, labour, water, capital and infrastructure. [Following situations decide the efficiency of cropping systems:] 1\. When land is limited intensive cropping is adapted to fully utilized available water and labour when sufficient and cheap labour is available, vegetable crops are also included in the cropping systems as they required more labour. 2\. Capital intensive crop like sugarcane, banana, turmeric etc. find a space in the cropping system when capital is not a constraint. 3\. In low rainfall regions (750 mm/annum) mono cropping is followed and when rainfall is more than 750 mm, intercropping is practiced, with sufficient irrigation water, triple and quadruple cropping is adopted, when other climatic factors are not limiting farm enterprise like dairying, poultry etc. also influenced the type of cropping system. 4.When the farm enterprises include dairy, cropping system should contain fodder crops as components change in cropping system take place with the developments of technology. **INDICES FOR EVALUATION OF CROPPING SYSTEM** **Mechanism of Yield Advantages In Intercropping System:** Since several crops are involved in intercropping system, it is not logical to compare total yield of different crop in on system with the other. Several indices are developed to evaluate yield advantages in intercropping system. - Crop equivalent yield (CEY): - Land equivalent ratio (LER): - Relative yield total (RYT): - Relative crowing coefficient (RCC): LAND EQUIVALENT RATIO (LER): Land equivalent ratio (LER) is the relative land area under sole crops that is required to produce the yields achieved in intercropping. LER can be mathematically represented as follows LER = ∑ Yi / Yij Where, Yi is the yield of i^th^ component crop from a unit area grown as intercrop and Yij is the yield of i^th^ component grown as sole crop over the same area. Example:- Let the yields of groundnut and redgram grown as pure crops be 1200 and 1000 kg/ha respectively. Let the yields of these crops when grown as intercrops be 1000 and 600 kg/ha respectively. The land equivalent ratio of groundnut +redgram intercropping system is as follows Yield of inter crop (1000) ------------------- ---------------------------------------------- LER of groundnut= \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Yield of sole crop (1200) LER of redgram = 600/1000 **1000** **600** -------------------- ------------------ ------- ---------------- ----------- **LER of system=** **\_\_\_\_\_\_** **+** **\_\_\_\_\_** **=1.43** **1200** **1000** LER of the system indicates that **43 per cent yield advantage** is obtained when grown as intercrops compared to growing as sole crops. In other words the sole crop has to be grown in 1.43 ha to get the same yield level that is obtained from 1.00 ha of intercropping. LER - more than 1 indicates yield advantage, - equal to 1 indicates no grain or no gain or no loss and - less than 1 indicates yield loss. - It can be used both for replacement and additives series of intercropping. - LER is the summation of ratios of yields of intercrop to the yield of sole crop. - LER gives a better picture of the competitive abilities of the component crops. - It also gives actual yield advantage of intercropping. In other words LER is the measure of production efficiency of different system by convening the production in terms of land acreage. - LER gives an accurate assessment of the biological efficiency of intercropping. Important Indices **Some of the important indices to evaluate the cropping systems are as below:** I\) Land Use Efficiency or Assessment of Land Use: The main objective is to use available resources effectively. Multiple cropping which include both inter and sequential cropping has the main objective of intensification of cropping with the available resources in a given environment. Several indices have been proposed to compare the efficiencies of different multiple cropping system in turns of land use, and these have been reviewed by Menegay et al. 1978. **1. Multiple Cropping Index or Multiple Cropping Intensity (MCI):** It was proposed by Dalarymple (1971). It is the ratio of total area cropped in a year to the land area available for cultivation and expressed in percentage. a1 ------- -

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