Concepts of Education PDF

Concepts of Education 1. Education: Word “Education” is derived from different two words viz. Latin word EDUCARE, which means to bring up physically or mentally and French word EDUCERE, which means leading out or leading forth. 2. Education is the process of bringing desirable cha...

Concepts of Education 1. Education: Word “Education” is derived from different two words viz. Latin word EDUCARE, which means to bring up physically or mentally and French word EDUCERE, which means leading out or leading forth. 2. Education is the process of bringing desirable changes in human behaviour in terms of knowledge, skill and attitude. 3. Knowledge (Knowing behaviour): Knowledge is understood information possessed by an individual. 4. Attitude (Feeling behaviour): It means feelings of an individual towards or against something; it may be a person, object, institution, thought or idea. 5. Skill (Doing Behaviour): Skill is the competency in using knowledge efficacy. There are two types of skill, (1) Mental skill : eg. Calculating required quantity of insecticide for spray solution. (2) Manual skill or Physical skill : eg. Spraying of that prepared solution on crop for control of insects. Types of Education 1. Formal education: A formal education is the process of training and developing people in knowledge, skills, mind and character in a structured form (within four walls) and certified programmes. It includes basic learning, elementary and high school, and post-secondary school (college, trades or technical school, or university). 2. Informal education: It is the truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience. Here learning takes places from family, friends, peer groups, market place, training centers, the media and other influences in a person’s environment. Eg. Son of carpenter learns carpentry from his father while helping his father in his work. 3. Non-formal education: It is well organized, systematic educational activity which takes place outside the formal system in order to provide certain selected type of learning to the selected group of individuals which includes adults, youth and women. Eg. Training provided to the farmers by extension workers. Differences between Non formal Education and Formal Education Non formal Education Formal Education It is also known as extension education, It is also known as within four walls non-formal education, adult education, education, primary education, school end-less education, out of the four walls education, and college education and education, continues education and adult structured education. education. Education that we get out of schools and Education that we get in schools and colleges. It is informal way to educate colleges. It is way to educate learners people, where rigid formalities are not following all the formalities. necessary to follow all the times. In extension education there is no fixed In this type of education there is a fixed curriculum. Its flexibility or changeable or pre-decided curriculum/content so depending on the needs of the learners. there are rare chances to change it. The learners/ audiences are heterogeneous The learners/ audience are with different goals. They are varying in age, homogeneous in age, education, education, needs, problems, interest and experience etc. and have common goals. other characteristics. Teaching is horizontal and mostly need Teaching is vertical and curriculum based and problem oriented. Extension centered. The teacher teaches and workers and farmers exchange problems and learners receive vertically. It is possible solutions with each other horizontally. It is most of the times that teacher is superior not possible all the times that teacher is to learners. superior to learners. Extension education starts from practical Formal education starts from a field problems and goes up to solutions to theoretical or conceptual framework create theoretical understanding. and leads to practical or actual fieldwork. Final power of teaching and learning Final power of teaching and learning remains with learners. Freedom of choice remains with teachers. Strictly of subject matter is left to the learners. institutional norms and formalities are Learners are not bound to learn. It is learner followed viz., fixed period, fixed books, centered education. examination. This education is not class oriented, This education is of a specialized nature. subject-centered and degree-oriented. It is class, subject and degree oriented. Teaching is through extension personals Teaching is only through instructors and also through local leaders. It is continuous process through - out life At certain level, there is end of of individual. education. It may end with school, college or University education. The physical facilities like classroom, Required physical facilities like laboratory and benches are not required. classroom, laboratory, benches, and fans Education is given at farm, home or etc. for lectures. Fixed classroom is wherever learner wants to learn. required. Participation is wholly voluntary, free Attendance is largely compulsory i.e. education in matter of learner’s choice. no free education according to his choice. It is given using mass media, farm and Mainly lecture method is used to teach home visit, result and method learners. demonstration, training It is more practical and problem solving. It is more theoretical and subject oriented. 1  Concept of Extension Education The word Extension is derived from two Latin words Ex and Tensio. Ex means out and Tensio means stretch or spread and, thus meaning of Extension is spread out or stretches out knowledge which is beyond the capacity of school education. 1. It is the out-of-school process aimed at bringing desirable changes in the knowledge, skill and attitude of farmers, farmwomen, rural adults and youths in order to help them to solve their problems (S. K. Wagmare, 1980). 2. According to Leagans J. P.: Extension education is the process of teaching rural people how to live better by learning ways that improve their farm, home and community institutions. He also defined extension education as an applied science consisting of content derived from research, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from the behavioural science synthesized with useful technology into a body of philosophy, principles, content and methods focused on the problems of out of school education for adults and youth 3. According to Kelsey and Hearne (1963): It is out of school system of education in which young and adult people learn by doing. 4. According to Ensminger (1967): Extension is an education and its purpose is to change the attitude and practices of people with whom the work is done. Components of Extension: Activity of extension can be made possible by its three important broad components. These components are Extension Education, Extension Service and Extension Work. 1. Extension Education: Education is given to prepare and develop experts for extension jobs. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and Colleges, ICAR and training institutes generally perform the role of extension education. 2. Extension Service: It is input and service oriented field professional activities done to transfer technology from research station to farmers’ fields and transferring farmers’ problems to research stations. The work done by government extension agencies like Department of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Forestry, Fishery etc. are the examples of extension service. 3. Extension Work: Many extension activities are done with the feelings of altruism, selflessness or humanity in helping people to help them. The work done by Non-Government Organization (NGOs) or individuals with an inspiration of unselfishness is an example of extension work. 2 Objectives of Extension Education: The general objective of the extension education is to raise the standard of living of the farming community and rural people by helping them in using their resources like land, labors, capital, water and livestock in the right and efficient way to increase their productivity. The fundamental or main or broad objective of extension education is to bring about all- round development in the life of people. The specific objectives of extension education are as under: 1. To provide the occupational knowledge of farmers to increase their income. 2. To encourage farmer to be self-sufficient in food and other requirements. 3. To help the members of farm family to know, learn and adopt better about the world in which they live. 4. To open-up new opportunities for rural people 5. To develop talents and leadership quality of rural people. 6. To build confidence among rural people and show them better opportunities for their occupation. Agricultural Extension: Agricultural extension can be defined as an ongoing process of providing useful information to the farmers and rural people to acquire them knowledge, skill and attitude to utilize effectively these information or technology to improve quality and productivity of their farm, home and institutions. It makes available to the rural villages, scientific and factual information and training and guidance for the solution of problems of agriculture and rural life. Agricultural extension is a bridge that fills the gap between agricultural research stations on the one hand and the farming population on the other by establishing a suitable teaching organization at various levels of administration. Principles of Extension Education Principle: The meaning of principle is fundamental truth or law or rules or regulation one has to follow as the basis of some actions. To achieve expected results through any action, action should be carried out based on sound principles. It is necessary for extension worker to acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the principles of extension. 1. Principle of interest and need: Because extension education is informal education, educationists cannot use compulsion on learners to learn or participate in the educational programme. In this situation if educationist carries out educational programme considering the need and interest of the farmers, participation of the farmers in the programme will be possible. Thus, extension work must be based on the needs and interests of the people. These needs and 3 interests differ from individual to individual, from village to village, from block to block, and from state to state and therefore, there cannot be one common programme for all people. 2. Principle of cultural difference: Extension work should be based on the cultural background of the people with whom the work is done. Improvement can only begin from the level of the people where they are. This means that the extension worker should know the level of the knowledge and skills of the people, methods and tools used by them, their customs, traditions, beliefs, values and norms before starting the extension programme. 3. Principle of cultural change: The culture of the people undergoes change while doing extension work. The change is necessary for growth and development of society. There may be a difference between the situation at the time of starting the programme and today’s situation. Therefore, with growth and development of social status, the extension work should also to be changed to meet the cultural changes among the people. 4. Principle of participation: Extension helps people to help themselves. Good extension work is directed towards assisting rural families to work out their own problems rather than giving them ready-made solutions. Actual participation and experience of people in these programmes creates self-confidence in them and also they learn more by doing. The high level of interest among the farmers towards any new efforts can be developed if they are involved from planning to evaluation stages of any extension programme. 5. Principle of adaptability and flexibility: People differ from each other, one group differs from another group and conditions also differ from place to place. An extension programme should be flexible, so that necessary changes can be made whenever needed to meet the varying conditions. Thus, when working with people we should not go with our pre-decided content but after knowing their need and problems only content of programmes should be decided. Extension workers must permit flexibility. 6. The grass roots principle of organization: A group of rural people in local community should sponsor extension work. The programme should fit in with the local conditions. The aim of organizing the local group is to demonstrate the value of the new practices or programmes so that more and more people can participate. 7. The leadership principle: Extension work is based on the full utilization of local leadership. The selection and training of local leaders to enable them to help to carry out extension work is essential to the success of the programme. People have more faith in local leaders and they should be used to put across a new idea so that it is accepted with the least resistance. 8. The whole-family principle: Extension work will have a better chance of success if the extension workers have a whole-family approach, instead of piecemeal approach or separate and non-integrated approach. Extension work should be therefore for the whole family, i.e. for male, female and the youth. Each family member of the farmer has their impact in different manners. Involvement of all family members in any new activity provides an opportunity to head of the family to take quick decisions. 4 9. Principle of co-operation: Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint democratic enterprise in which rural people co-operate with their village, block and state officials to pursue a common cause. It has been experience of many countries that people become dynamic if they are permitted to take decision concerning their own affairs, exercise responsibility for, and are helped to carry out projects in their own village. Most members of the village community will willingly cooperate in carrying out a project that they helped to decide to undertake. People should involve in planning programmes, determining objectives, setting up plan of work, carrying out actions and evaluating results. The participation and co-operation of people are of fundamental importance for the success of any educational behaviour. This also develops leadership in the village and increases the confidence of the people. By participation people feel that it is their own programme. 10. Principle of satisfaction: The end product of the effort of extension teaching is the satisfaction that comes to the farmer, his wife or youngsters as the result of solving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new skill or some other changes in behaviour. Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. A satisfied customer is the best advertisement. Thus, satisfaction of the people is very essential in extension work. When a person receives satisfaction as a result of his participation in an extension programme, he seeks further help from an extension agency. This promotes the growth of extension work. The success of the extension work lies in the satisfaction of the people. If participating in the programme does not satisfy the people will not participate in the future. 11. The evaluation principle: Extension is based upon the methods of science and it needs constant evaluation. The effectiveness of the work should be measured in terms of the changes brought about in the knowledge, skill, attitude and adoption behaviour of the people but not merely in terms of achievement of physical targets. The evaluation is the mirror of any extension programme. It gives understanding about degree of success and at the same time base to reformulate next efforts. 12. Principle of applied science: Applied agricultural science is not a one-way process. It does not only give technology but at the same time it also collects problem of the farmers to bring to the notice of the scientists. Two-way approach helps scientist to do the necessary changes in technology to make it adoptable. 13. Principle of democratic approach: Extension work should try to create democratic impression among the farmers while working with them. It can be done through giving opportunity to the farmers to discuss and suggest their feelings. Facts about a situation should be shared with people. All possible alternative solutions should be placed before the participants and their merits are highlighted through mutual discussion. Ultimately, the people should left free to take their own decision. 14. Principle of Learning by Doing: In extension work, the farmers should be encouraged to learn new things by doing and by direct participation. They must be a part of practice the new ideas. It helps in developing the confidence to use the new method in future. 5 15. Principle of trained specialists: It is very complicated for extension worker to keep himself with all the new latest findings of research and all branches of science he has deal with in his day- to-day activities. To guide farmers in an effective manner he should always take help of well- trained specialists. This kind of involvement of various specialists will clear all the doubts of the farmers in a methodical manner. 16. Principle of bringing variation by the use of extension teaching methods: Extension workers should use proper extension teaching methods while educating the farmers. A combination of a number of suitable extension methods leads to the higher success in the adoption and diffusion of innovations and technology among the people as compared to only lecture method. Different methods must be used under different situations. No single extension method is effective under all conditions e.g. reading material for those who can read, radio programme for those who have radios, puppets for those who believe in traditional way of learning. 17. Principle of gradual efforts: Any extension programmes should be started from where people are. After knowing their existing level of knowledge, interest, availability of inputs and adoptability, any programme should be matched up and initiated. 18. Extension education in line with the national policies: For the sustainable results, any programmes should be organized looking to the state and national policy. Thus, any extension work should be based on some working principles. The knowledge of these principles is necessary for an extension worker to get desired results. The Extension Educational Process The extension is educational process. The prime duty of an Extension agent or educator is to provide educational programme to clientele. To explain extension educational process, Leagans, suggested five important steps. The sequence of steps in a cycle, expected to result in progress from a given situation to a new or more desirable situation. 1. Situation: The first phase in any extension educational process is analysis of the situation. The main aim of any extension education is to solve the problems of the rural people and fulfill their needs. This is possible by collecting information regarding two situations viz. what is at present and what should be? This requires a large amount of facts about all the aspects of the existing situation. Thus, to collect such factual, extension worker are needed to collect information regarding people and physical situation of the area where extension activity has to be carried out. As far as information on people is concerned, information like peoples’ interests, education, need, their social customs and habits should be collected. This information helps us to know what types of new changes are needed in people. The databases are also needed about the physical situation of the area such as types of soil, types of farming, markets and farm size. Some of these facts shape up in to problems; other facts show the resources that are available through any agencies. New facts and research finding should be introduced by extension workers to stimulate a fresh approach to the problem of people. 6 2. Decide objectives: The second phase is to decide objectives. An objective is a direction of the movement. On the bases of analysis of the existing situation, needs and problems should be decided and objectives should be framed accordingly. Objectives can be classified on the basis of requirement of time to achieve viz. short time objective; medium term objectives and long-term objectives. Whatever objectives are decided should be realistic, dynamic and achievable. The objective gives target to the extension worker to achieve. Steps in Extension Educational Process 3. Teaching: The third phase in extension educational process is teaching. This involves selection of content for the programme and techniques of teaching or communication. To create ideal learning situations, extension educationist must use different methods of communication to stimulate learners considering objectives and audience. 4. Evaluation: The fourth phase is evaluation of the teaching. At this stage extension educationist determines that up to what extent the objectives have been achieved or fulfilled. An evaluation is process by which the values of an activity are ascertained. Evaluation helps to estimate a benchmark survey; it explains, whether we are proceeding in the right direction or not, it helps to know the degree of progress and strong and weak points of the work done. Thus this step is an important element in extension educational process. 5. Reconsideration: Fifth phase is reconsideration. This step consists of a review of previous efforts’ results, which expose a new situation. If this new situation shows the need for further work, then the whole process may begin with due modification of objectives. The new situation may be different because of the physical, economic and social changes taken place after the programme. At this stage extension worker tries to recognize new needs and interests for the next programme. 7  Extension Programme planning Programme: The programme is a statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions. It is relatively permanent but requires constant revision. It forms the basis for extension plans. Planning: Planning is a process of preparing systematic statement of the line of actions to achieve decided objectives based on needs and resources. Programme Planning: Programme planning is a process of working with rural people in an effort to recognize the problems and determine possible solutions. Project: Project is an outline of procedure pertaining to some phase of extension work. Specification of work to be done. Procedure to be followed to accomplish the objective. Problem: It is a condition that people after study, with or without outside help, have decided needs to be changed. Aim: Aim is a broad objective. It is broad and generalized statements of directions with respect to given activities. Objective: Objective is direction of movements. It is the direction towards which our efforts are directed. There are three levels of objective: Fundamental objective: All inclusive objective. Eg. People’s participation in planning at grass root level. General objective: More definite social objective. Mandatory creation of Panchayetiraj bodies at states. Working or specific objective: enactment of suitable laws relating to panchayet, holding panchayet election in time. Goal: Goal is the distance in any given direction one expects to go during particular period of time. Plan of work: it is an outline of activities so arranged as to enable efficient execution of programme. It is a statement of activities to be undertaken by an individual within a definite time. It indicates what is to be done, who will do it and how it is to be done, when it is to be done. Calendar of work: It is plan of activities to be undertaken in a particular time sequence. It is chronological arrangement of activities. Importance of Programme Planning: 1. It helps in avoiding future problems. A good planning always identifies and monitors future development that will have a major impact on performance of results. 2. It helps to get institutional support of local areas. For proper implementation of the plan, the involved person must be in substantial agreement with the plan. Planning will help to justify the appropriations by public bodies and to obtain support of the key personnel. 3. It gives reliable information about situation where we have to work. When and whatever information is required about the programme, situation and resources, it is easily available from the records. 8  4. It offers assistance. Programme planning makes sure about what is to be done and why, establishes objectives, gives direction for carrying out work and helps in evaluating results. 5. It prevents wastage of resources: Programme planning helps to reduce the wastage of time, money and resources and provides general efficiency. Optimum results can be accomplished under the prevailing circumstances and conditions. 6. It provides continuity to efforts. Programme planning presents continuity to the programme because of availability of plan in black and white. 7. It helps in leadership development: Development of leadership is one of the keys to success and planning is one of the best methods of developing leadership. 8. It helps to get local support: A programme planned with the cooperation of the people and based on their needs will get full support from them. 9. It minimizes conflict. Many conflicts like conflict of resources, personalities etc. may arise while executing a programme and these can be easily removed at planning stage. A good programme planning can avoid unnecessary conflicts. 10. It helps in fulfilling people's needs and wants. 11. Shares commitment and responsibilities. 12. Ensures a balanced but varied programme. 13. Provides opportunity each member to feel important in the community. 14. It gives specific job to each member involved in. 15. Ensures ample preparation time. 16. It provides maximum involvement. 17. It provides better communication. 18. It helps to learn how to cooperate and compromise. 19. It provides opportunity of learning how to plan. 20. It encourages members of society to look forward to meetings STEPS OF PROGRAMME PLANNING 1. Assessing the situation: Sound plans are based on availability of relevant and reliable facts. This includes facts about the village people, physical conditions, existing farm and home practices, trends and outlook. Basic information about village: To study the situation one should collect information about village like population, total number of families, farm families, occupation of the villages, and facility of communication, transport, health, schooling and drinking water. Information about farming: like total area under cultivation, size of landholding, types of crops grown, cattle feeds, utilization of grassland, diseases and pests control, position of labour and financial position. Information about characteristics of local people: like their existing knowledge, skill, understanding, attitude, interest, education level, social participation, level of scientific orientation, ability etc. After assembling the facts pertaining to local situation, it is important to analyze these facts to understand situation of the area where extension work has to be done. 9 2. Determination of objectives: Based on information on the situation and urgency of the problem, need and solution of the problems, extension worker decides objective to satisfy problems and needs of the community. The objectives are the direction of movement. The objectives can be of different types. Fundamental objectives, General objectives and Specific or working objectives. The objectives can also be classified on the basis of period of achievement like Long term objectives: (achievable in more than 10 years), Medium term objectives (achievable within the period of 3 to 5 years) and Short term objectives (achievable within one year or one season). The objectives must be well defined, clear and achievable, according to the need, interest and problems of the people. Objective should be SMART. Which means: S= Simple, M= Measurable, A= Attainable, R= Realistic and T= Time bound. 3. Identification of problem: At this stage the problems leading to a situation are selected to solve. The problems are then classified according to their nature. Many problems can be solved by the villagers with their own resources e.g. Kaccha road preparation The problems that can be solved using community cooperation e.g. village cleanliness and Problems that require assistance from outside sources because of need of high costs and technical knowledge e.g. Locust control, construction of school building, creating irrigation facilities. 4. Decide priority of the problems to solve: As a result of the analysis of data the important gaps between 'what is' and 'what should be' are identified. The problems which need urgent solution should be identified to find its solutions. I. Drinking water II. Lighting III. Sanitation IV. Digging of pond V. Afforestation 5. Finding solution to problems: The extension worker has to consult their superiors keeping the villagers with them in finding out proper solutions of the problems. 10  Execution Stage Planning Stage Steps of Programme Planning 6. Developing the plan of work: In order to achieve the stated objectives planners should convert them in to goals. Conversion of objective in to goal includes time limit to achieve decided objectives. The means and methods attaining each objective are selected and the action plan in terms of the calendar of activities is developed. It includes planning of WHAT (Subject), WHICH (Major part of Subject), WHEN (Year, Month, Date, Time), WHERE (Place of activity) and HOW (By which method of teaching such as demonstrations, discussion, meeting) to do the activities. The plan of work may be seasonal, short-term, annual or long-term. 7. Carrying out the plan step by step: In this step whatever planner has decided in 6th steps are to be implemented practically by using inputs like; MAN, METHODS, MATERIAL, TIME, and process like MOTIVATION, COORDINATION, and MANAGEMENT. During the execution (implementation) of the plan of work people should be involved at every step to make sure the success of the programme. 8. Evaluation of results: It is done to measure the degree of success of the programme in terms of the objectives and goals laid out. It can be done at three levels by collecting information before the programme, during the programme and at the end of programme. This is basically done to know the changes in the behaviour of the people as a result of the extension programme. Evaluation shows whatever way we go is in the right direction or not? Evaluation shows how far our plans have progressed. 11  Evaluation indicates the effectiveness of a programme. Evaluation helps to locate strong and weak points in any programme or plan. Evaluation improves our skill in working with people. Evaluation helps to determine priorities for activities in the plan of work. Evaluation brings confidence and satisfaction to our work. Evaluation gives bench mark information for next programme. Extension worker and village institutions should do evaluation of programme jointly. An effective evaluation requires adequate records of each activity. Each future programme should be based on the results of evaluation of the previous programmes. 9. Reconsideration: The systematic and periodic evaluation of the programme will reveal the weak and strong points of the programme. Based on these points the programme is reconsidered and the necessary adjustments and changes are made in order to make it more meaningful and sound. Programme planning is not the end product of any extension activities but it is an educational tool for helping people to identify their own problems and make timely and judicious decisions. From the above-mentioned cycle, it is clear that the planning of an extension programme comprises a logical series of consecutive steps. 12  Extension System in India India has made significant achievement in agriculture by increasing production by four folds during last six decades. Among many drivers to accomplish this task, the policy, research and extension support have played crucial role. Public extension played a major role in ushering green revolution in Indian agriculture. However, considering the varied agro-ecological situations under which farmers operate and variations in the resource base of farmers, the extension system envisaged to achieve desired growth in agricultural sector has to be pluralistic in nature and hence multiplicity of extension systems are operating in India. National Level Commodity State Level Boards Ministry of NGOs Other Extension System Ministry of Input Public Extension System Agriculture and Public Extension System Agriculture (Dept. Farmers Welfare Agencies of Agri., Horti., Ministry of Financial Animal Husbandry, Rural Fisheries etc.) institutions Development ICAR Ministry of Rural Voluntary Development organizations SAUs Agriculture development in India is basically a state subject. The Union Government plays a major role in formulating national policies that has direct bearing on the growth of agricultural sector. The Union Government mainly provides road map through its policies, programmes and budgetary support to the sector. The programmes conceived at national level are mainly implemented by the states through its development departments. Besides, states also formulate region specific development programmes. Similarly, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an apex body at the national level that supports and coordinates agricultural research, extension and education activities to evolve effective Transfer of Technology (TOT) models. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) also develop region specific extension models suitable to take up transfer of technology besides implementing the models evolved by ICAR system. All the systems maintain coordination among them for proper functioning and avoiding duplication of effort. Public Extension System - National Level At the national level the main extension service is provided by Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India. The ministry has 3 departments, Department of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries and Department of Agriculture, Research and Education. All these three departments 13 maintain a close coordination among them and perform their research and extension activities. The Department of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare has the main responsibility for developing and implementing various schemes for central government. The Ministry maintains a close relation with Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), which is a registered, autonomous body at the national level for conducting and coordinating agricultural research. The Ministry of Rural Development also undertakes many developmental programmes for social welfare. The various programmes implemented at national level are as follows: Post-independence period: The first planned attempt started with the launching of Community Development Programme in 1952, followed by the National Extension Service in 1953. These programs were able to educate farmers to take up improved methods of farming across the country. The other important Area-Based Special Programmes were; Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP, 1960), Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP, 1964) and High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP, 1966) besides Farmers Training Centers (1967) to train farmers on high yielding varieties and improved methods of fanning to back up the above programs. The cumulative effect of these programs resulted in increased productivity, which made possible the 'Green Revolution' in Indian agriculture. In 2004 the Government launched Kissan Call Center to provide telephonic advisory services to the farmers in local language. To sustain agricultural growth rate at 4 per cent and more investment in agricultural and allied sector the national government implemented Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana in 2007. To make the country self-sufficient in pulse production National Food Security Mission was introduced in the same year. However, these programs widened gap between resource rich and resource poor farmers. In order to enable resource poor farmers to take benefit of improved farm technology, many client- based programs were introduced. The most important ones being; Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA, 1970), Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Programme (MFAL, 1970), District Rural Development Agency (DRDA, 1978), Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP, 1978), etc. Although, these programs were able to improve the socio-economic conditions of beneficiaries, they were isolated in a given time and implemented in a phased manner. Initiatives of ICAR: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) took up numbers of extension programmes over the years. The first programme was All India Coordinated Project on National Demonstration (1964) initiated to demonstrate the genetic production potentiality of major crops in the farmers' field. Then the Operational Research Project (ORP) was started during 1974-75 to identify technological as well as socio-economic constraints and to formulate and implement the problem solving technology modules on area/watershed/ target group basis in operational area. Then in 1974 the Krishi Vigyan Kendra was introduced to provide need based vocational training to the farmers, farm women, farm youth and extension personnel. Lab to Land programme was launched during 1979 to transfer low cost technologies for small and marginal farmers and agricultural laborers in agriculture and allied enterprises. Institute Village Linkage Programme was launched during 1995. Under innovation in technology dissemination component 14 of National Agricultural Technology Project (1998), the ICAR established Agriculture Technology Information Centre (ATIC) in each State Agricultural Universities and ICAR institutes to work as support system linking the various units of research institution with intermediary users and farmers in decision making and problem solving exercise through availability of technology inputs, products, information and advisory services under one roof. Since 2006-07, ICAR is implementing National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP), in a consortium mode. Public Extension System - State Level Extension Approach of State Development Departments: Agricultural development being the state subject, the major responsibility of implementing all the programmes of central and state governments goes with state department of agriculture/horticulture/animal husbandry/fishery. The major State Development Departments (Departments of Agriculture, Horticulture, Sericulture, Animal husbandry and Fisheries) having focus on development of agriculture and allied activities do undertake outreach activities. The effective extension activity is visible mostly for Agriculture department, which was one of the major partners in implementing Training and Visit System at state. Some of the states have suitably modified T and V system (like Broad Based Extension System in Tamil Nadu) to suit their local needs. Presently the state department of Agriculture is a nodal agency to implement Agriculture Technology Management Agency (funded by Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, GOI) at the district level. The coordination and integration of activities of other development departments is envisaged under ATMA. During middle of 1970s it was observed that extension services in the developing countries were suffering from a number of weaknesses, including the engagement of extension workers' energies on low priority tasks; the lack of single as well as clear line of command; and low level of agricultural knowledge and skill among field level functionaries. As a means of reforming and strengthening the extension service, a reorganized agricultural extension system known as 'Training and Visit' (T & V) system was introduced in the country. Training and Visit System: This system was introduced in India in 1974 with the World Bank assistance. Training and Visit system became the dominant method of restructuring the extension services in over sixty countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, including India. The system aimed to achieve change in production technologies of farmers through professional assistance for the contact farmers from well-trained extension personnel on agricultural research and supported by supply, service and marketing facilities which were earlier lacking in National Extension Service. Broad Based Extension System (BBES): This system aimed at rectifying the defects of T & V system in some of the Indian states. In the BBE: (a) the role of subject matter specialists was amplified and they were invited to formulate messages suitable to their land based activities (agriculture, sericulture, animal husbandry, horticulture, human resource development, creating agriculture infrastructure etc.), (b) village extension workers had full time job by offering messages during lean season also, and (c) the concept of broad based education laid emphasis on formulating and delivering composite messages to the farmers to meet the needs of their whole agricultural 15 environment. Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA): In country like India where agro- climatic zones widely differ besides significant variation in socio-economic status of farmers', uniform extension service is not the panacea for all the regions. It was realized that public extension system will have to be placed in new decentralized institutional arrangements which are demand driven, farmer-accountable, bottom-up and have farming system approach. To address these issues, the ATMA was envisaged as alternate public extension institution of all stakeholders at district level. Under the Support to State Extension Programme for Extension Reforms, the extension division of the Department of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare makes general policies for ATMAs at national level and also provides technical and financial supports. The state department of Horticulture is implementing National Horticulture Mission since 2005. The human resource development through training and demonstrations is an integral part of the mission. Under this programme, training of the farmers, field level workers and officers by both Government sectors (SAUs and ICAR institutes) and Non Government Organizations is being undertaken. Departments of Animal husbandry and Fisheries are conducting a variety of extension activities like discussion meetings, demonstrations, field visits, fairs, field days etc. by the technical field functionaries to transfer the new technologies. State Agricultural Universities (SAUs): The State Agricultural Universities apart from lending support in implementing ICAR sponsored extension programmes, have evolved several innovative extension models to effectively reach the farming community. The type of extension activities undertaken by SAUs vary from state to state. The four agricultural universities of Gujarat state are undertaking transfer of technologies to farmers and others through Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Extension Education Units, Farmers Training Institute, Sardar Smriti Kendras, Staff Training Unit, Agriculture Technology Information Centre. The SAUs publish agriculture literature (books, booklets, folders and leaflets) in local languages for dissemination of agricultural technologies to the farmers and extension personnel. Some of the universities have their own mobile message services, community radio services and other different services. Other Extension Systems Extension activities of Commodity Boards, Financial Institutions, Input agencies, Non Government Organizations and Media Organizations come under this category. Commodity Boards (Coffee board, Spice board, Tobacco board, Dairy Development board, Tea board, Coconut development board etc.) are extending crop/commodity specific technical know- how to the farmers to a limited extent as many of these boards do not have grass root level functionaries throughout the country. Financial institutions normally provide assistance in preparation of agriculture project proposals by their technical staff to the farmers and others. Agricultural input agencies besides providing critical inputs like seeds, planting materials, fertilizes, plant protection chemicals etc., they also sponsor/organize training programme to educate farming community. The media organizations (print and electronic media) are disseminating timely information 16 on weather, technical information and marketing information. Various committed Non Government Organizations, Voluntary Organizations and Philanthropists are also rendering rural extension services to the rural community in the field of agriculture and allied sectors, health, sanitation, education, water supply etc., across the country. Despite the efforts made by public as well private extension systems to put in place an effective extension mechanism, the present extension systems appear to be inadequate to address the challenges faced by the farmers in the context of changing agricultural scenario. There is very little penetration of extension system below the taluka level. The major reason being lack of grassroot level extension functionaries to work at panchayats or village level. The public extension system would continue to play an important role in technology dissemination to serve the large chunk of small and marginal farmers, besides the other extension service providers to supplement and compliment the public extension service. At the same time, extension mechanism has to be demand driven, location specific and address the diversified demands as well as those of marketing and value addition which calls for organized arrangement of farmers. 17  Extension Efforts in Pre-independence Era It was during this period that the Department of Agriculture came into existence in June 1871 under the British rule, and by 1882, agricultural departments in most of the provinces started functioning in skeleton form. Recognizing the need for new and improved methods of cultivation based on agricultural research, the then Government had set up Imperial Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa in Bihar in 1905, which was later in 1936 transferred in New Delhi and now known as Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). The agricultural and rural development schemes of the pre independence era were mostly started by philanthropist individual person in sporadic manner. There were no proper coordination and participation of other stakeholders in those programmes. The list of those programmes is given below: Scheme/programme Year Initiator Remarks Rural Reconstruction at 1903 Daniel Hamilton Developed model village Sundarban based on cooperative principal Gurgaon Project 1920 F. L. Brayne Improving crop production, health, rural economies were the main concern. Concept of Rural Guidance or Gaaon Sathi was developed Sevagram Project 1920 Mahatma Gandhi Gandhian approach of village self-help by emphasizing cottage industries. Sriniketan Project 1921 Ravindra Nath Tagore Developed a spirit of self- help, village leadership. Marathandam Project 1928 Spencer Hatch, Three-fold development, Young Men Christian spiritual, mental & physical, Association (YMCA) and economic & social. Baroda Village 1932 V. T. Krishnamachari Improvement in standard of Reconstruction living, spread education and industrialization. Grow More Food Campaign 1942 The British govt. To fulfill the need of food. This campaign was the first one to be organized on a national level before independence. 18 Indian Village Service 1945 A. T. Mosher & Started in Allahabad and B. N. Gupta Aligarh in U. P. Firka Development Scheme 1946 Madras Govt. Development of village at Firka level. A firka is a revenue block consist of 5 -8 villages. 19  Rural Development Rural Development in India is one of the most important factors for growth of Indian economy. India is primarily an agriculture based country and around 96 per cent of its population lives in rural area. The Ministry of Rural Development in India is the apex body for formulating policies, regulations and acts parenting to the development of the rural sector. Agriculture, handicrafts, fisheries, poultry, dairy are some of the common contributors to the rural business and economy. It means it is concerned with economic growth, social justice, and improvement in the living standard of the rural people by providing adequate and quality social services and minimum basic needs. The present strategy of rural development mainly focuses on poverty alleviation, better livelihood opportunities, provision of basic amenities and infrastructure facilities through innovative programmes of wage and self-employment. This can be achieved by implementing various programmes in partnership with government organizations and various communities, non- governmental organizations, community based organizations, panchayati raj institutions and industrial establishments. For better understanding one should clearly understand the following concepts: Community: A body of people having common rights, privileges or interests or living in the same geographical area under the same laws and regulations. Development: It is act of improving by expanding or enlarging or refining. Community Development: It is a process of developing or building up communities of men and women to enable their empowerment, self- sufficiency and control over their environment. Rural area: It refers to an area where people are engaged mostly in primary activities to produce things first time in co-operation with nature. Rural Development: Rural development is a process of bringing desirable changes in the life of rural mass in terms of their social, economic, cultural, psychological, technological, health and infrastructural conditions. It is a process of improving the standards of people residing in rural areas. Objective of rural development: The fundamental objective of the rural development is to raise the level of living standards of the rural people. The specific objectives are: To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining articles such as food, clothes, shelter, health care and security. To raise standards of living by providing of more jobs, increasing purchasing power, better education and greater attention to cultural humanistic values. To expand the range of economic and social choice of individuals by freeing them from slavery (gulami) and dependence. 20 Importance of Rural Development: Rural development is a national necessity and has considerable importance in India because of the following reasons. To develop rural area as a whole in terms of culture, society, economy, technology and health. To develop living standard of rural mass. To develop rural youths, children and women. To develop and empower human resource of rural area in terms of their skill, knowledge, attitude and other abilities. To develop infrastructure facilities of rural area. To provide minimum facility to rural mass in terms of drinking water, education, transport, electricity and communication. To develop rural institutions like panchayat, co-operatives, post, banking and credit. To provide financial assistance to develop the artisans in the rural areas, farmers and agrarian unskilled labour, small and big rural entrepreneurs to improve their economy. To develop rural industries through the development of handicrafts, small scale industries, village industries, rural crafts, cottage industries and other related economic operations in the rural sector. To develop agriculture, animal husbandry and allied areas. To restore uncultivated land, provide irrigation facilities and motivate farmers to adopt improved seed, fertilizers, package of practices of crop cultivation and soil conservation methods. To develop entertainment and recreational facility for rural mass. To develop leadership in rural area. To improve rural marketing facility. To minimize gap between the urban and rural in terms of facilities availed. To improve rural people's participation in the development of state and nation as a whole. To improve scope of employment for rural mass. To eliminate rural poverty. To solve the problems faced by the rural mass for their development. Problems in Rural Development 1. People related: Traditional way of thinking. Poor understanding. Low level of education to understand developmental efforts and new technology. Deprived psychology and scientific orientation. 21  Lack of confidence. Poor awareness. Low level of education. Existence of unfelt needs. Personal ego. 2. Agricultural related problems: Lack of expected awareness, knowledge, skill and attitude. Unavailability of inputs. Poor marketing facility. Insufficient extension staff and services. Multidimensional tasks to extension personnel. Small size of land holding. Division of land. Unwillingness to work and stay in rural areas. 3. Infrastructure related problems: Poor infrastructure facilities like water, electricity, transport, educational institutions, communication, health, storage facility etc. 4. Economic problems: Unfavourable economic condition to adopt high cost technology. High cost of inputs. Underprivileged rural industries 5. Social and Cultural problems: Cultural norms and traditions Conflict within and between groups, castes, religions, regions, languages. 6. Leadership related problems: Leadership among the hands of inactive and incompetent people. Malafied interest of leaders. Biased political will. 7. Administrative problems: Earlier, majority of the programmes were planning based on top to bottom approach and were target oriented. Political interference. Lack of motivation and interest. Unwillingness to work in rural area. Improper utilization of budget. 22  Extension Efforts in Post-independence Era (Including various agril. developmental programmes launched by Govt. of India and ICAR) After independence the Government of India lunched many extension/rural developmental programmes/ schemes. From 1947 to 1960 periods mostly rural development programmes were emphasized, after that to achieve the self-sufficiency in food production and make the country self- reliant in food production, from 1960 to 1970 the emphasis of the Government was to increase food production by initiating different agricultural developmental programmes. After that from 1970 onwards the focus of the Government shift to the development of weaker section and started to implement target group specific programmes, employment programmes for the development of rural pore. The various programmes undertaken by the government after indolence of the country are listed below: Programme Year Implemented Remarks by Etawah Pilot Project 1948 Albert Mayer It is the forerunner of CDP. The concept of multipurpose village level worker was planned. Nilokheri Experiment 1948 S. K. Dey Also known as Mazdoor manzil. Started to rehabilitate the families coming from Pakistan during partition. Bhoodan Movement 1951 Vinoba Bhave Started at Pochampally village in Telangana. Earliest land reform programme. Community Development 2nd Govt. of India On the recommendations of Grow Programme (CDP) Oct., More Food Enquiry Committee 1952 (1952), 55 community projects were started. Each project area has been divided into three development blocks. A development block consisted of about 100 villages with a population of about 60-70 thousands. Each block was further divided into groups of 5-10 villages. Each such group formed the area of operation for a Village Level Worker (Gram Sevak). The programme emphasized all round development of the village community. 23 National Extension 2nd Govt. of India It was less intensive than CDP. It is a Services (NES) Oct., permanent organization and covers the 1953 whole country. It provides the basic organization, official, non-official and a minimum financial provision for development. Panchayat Raj Institutions 1958- Govt. of India Recommended by Balwant Rai Mheta 59 committee (1957). It is village self- governance. It was 3 tire system of Village (Gram) panchayat at village level, Panchayat samiti (taluka panchayat) at taluka or block level and Zila parishad (zila panchayat) at district level. First adopted by the state of Rajasthan in Nagaur district on 2nd Oct., 1959. Intensive Agriculture 1960 Govt. of India This programme was also known as District Programme Package Progarmme. Not only the (IADP) agriculture production was emphasized in the programme but the credit facility, marketing and value addition were also taken care of. Intensive Agriculture 1964 Govt. of India It was similar to IADP but less Area Programme (IAAP) intensive than IADP. Intensive Cattle 1964- Govt. of India It was envisaged to locate the breeding Development Project 65 tracts of indigenous breeds of cattle (ICDP) and buffaloes and in the milk sheds of large dairy projects. High Yielding Variety 1966 Govt. of India Introduction of dwarf wheat variety. Programme (HYVP) Tremendous increase in food grain production. William Gaud termed this as Green Revolution. Dr. N. E. Borlog and Dr. M. S. Swaminathan were the two important persons who contributed whole heartedly to the programme. Small Farmers 1970- Govt. of India The scheme implemented by the Development Agency 71 agency to provide loan from the loan (SFDA) institutions, co-operatives and commercial banks, to study the problems of the small farmers, to 24  arrange small irrigation, provide new agricultural instruments and to build field project after assessing the resources of the farmers. The subsidy under this scheme was 25% (for non- tribal farmer) and 50% (for tribal farmer). Marginal Farmers and 1970- Govt. of India The agency provides intensive Agricultural Labour 71 agricultural methods, loans, and Development Agency production materials for the increment (MFALA) in income of the marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. 25 Tribal and Hill Area 1973- Govt. of India The identified areas were getting Development Programme 74 special aid from planning commission for developmental activities, like, best utilization of water and land, providing facility of housing, minimizing the traditional planting of trees and Jhoom farming, dairy development, beehive and silk-worm taming. Drought Prone Area 1973- Govt. of India Only implemented in those areas where Programme (DPAP) 74 rain was scares, drought was frequent and no facility for irrigation. Main activities included was protection of land and water resources, planting of trees, development of dairy, sheep rearing practices and other subsidiary income generating activities. Command Area 1974 Govt. of India Focused on specific area to utilize the Development Programme available water in proper manner (CADP) which can be achieved through reducing the wastage of water by over irrigation and drainage. Desert Development 1977- Govt. of India Main aim was integrated development Programme (DDP) 78 of desert area. Increasing production, level of income, providing the facility of employment and best utilization of the available resources were the thrust areas. Integrated Rural 1978 Govt. of India It was the largest poverty alleviation Development Programme programme of the country. The (IRDP) programme was designed to enable the rural poor families to cross the poverty line. The programme was implemented in all the blocks in the country. For effective implementation of the programme District Rural Developmental Agency (DRDA) was created. Training of Rural Youth 15th Govt. of India It was designed to provide technical for Self Employment Aug., and basic skills to rural youth (18- 35 (TRYSEM) 1979 years age) from families below poverty 26  line to enable them to take up self- employment. National Rural 1980 Govt. of India It was designed to significantly Employment Programme increase employment opportunities in (NREP) rural areas by creating additional gainful employment for unemployed and under employed persons. 27 Development of Women 1982 Govt. of India Raising the income levels of women of and Children in Rural poor households to make them Areas (DWCRA) economically self-reliance. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana 1989 Govt. of India The National Rural Employment (JRY) Program (NREP) and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) were merged together to form JRY. Every village was to be covered through Panchayati Raj Institutions. The village got aide and support from DRDA. Employment Assurance 1993 Govt. of India Provide gainful employment during the Scheme (EAS) lean agricultural season in manual work to adults in rural areas who are in need and desirous of work. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh 1993 Govt. of India The RKM was established for socio- (RKM) economic empowerment Of women. RMK provides loans to Intermediary Organizations (IMO) which on-lend to Self Help Groups (SHGs) of women. It is an autonomous body for reaching out to the women beneficiaries with easy access of micro credit. Mahila Samridhi Yojana 1993 Govt. of India Objective was to empowering the rural (MSY) women through building thrift habit, self-reliance and confidence among them. Swarnajayanti Gram 1999 Govt. of India Provide sustainable income to poorest Swarojgar Yojana of the poor people living in rural areas. (SGSY) Provide self-employment to villagers through the establishment of Self Help Groups. The programme focused on establishing microenterprise in the village. Kisan Credit Card 1999- Govt. of India Helps the farmers to access timely and 2000 adequate credit. It was started by the RBI and NABARD. The card is valid for five years and subjected to annual renewal. 28 Antyodaya Anna 25th Govt. of India Provide highly subsidized food to the Yojana (AAY) Dec., poorest families of the country. The 2000 beneficiaries can purchase 35 kg of rice and wheat at Rs. 3 per Kg for rice and Rs. 2 per Kg for wheat. Sampoorna Grameen 2001 Govt. of India Provide gainful employment to the Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) rural poor. The programme was implemented through the Panchayati Raj institutions. Agri Clinic and Agri 2002 Govt. of India Promote the establishment of Agri- Business Centres Clinics and Agri-Business Centers (ACABC) (ACABC) all over the country. The MANAGE provide necessary training to the applicant and NABARD will provide the fund for establishing the centres. KCC 2004 Govt. of India The call centers were established across the country to deliver extension services to the farming community in local language. A farmer from any part of the country can contact the Call Centre by dialing the toll free No. 1800-180-1551 and present their problems/queries related to farming. National Project on 2004 Govt. of India Promote organic farming practices; Organic Farming provide financial and technical support for setting up of organic input production unit. National Rural 2005 Govt. of India The act aims to guarantee the right to Employment Guarantee work. The primary objective was to Act enhancing livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. Now this is known as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA). National Horticulture 2005 Govt. of India The main objective was to develop Mission (NHM) horticulture and to augment production 29  of all horticultural products. Food processing and value addition of horticultural crop was also emphasized. National Food Security 2007 Govt. of India To increase the production of rice, Mission (NFSM) wheat, and pulses by 10 million tonnes, 8 million tonnes, and 2 million tonnes respectively by the end of the Eleventh Plan (2012). Rashtriya Krishi Vikas 2007 Govt. of India The programme seeks to achieve 4% Yojana (RKVY) annual growth in agriculture through development of Agriculture and its allied sectors. It provides the state government more autonomy to draw up plans for increased public investment in Agriculture and allied sector. National Rural Livelihood 2011 Govt. of India This scheme is focused on promoting Mission (NRLM) self-employment and organization of rural poor. The basic idea behind this programme is to organize the poor into SHG (Self Help Groups) The SGSY is remolded into this programme. Programmes of ICAR All India Coordinated 1964 ICAR This nationwide demonstration project Project on National was conducted to show the farmers the Demonstration (AICPND) genetic production potentiality of the crop. The average size of the demonstration plot was 1 ha. It may be 1 acre if bigger plot was not available. The demonstration was conducted by the agricultural scientists in association with local extension workers. Operational Research 1974- ICAR Disseminate proven technology among Project (ORP) 75 the farmers in water shade basis, covering whole village or cluster of villages. It also studies the constraints as barriers to rapid spread of improved technical knowledge. Krishi Vigyan Kendra 1974 ICAR Designed to impart need based skill (KVK) oriented vocational training to the 30  farmers, in-service field level extension workers and the youth who wish to go for self employment. KVK provides learning through work experience and concerned with technical literacy. From 1992 all the transfer of technology programmes of ICAR, viz. AICPND, ORP and LLP are merged to the KVK and new mandate for KVK was made. Lab to Land Programme 1979 ICAR The programme was launched as (LLP) golden jubilee celebration of ICAR. The overall objective of the programme was to improve the economic condition of the small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers. Institute Village Linkage 1995 ICAR It is a production system oriented Programme (IVLP) & project with agro-ecosystem analysis Technology Assessment of the adopted villages, which helps in and Refinement Project identify the problems, priorities them (TARP) and finalize the technological intervention point through assessment and refinement of technologies. National Agricultural 1998 ICAR It was world bank financed project. Technology Project Innovation in Technology (NATP) Dissemination (ITD) component was planned in this project. ITD aims to develop a transfer of technology system which will be more demand driven, well integrated with research, financially sustainable and accountable to the stakeholders. Under this programme ATMA, ATIC were conceptualized. National Agricultural 2006 ICAR This was also world bank financed Innovation Project (NAIP) project. The project facilitated accelerated and sustainable transformation of Indian agriculture so that it can support poverty alleviation 31  and income generation. The project was implemented in consortium mode. National Innovations in 2011 ICAR It is a network project which aims to Climate Resilient enhance resilience of Indian agriculture Agriculture (NICRA) to climate change and climate vulnerability through strategic research and technology demonstration. Attracting and Retaining 2015 ICAR The objective was to facilitate the Youth in Agriculture entrepreneurial development of youth (ARYA) in rural areas to take up various agriculture, allied and service sector enterprises for sustainable income and gainful employment. My Village My Pride/ 2015 ICAR To enhance the direct interface of the Mera Gaon, Mera Gourav agricultural scientists with the farmers. (MGMG) Under this scheme group of scientists will select a village and remain in continuous touch with that village and provide required information to the farmers of that village. 32  Various Rural Development Programmes Launched by Govt. of India Sr. Name of Programmes Year of Importance Remark Starting 1. Panchayat Raj System 1959 Political will of the Govt in sharing authority and responsibility with the Panchayats. Enactment of laws relating to PRIs.a basic pattern of Democratic decentralization with the Gram panchayat (Village Council) at the village level, the Panchayat Samiti at the block level and the Zilla Parishad (district council) at the district level. 2. Antyodaya Anna Yojana Dec., The main objective of the scheme is to ensure (AAY) 2000 food security and to create hunger free India. 25 kg of food grains were made available to each eligible family at a highly subsidized rate of Rs. 2 per kg for wheat and Rs.3 per kg for rice. This quantity has been enhanced from 25 to 35 kg with effect from April, 2002. 3. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya 25th Sept., The Vision of DDU-GKY is to "Transform Grameen Kaushalya Yojana 2014 rural poor youth into an economically (DDU-GKY) independent and globally relevant workforce". The scheme aims to provide skill to the poor youth of the country. 4. Deendayal Disabled 13 July, NGOs are provided financial assistance for th Rehabilitation Scheme 2013 providing various services to people with (DDRS) disabilities, such as special schools, vocational training centers, community-based rehabilitation etc. 5. Gramin Bhandharan Yojana 1st April, Government provides supports to an Or Rural Godown Scheme, 2001 individual, a company, a farmer, local government, NGOs and various associations, if they build or renovate rural godowns. The scheme has been subsumed into capital investment subsidy sub-scheme "Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure (AMI)" of Integrated Scheme for Agricultural Marketing (ISAM) scheme w.e.f 01.04.2014. 6. Rural Housing (Indra Awas January, Rural housing programme started with Indira Yojana) 1996 Awaas Yojana (IAY) in January 1996. IAY addressed the housing needs in the rural areas. 33  To address these need in the rural housing program and in view of Government’s commitment to providing “Housing for All’’ by the scheme 2022, the of has IAY has been re- structured into Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana – Gramin (PMAY-G) w.e.f. 1st April 2016. 7. The Integrated Child 2nd Oct., The Integrated Child Development Services Development Services 1975 (ICDS) scheme is a government initiative for (ICDS) the all-round development (health, nutrition and education) of children under 6. Its aim is to reduce infant mortality, child malnutrition and to provide pre-school education. 8. Integrated Rural 1978-79 Providing self-employment to the rural poor to Development Programme generate additional income on sustainable base. It is for small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and rural artisans living Bellow Poverty Line (BPL), SC/ ST families and physically handicapped person. 9. Swarnjayanti Gram 1999 For rural poor living Bellow Poverty Line Swarozgara Yojana (BPL) in rural area for taking of self employment as individuals or in a group. 10. Livestock Insurance Scheme 2008-09 To Safe Guard assured protection to the animals of the farmer against eventual losses. Benefit of subsidy is to be restricted to 5 animals per beneficiary per household for all animals except sheep, goat, pig and rabbit. 11. Mahatma Gandhi National August It is an Indian labor law and social Rural Employment Guarantee 25, 2005 security measure that aims to guarantee the Act 'right to work'. It aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment to every household whose adult members want to do unskilled manual work. 12. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana 2015 Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana has been (PMAY) established by the Government of India to offer affordable houses to various sections of the society. 34  New Trends in Agriculture Extension: Institutional reforms Krishi Vigyan Kendra The vigorous attempt was realized by the Education Commission (1964-66) to establish a specialized institution to provide vocational education in agriculture and allied fields at the pre and post matriculation levels to cater to the training needs of a large number of boys and girls coming from rural areas. The recommendation of Education Commission was thoroughly discussed during 1966-1972 associating the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Education, Planning Commission, ICAR and other institutions. Finally, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) mooted the idea of establishing Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Farm Science Centre) as innovative institutions for imparting vocational training to the farmers and field level extension functionaries. As a result of this, in 1973 a committee headed by Dr. Mohan Singh Mehta of Seva Mandir, Udaipur (Rajasthan) was constituted and based on its report in 1974 it was decided to have Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs) as Farm Science Centers for speedy transfer of technology to the farmer’s fields. The first K V K was established in 1974 at Pondicherry under the administrative control of the Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. In Gujarat 1st KVK was established in Deesa during 1976 which is working nowadays under the administrative control of the SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar. At present total 694 KVKs including 30 KVKs of Gujarat are established and functioning in the country. The Mandate of the KVK’s is The final revised mandate of KVK is Technology Assessment and Demonstration for its Application and Capacity Development. (TADA-CD) It includes: 1. Conducting on-farm testing to identify the location specificity of agricultural technologies under various farming systems 2. Organizing frontline demonstrations to establish production potential of various crops and enterprises on the farmers’ fields 3. Organizing training for capacity development of farmers and field extension personnel to orient them in the frontier areas of technology development 4. Creating awareness about improved technologies to larger masses through appropriate extension activities 5. Work as resource and knowledge centre of agricultural technology for supporting initiatives of public, private and voluntary sector for improving the agricultural economy of the district 6. Production and supply of good quality seeds and planting materials, livestock, poultry and fisheries breeds and products and various bio-products to the farming community 35 Objectives: 1. To demonstrate the latest agricultural technologies to the farmers as well as the extension workers of the State Department of Agriculture / Non-Governmental organizations with a view to reducing the time-leg between the technology generation and its adoption. 2. To test and verify the technologies in the socio-economic condition of the farmers and identifying the production constraints. 3. To get first-hand scientific feedback from the fields and passing it to the research system in order to keep the scientists abreast with the performance of the technologies and the farming problems, so that they re-orient their research, education and training programme accordingly. 4. To impart training to the farmers, farmwomen, rural youth and field level extension functionaries by following the principles of “Teaching by doing” and “Learning by doing”. 5. To provide training and communication support to the line department of the State/NGOs. 6. To develop extension models to be adopted by general extension system for large scale multiplications. 7. Organizing farm science clubs in rural areas for young farmers. 8. Developing and maintaining demonstration units on KVK farm in scientific lines. Activities of Krishi Vigyan Kendra: Based on mandate, the following activities are performed by the KVKs. 1. On farm testing. 2. Front line demonstrations. 3. Vocational training of practicing farmers, farm women and rural youths. 4. In service training of extension functionaries. 5. Serve as knowledge center in the district. 6. Farm advisory other extension activities. The above said activities are performed every year by the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, through specialist of six disciplines viz., Extension Education, Agronomy, Horticulture, Plant Protection, Animal science, Agriculture Engineering (t