Adverse Influence on Forest & Social and Farm Forestry PDF

WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 1|Page WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES ADVERSE INFLUENCE ON FOREST 5.1 Susceptibility of Forest to damage caused by various agencies; its prevention...

WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 1|Page WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES ADVERSE INFLUENCE ON FOREST 5.1 Susceptibility of Forest to damage caused by various agencies; its prevention and protection measures. 5.2 Human agency: Encroachment, poaching, illicit felling, etc. 5.3 Forest fire: Controlled fire for forest management; Types of Forest Fire; Control Measure; Fire Management Planning; Fire lines, etc. 5.4 Forest factors: Frost, Snow, hail, drought, water logging, etc. 5.5 Forest pest and pathogens: Role of insects and pest in forest ecosystem; Symptoms and nature of damages; prevention and control measures; Common diseases. 5.6 Mycorrhiza: Importance in forestry. 5.7 Protection of plantation and regeneration areas: Fencing, Fires, weeds and Climbers, grazing, etc. Cause of Damage, Prevention, Protective Measures 2|Page WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 3|Page  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES BORERS The larvae of many beetles and moths cause considerable damage to forest trees by boring into the trunks and feeding on their living tissues. They bore holes and tunnels of various sizes, thus reducing the vitality of the trees and often causing their decay and death. In any case, the quality of the timber is affected and the value of the plantation goes down. Sal Borer- Hoplocerambyx spinicornis Newman (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) The sal borer is known to occur on sal (Shore Robusta) in Western Ghats, Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. Outside India, this pest has been reported from Afghanistan, Nepal, Indonesia, Singapore Borneo and the Philippines. The adult beetle is dark brown and variable in size measuring 20-60 mm in length and 5-16 mm in breadth. In the male, antennae are much longer than the body and, in the female, antennae are shorter than the body. Eggs are elongate, cylindrical and slightly swollen at the anterior end. The full- grown larva is yellowish and measures up to 9 cm in length. Life-cycle: The beetles appear every year soon after the monsoon rainfall in one or July. The Eggs are laid singly and a female can lay several hundred eggs. Eggs hatch within 5-8 days beetles pair soon after emergence and lay eggs about a week later on cuts or holes in the bark of sal trees and the grubs bore into bast and then into sapwood for feeding. They prepare the galleries, which are at first narrow with two or more arms. Galleries are entirely packed with wood excreta of the grub. In fact, the grub is packed in the galleries with wood excreta ejected by the grub. Grubs furthermore into heartwood for preparing pupal chamber. The pupal chamber is covered with white calcareous cocoon. The pupal stage lasts for 2-3 months and 4|Page  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES the pest hibernates in pupal state in cold weather. Damage: The grubs bore into bast, sapwood and heartwood and thus affect the quality of timber and growth of plant in case of standing plants. Grubs can bore into roots, main stem and large branches of the tree. The cambium layer of the plant is usually completely destroyed. The wood dust ejected by the gruels accumulates into heap near the base of the tree. Itis the most notorious forest pest in India because of its periodic outbreaks, during which millions of sal trees are killed. Management: (i) Remove felled trees from the forest and bark every tree within a week of felling. (ii) Collect and destroy the beetles when they appear for infestation on the trees. (iii) Encourage natural enemies like birds, parasitoids and predators. Woodpeckers feed on the grubs by tunnelling the wood. (iv) Cotton balls soaked in chloroform or petroleum or kerosene be placed in boring holes and sealed with mud for killing the pest inside the tunnel. Babul Borer, Celosternascabrator (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) The babul borer has been frequently recorded in plantations of babul (Acacia nilotica) in India. However, it is a polyphagous species,attacking saplings of other tree speciesas well such as Shorearobusta,Casuarina equisetifolia, Acacia arabica, Tectona grandis, Eucalyptus spp.,Ziziphus jujuba, Morus alba, Tamarixindica, etc. The beetle is dull yellowish brown and 5|Page  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES measures 25-40 mm in body length. The grub is elongated with brown head and black mandibles, and the pupa is reddish yellow. Life-cycle. The adults emerge from the host with the onset of monsoon in June-July. They feed on the bark of the young shoots. Eggs are deposited under bark on stems, 5-23cm girth, within 15 cm above ground level, usually one egg per stem. The newly hatched larva bores into the stem and as it grows older, it tunnels downwards hollowing out the main root. The larva ejects the frass through a hole in the stem just above the ground level and the frass accumulates at the base of the stem. The larval period is about 6-8 months and the full-grown grub pupates in the pupal chamber. The grubs block the pupal chamber with fibrous material and the pupal period lasts four weeks. The beetles emerge out through the fibrous material of the exit tunnel. Only one generation is completed in a year. Damage. The grubs cause damage by tunnelling down the center of stem and later the thicker portion of the stem, base of the stem and subsequently the roots. In this process, they cause death of the tree. In addition to the larvae tunnelling into the stem and root, adult beetles feed on the bark of stems and branches of saplings, in irregular patches, often girdling the shoots and causing them to dry up. Management. (i) Collect and destroy the beetles when they freshly emerge from pupal chambers. (ii) Collect and destroy the infested plant part along with pest stages. (iii) Fill wounds or bored portions with cotton boll soaked with petroleum oil or chloroform or kerosene and plug the same with mud to kill the pest inside the tunnel. Semul Borer, Xystroceraglobosa Olivier (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) The semul borer is a serious pest of semul (Bombax malabaricum) inAssam, Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Western Ghats. It has also been recorded from Egypt, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and the Philippines. Other hosts of this Pest include Xylia dolabriform is, Albezziabebbek, Populus cuphratica and Salix spp. The medium-sized beetle, 6|Page  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 30-35 mm in body length, is reddish brown in color with dark blue-green lateral stripes on the prothorax and elytra. The larva is yellowish green and grows up to40-50 mm in length. Pupa is whitish and exarate type. Life-cycle: The adult beetles appear on the wing in April and lay eggs, preferably in crevices on the stem or branch stubs, generally 3-4 meters aboveground. The newly emerged larvae bore into the inner bark and as the larvae. Grow, they feed on the outer sapwood, making irregular downward galleries, packed with frass. The full-grown larva pupates in the pupal chamber and the Beatles emerge from the trees in April. Two generations are completed in a year. Damage: The larvae damage bast and sapwood by making galleries, with the result the bark dries and cracks, and the heavily infested trees dry up. Weakened stems are sensitive to wind, particularly during the rainy season. Even when the trees are not killed, borer attack reduces the growth rate and timber quality. Management: Same as in case of babul borer. Shisham Borer, Aristobiahorridula Hope (Lepidoptera: Cerambycidae) The shisham borer is an emerging serious pest of Dalbergia cochinchinensisin. Thailand and 7|Page  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES it also attacks D. sissoo Indian (West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh). It has also been recorded on Pterocarpus indicus and P. macrocarpas. The adult beetle, 27-32 mm long, is brownish, with bluish hair on the elytra. A characteristic of the species is the presence of a dense tuft of hair on the distal portion of the first and second antennal segments, those on the second segment being longer. The prothorax has a pair of lateral spines. The full- grown larva is55-60 mm long and is creamy white. Life-cycle: The female beetle makes a transverse groove on the bark of trees and lays eggs singly. The larva makes irregular, upward galleries in the sapwood initially and finally bores into the heartwood where it pupates. The galleries,50-75 cm long, are packed with frass and excreta. In D. cochinchinensis, feeding of young larva causes reddish resin exudation from the bark. In addition, feeding around the inner bark causes swelling of bark around the stem. In D. isopentane hole exhibits 'weeping symptom' (oozing of black fluid). In D. sissoo, the attack is restricted up to four meter height, with maximum attack taking place at about breast height. The life-cycle is annual, with most adults emerging from July to September in India and April to June in Thailand. Bamboo Shoot Weevil, Cyrtotracheluslongipes Fabricius (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) The bamboo shoot weevil is prevalent in bamboo (Bamboo spp.) in Chittagong hill tracts of India. The adult weevil is 20-40 mm long with long rostrum and legs. Females are muchlarger 8|Page  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES than the males. Grubs re legless, curved and whitish, and pupa is whitish in color. Life-cycle: The adult weevils become active with the onset of monsoon in May-June. They mate soon and the female then finds out young sprouting bamboos for egg laying. They suck the sap of tender shoots and lay eggs on the culm. The larva on hatching bores into the culm, making a long tunnel, passing internally through several internodes and perforating each. The larva pupates within the fallen buried end of the shoot at depth of 8-10 cm. The pupa stays in the chamber for cold and hot seasons, and emerges as an adult at the initiation of rains. The life-cycle is annual. Damage: The female damages the shoots by ovipositing upon them and sucking the sap of tender shoots. The grubs bore into the shoot and affect growth and vigour of the tree. Feeding usually results in death of the culm or sometimes development of multiple shoots of little commercial value. A single larva can destroy a developing culm. Management: (1) Collect and destroy adult weevils and other stages. (2) Treat the crop with carbaryl 5 per cent dust. Deodar Beetle, Scolytus major Stebbing (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) The deodar beetle (also called scolytid beetle) is widespread in Northwest Himalaya in India, as a pest of deodar (Cedrous deodara). The black-colored beetle measures 4.0-4.5 mm in body length. Life-cycle: The mated female prepares an egg gallery mainly in the bast layer. The gallery may be 5-7 cm in length in upward direction in a series of serpentine curves, first to one side and the next to the other. She also prepares egg notches in gallery for deposition of eggs. She fixes the egg in a notch with fine particles of wood dust. A single female can lay about 70-85 eggs. In each side of the egg gallery, as much as 35- 43eggs are laid in notches. Egg hatching takes place within two days and the larvae on hatching bore into the bast and sapwood. Grubs prepare their galleries away from the egg 9|Page  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES gallery by feeding on the bast or sapwood. They work in a direction more or less right angle and in an upward or downward direction, and hence they have a special type of damage pattern. The larval period lasts for four weeks. Grubs bore down sapwood in poles, large trees and saplings. The full-grown grub prepares a pupal chamber in sapwood and pupates in it. The pupal stage lasts for about two weeks. The pest completes its life cycle within 6-7 weeks and there are four generations in a year. Damage: This is a serious pest of deodar and damages the tree by making galleries in the basted sapwood. The beetle can attack trees of all sizes from smallest sapling to the largest tree. Upward flow of sap is affected due to tunnelling the plant, which adversely affects the vitality of the plant. Beetles can cause damage to newly felled unbarked trees by making galleries. The pest can attack the green standing healthy and sick trees. The pest is responsible for causalities up to 50 per cent. Management. (i) The infested plant parts should be collected and destroyed along with the pest stages. (ii) Inner face of bark should be turned outward so as to expose pest stages to sun for killing grubs and pupae. (iii) Green standing trees or newly felled green trees should be used astrap crop for attracting and killing the beetles. (iv) Treat the crop with carbaryl (0.15%) or azadirachtin (0.03%). 10 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Insect pest of Forest seed Oak acorn weevil, Curculio sikkimensis Identification Larval body very stout and plump, cylindrical and strongly curved. Head brownish globular, with mouth parts directed downwards and legless. Adult is robust, grey, reddish brown, densely clothed with grayish, yellowish and brownish hairs, beak long and slender grooved on sides. Nature of damage The larvae feed inside the acorns and destroy whole seed due to which the seeds do not germinate. As a result of feeding by the larvae the entire contents of acorns are reduced to granular form. By this time insect completes its development. Injury to live acorns by weevil larvae significantly reduce germination. Life cycle Weevils emerge during July August and after mating the females cut smaller circular holes in the developing nut and deposit their eggs in these niches. The eggs hatch within a week. Winter is passed as larvae in the soil. At this time mature larva cuts small circular exit holes through which they emerge and drop to the ground. Pupation occurs during early summer. 11 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Management Select healthy seeds or nuts for storage and sowing. Albizia seed borer, Bruchus bilineatopygus Identification The adult is light brown in colour, about 4.5 cm long. Eggs are oval, pale or lightyellow. The larva is greenish yellow in colour and about 0.5 cm long. Nature of damage The insect causes considerable damage to the seeds of Acacia catechu, Albizialebbek and A. procera. Newly hatched larva bites a minute hole on the pod and move to the developing seed and penetrate inside the seed. The pest breeds on the seeds kept in storage. Life cycle The adult weevil lays eggs on either side of young pods of A. catechu during September to October. The eggs hatch in about a week time. The newly hatched larva bites a minute hole on the pod and then penetrates inside the seed. It turns into pupa by the end of November. The pupal period is about 6 days. The weevil emerges out by cutting a hole on the seed and seed pod. The pest has more than five generations in a year. Management 1. The seeds collected should be dried properly in the sun and stored in air tight containers. 2. Mix follidol 2 % dust with the seeds in the ratio of 1:100. 12 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Weevil, Caryedongonagra Identification The adult is greyish or yellowish-brown having elytra wider than thorax about0.5-0.6 cm in length. Larvae are whitish with yellowish head and measure 0.8cm in length. Nature of damage The larvae bore into the pods/seeds thus reduce its viability. The pest also causes damage to Bauhinia pods, canna seeds and tamarind seeds. Life cycle Beetles emerge during the end of February to early March, lay eggs on flowers or young pods. The larva on hatching burrows into the pod and lives inside the seeds. Pupation also occurs inside. On maturity the adults bore through the skin and come out. Usually there is one beetle in a pod. The adults sometimes cause defoliation of the leaves. Management Same as suggested for Bruchus bilineatopygus. 13 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Eucosmid moth, Argyroploce illepida The moth is medium sized with a wing expanse of about 2.0 cm. The full grown larva is yellow to reddish brown in colour. The pupa is 0.8 cm long covered with white silken cocoon. The pupal period varies from one to two weeks. The pupa partially emerges from the rind of the fruit before the moth escapes. Its caterpillars cause considerable damage to the pods of A. nilotica by boring. Management of seed borers Drying of seeds at 60°C for one day give protection from seed borers. The infested seeds of A. catechu can also be protected from this borer in storage bymixing folidol 2% dust in ratio of 1:100 (i.e., one part insecticide and 100 partsseeds by weight). The infestation by C. gonagra and illepida can be checked by exposing A. nilotica seeds to sun in black polythene. Neem formulations are also effective against seed borers. 14 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Toon shoots and fruit borer: Hypsipylarobusta It is also known as the Meliaceae shoot borer or the Cedar Mahogany, Identification The moth is reddish brown with black and grey shades (Plate Sc). Wing expanse is 2.0 to 4.0 cm. Larvae are pale brown, pink, green to blue having prominent black spots in 5 longitudinal rows on each side of the body (Plate 8d). The pupa is bluish green to brown in color. Eggs are oval in sha and white in colour. Nature of damage The newly hatched larvae of the first-generation feed gregariously on all parts of inflorescence either by binding together individual flowers or the adjacent groups of flowers in a loose network of silken thread. As a result the panicle becomes a ragged mass with shriveled floral fragments after the disposal of the larvae. The newly hatched young larvae of the second- generation feed on young and soft fruits while the older larvae feed within more advanced fruits, eating away the seeds and the softer tissues of the fruits. The larvae bind together individual fruits in groups of 3-5fruits in a silken web. A larva remains confined to one fruit until the edible portion is fully consumed, after which it emerges 15 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES and bores into the adjacent fruit immediately. While feeding from within a fruit, the larva plugs the entrance hole with a compact mass of excreta and the ejected fragments of pith. The fully grown larvae of the first and the second generation descend from the crown of the tree by means of silken threads. The larvae of the third, fourth and fifth generations feed only in the shoots of saplings and young trees of the current year thereby causing severe damage. The repeated infestation in the early years of the plantations is often serious. Which repeatedly damages the terminal buds, resulting in the formation of forked, crooked and branchy boles and often in permanent stunting thereby reducing the quality of logs. The pest attacks vigorously the growing seedlings of as many as 3 months and less than 30 cm height which in plantations may reach almost 100% infestation during the second year. Life Cycle The pest has five generations. 1st Generation (The Flower Generation): This generation lasts for 8-9 weeks.) The moth emerges from pupa of the overwintered generation in early March. The gravid female lays about 400-600 white oval eggs on the flowering shoots. The larvae of the first brood feed on the flowers till the first week of April. The egg, larval and pupal period varies from 4-5, 4-12 and 8-12 days, respectively and the total life cycle is completed in24-29 days 2nd Generation: (The Fruit Generation): This generation lasts for about 3-4 weeks. The earliest individuals of the second-generation larvae emerge in April when the flowers of Toon had already been shed and the young fruit capsules, in advanced stage had begun to appear. The entire development is passed in the growing fruits. Late individuals may be found during early June. 3rd, 4th and 5th Generation (The Shoot Generation): The larvae of third generation feed on new shoots from early May to the middle of July. This generation lasts for 17-18weeks. The larvae of the fourth generation can be from end of July to mid-September and the life cycle lasts for 64-79 days. 16 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES The fifth-generation larvae appear in October when the autumn flush of shoots occur and majority of the larvae have bored into the shoots before the winter leaf shedding commences. The fifth or overwintering generation is of longest duration and the larvae hibernate without pupation and pass most of their time inside a specially constructed silken chamber or hibernacula inside the shoot. The life cycle is completed in 21-24 weeks, while the whole generation occupies a period of about 28-31 weeks. Management 1. The attack of this pest is less in those places where its alternate Meliaceae plants are altogether absent. 2. Pruning and destruction of infested shoots containing live borer larvae. 3. Closer spacing discourages borer infestation. 4. Mahogany plantations grown with older plantation stands or in mixtures with fast growing non-host species such as Albizia sp. Cassia sp., Leucaena sp. etc. provide protection from shoot borer attack. 5. Trichogrammaspp. Beauveria bassiana and Bacillus thuringiensis are effective-biocontrol agents against this pest. Insect Pests of forest nursery, trees and plantation crops Cutworms Identification 17 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Agrotisipsilon: The forewings of moth are dark purplish brown to pale while the hind wings are pale, translucent having dark veins and the wing expanse is about 4.0-5.5cm. The larva is purplish brown dorsally and green to yellow ventrally, with short hairs and about 4.5 cm. long. A. segetum: The forewings of the female moth are brown to blackish brown while the hind wings are pearly white. The wing expanse is about 3.2-4.0 cm. Male moths are pale brown to grey brown tinged with purple red colour. Newly hatched larva is yellowish grey whereas full grown larva is dark brown with white or black markings and about 4.0 cm long (Plate 1b). Newly formed pupa is yellowish white which later turn red brown. Eggs are creamish white in color and globular in shape. Nature of damage Cutworms are considered as the most serious pests in regeneration areas of coniferous forests as well as broad leaf tree species. The larvae cut off young seedlings soon after germination in March-April. They hide in small tunnels or burrow in the soil during day time and feed young seedlings during night, cutting them off at the ground level. They cut and drag some of the fragments to the burrows for subsequent feeding thereby causing huge damage than actual feeding. Life cycle They are nocturnal in habit and remain hidden during day time in cracks endocervices in the soil, leaves or under stones. They come out of hiding places in the evening at dusk and lay eggs in small batches on ground litter, humus, underside of leaves or parts of stems of small plants near the ground level, preferring moist soil. The eggs hatch in 2days in summer and in about 7-8 days in winter. The larval period varies from 20-35days. The pupation occurs underground in a specially prepared chamber of the earth. The pupal period varies from 10- 30 days. The life cycle is completed in 5-9 weeks. There are about four generations in a year. Management 1. Collection and destruction of larva hidden under soil, debris, leaves, stems etc. 2. Digging in early winter expose the hibernating larvae to frost and cause decline in their population. 3. Flooding the nurseries so that larvae come out of tunnels. Collect them and dispose off. 18 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 4. Proper weeding of nursery beds prevents egg laying by the moths. 5. Drenching of nursery beas with chlorpyriphos (0.04%). White grubs Identification The newly hatched grub is creamy white, head yellowish white turning dark brown in later stages. Mature larva is cylindrical, creamy white, C-shaped. Adult beetles are brown, black, blue, grey or orange in colour. Nature of damage The grubs feed on roots and rootlets of seedlings in forest nurseries. While searching for food, they cause an upheaval of soil around the growing plants thereby disturbing the root system and depriving them of moisture, which is necessary for their growth. The constant burrowing and tunneling activities underneath the surface of the ground in the nursery beds or plantations loosen the surface soil. As a result, the soil becomes porous and cause roots to dry up, thereby causing death of the shallow rooted young plants. Some of the important white grub species causing damage to the seedlings in nurseries of conifers are as under A. dalbergiae It causes damage to shisham. 19 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES H. consanguinea They feed at night on the foliage of Ficus glomerata, Mangifera indica etc. Thegrubs cause severe damage in the teak nurseries. H. serrata This species causes severe defoliation in Butea monospermic, sal, teak etc. The larvae cause serious injury to the seedlings of sal and teak stock in forest nurseries and also feed on the roots of young sal seedlings in regeneration areas. Life cycle The beetles emerge out from the soil with the onset of monsoon. After 3-4 weeks of emergence female lays about 20-60 eggs singly or in small batches. The eggs are covered with jelly like substance! Incubation period varies from 10-15 days. The eggs and the first instar larvae can be seen simultaneously in the soil 4-6 weeks after the first rain shower in summer. There are three larval instars. The early instars (I&II) last for about 1-10 weeks but the last instar can last for 3-6 months. Pupation occurs in pupal cell usually in winter from November to January. The pupal period lasts for 13-30 days. Adult beetles have stout body and are swift fliers. Management 1. Deep ploughing of nursery beds in winter so as to expose the grub population to predators and sunlight. 2. Sowing should be done when the beetles are not on wings. 3. Use of light traps during adult emergence from 7.30 pm onwards for about 20 days. 4. By shaking the branches of host plants and collecting the beetles and killing themin keratinized water. 5. Drenching of nursery beds with chlorpyriphos (0.04%). 20 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Termites They are popularly known as white ants. They cause huge damage to wood, paper, plastic. books. leather etc. and are well known pests of forest trees, especially forest nurseries and young plantations. The most widespread damage is caused by some species of genera Macrotermes Odontotermes. Microtermes. Although in somelocalities wood dwelling termite. Stylotermes and carton nest building termite, Microcerotermes minor are also found. Wood destroying termite belonging to genus Coptotermes (C heimi) can also damage well grown and mature trees in plantations. Nature of damage Termites cause severe damage to forest nurseries and young plantations. Their attack mainly remains confined to upper 20 cm of soil layer. The underground feeding on the tap roots or lateral roots results in tapering and complete severance of the root system. Similar effect can be seen in case of ring barking of the tap root and collar region of saplings. As a result, there is yellowing and wilting of seedlings and young plants which result in their death. The affected plants can be pulled out easily. Maximum damage is caused to the plants of first year and in arid areas, although the plants up to three years age are liable to termite attack. They cause huge damage to the bamboo, eucalyptus, Sal, teak and Terminalia species. Damage to plants, raised from cuttings occurs below the ground level, where the woody portion or root is attacked by subterranean termites as well as above ground in the stem as in case of poplars. 21 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES In the case of termite attack below ground level, in the initial stages, the termites work through the xylem (pith) portion of the stem and later on causing damage in the peripheral region. Such plants look healthy, however, if the attack reaches the cambium region, the plant exhibits signs of dic-back, thereby causing death of the plants. The attack sometimes is so extensive that the whole of the trunk gets hollowed out in the center, making a characteristic 'piped' appearance. In eucalyptus and poplars, the infested plants develop swellings' or 'protuberances near collar region or butt end as a result of termite attack as well as physiological reaction of the plant. In case of termite attack above the ground level, the termites gain entry through wounds, scars on the trunk and start feeding on the bark of the plant. In such plants, cambium region is exposed thereby causing girdling and death of the plants. The attack by wood-dwelling termites occurs through the dead or damaged portions of cut branches of trees, which later extends to the living tissues. Such trees are frequently killed. Life cycle The winged forms (male and female) emerge out from their nest during early monsoon. The adults shed their wings soon after a brief nuptial flight and become kings and queens. After mating the queen lays about thousand eggs in specially prepared egg chambers. The incubation period varies for about two weeks during which worker termites attend them. The nymphs hatch directly from the egg. Attendants feed the nymphs with regurgitated food for the first two weeks, enabling them to become workers, soldiers, reproductive or supplementary reproductive. As the reproductive nymph matures, its body lengthen and sexual organs develop. The body turns black, eyes become functional and wings extend twice its body length. The worker nymph has no eyes and is sterile. It mainly provides food to the colony, usually obtained by eating the understructure of buildings. The soldiers defend the colony against ants and other enemies. Mature reproductive leave the colony usually during spring and sometimes in fall. 22 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Swarmers are poor fliers and when above ground, usually flutter a few yards and fall on the ground, shed their wings. Surviving males find compatible mates and then burrow into the ground to become king and queen. These termites live in nests underground and tunnel up for food. Workers build mud tubes from the soil to the wooden structures on which they feed. Termites can feed on wood since they have protozoans in their alimentary tract(gut) that digest cellulose, the basic component of wood. Workers prefer to feed on fungus-infested wood and also on undamaged wood. Workers secrete food material from their mouth and amuse to feed the reproductive and soldiers. Management 1. The site for forest nurseries should be free from wood debris, termite nests etc. 2. Strong silvicultural practices should be followed which promote vigorous growth of plants as such plants can withstand termite attack to great extent. 3. Drenching of beds and termite mounds with chlorpyriphos. (0.04%). Crickets It includes common cricket, plant cricket, mole cricket and garden cricket. Identification Mole cricket is light brown in colour and about 3.0 cm long (Plate 21). The adults of Brachytrypesportentosus (large blackish brown cricket) are about 5.0 cm long. Nature of damage Both nymphs and adults attack young seedlings, low shoots in forest nurseries andsowings in open. The adults come out at night, cut off the young seedlings, low branchesand drags the pieces to their tunnels for feeding (Plate 2g). Most of damage is causedfrom March-July and September-October. 23 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Management 1. Collection and destruction of eggs and young nymphs. 2. Drenching of nursery beds with chlorpyriphos (0.04%). FOREST ENCROAHMENT: Encroachment in respect of forest land is the act of illegally seizing possession of some forestland. Generally, it is caused by people living in the outskirts of forests or in hamlets /villages honey-combing government forests. The root cause of encroachment of forest land lies in theocon-economic fabric of our society. People who are landless or having marginal land holdings would have a tendency to encroach forest land which lies open apparently without any owner. They are driven by poverty, hunger and lack of means of livelihood. While this may be the most common scenario of encroachment, there have been also instances where people indulge in encroachment due to land-greed and availability of easy option to enhance land assets. Encroachment of forest land, wherever it takes place, is also indicative of lax attitude of forest managers towards forest protection. Factors responsible for encroachment Some common factors that lead to encroachment of forest lands are mentioned below. No clear demarcation of forest boundary If the boundary of forest is not clearly demarcated on the ground, there is every possibility that owners of adjoining lands will encroach into forest land. It is advisable that – Boundary pillars are in place and visible from a distance. The boundary between consecutive pillars is a straight line Ideally, the consecutive boundary pillars should be visible from each other. Lack of field inspection – Inspection of forest areas and forest boundary is the primary job of a forester. In fact, inspection and patrol on foot should form a part of daily job of the frontline staff. It is only through regular patrol that occurrence of encroachment can 24 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES be prevented or can be noticed by a forester. Leaving forest land barren – When a forest land is left barren without any forest cropfor a long time, encroachers are tempted and they find it easy to encroach. Lack of prompt action – Delay in detection of encroachment or in taking legal measures to remove the existing encroachment (those which do not come under FRA) encourage new encroachment and continuance of encroachment. Socio-economic condition of the fringe population – As already stated, the socioeconomic condition of the villagers living in the fringe area of forests is primarily responsible for encroachment of forest land. Factors like poverty, living with little or Noland, no adequate means of livelihood etc drive some of the villagers to take recourse tothe illegal act of encroachment. Preventive Measures Following preventive measures may be taken to reduce the chances of encroachment. Clear demarcation of forest boundary and complete records – In hilly terrain, boundary of forest block/compartment is generally made by ridges, nalas or rivers. In absence of prominent physical features and generally in plains, boundary may be demarcated by maintaining a clear strip of suitable width. On natural or artificial boundary, concrete/masonry pillars are erected. Generally, it is the responsibility of the Working Plan Division to erect the forest boundary pillars. While fixing boundary pillars, following guidelines may be observed – Each boundary pillar should bear (i) a unique serial number, and (ii) latitudeand longitude (late-long) to be determined by GPS, indicating the location ofthe pillar. Bearings and distances from pillar to pillar should also be recorded, so thatlocations of pillars may be exactly determined by ground survey. The locations of the pillars should appear on the compartment/mouza mapof appropriate scale. Lat-long of each pillar and, bearings and distancesbetween consecutive pillars should appear on the map. 25 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Locations of the pillars should be so decided that the boundary betweenconsecutive pillars remains a straight line, and two consecutive pillars remainvisible from each other. Record indicating numbers and locations (late-long of individual pillar andbearing- distance between successive pillars) of boundary pillars should bemaintained at Beat/Range/ Division level and should reflect appropriately in the Working Plan document. Regular inspection of boundary – Needless to say that distinct boundary defined by boundary pillars properly erected will not be enough to prevent encroachment unless the boundary is inspected properly on a regular basis. The frontline forest personnel should be assigned the duty of making regular inspection of the boundary of forests under their respective jurisdiction. A work schedule may be drawn stipulating which part of the boundary should be inspected by a forest personnel at what interval. After every inspection the concerned personnel should make a report on what he has observed in respect of the boundary and the pillars. In the event of detection of any encroachment or if it is found that any pillar has been removed or damaged or shifted, the matter should be reported forthwith to the superior authority for taking immediate action. Strengthening JFM committees – The villagers living in the outskirts of forests are mostly small and marginal farmers or agricultural laborer’s. In view of low land productivity and having few options of livelihood, the villagers get inclined to encroach forest land. Thus one important measure to prevent them from falling prey to such allurement is to provide them with employment opportunities in forestry or other development projects and increase their level of income. This can be done by strengthening the JFM committees, and utilizing their collective efforts in fruitful economic activities. Remedial measures Adoption of all preventive measures notwithstanding, there may still be some cases of encroachment. Obviously, the land found encroached should be got vacated as early as possible. Following measures may be taken to remove encroachment. Prompt detection of encroachment – The prerequisite for remedial measure against encroachment is quick detection of offence and prompt reporting to the superior authority. 26 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES The more one delays in detection and report, more is the encouragement to the offenders to continue and expand the encroachment. Divisional Forest Officer. Legal actions (1) If the encroachment is of petty nature and does not involve alteration of boundarymarks, and the offender vacates the land, the case may be compounded as perprovisions of IFA (section 68). (2) However, if the offender does not compound the case and refuses to vacate theland, the case should be sent to court immediately. (3) In reserved forest – Encroachment in the form of clearing or breaking of land, but without anydamage or alteration of boundary marks, can be prosecuted under sec 26(1)(h)of IFA. It is also important to note that according to sec 65A of IFA clearing or breaking up of any land in reservedforest for cultivation or any other purpose is a non-bailableoffence. (4) In a protected forest – Encroachment in the form of clearing or breaking of land, but without any damage or alteration of boundary marks, can be prosecuted under sec 33(1)(c)of IFA, if such encroachment is contrary to any prohibition under section30. It means that the accused can be prosecuted if he has committed the offence in contravention of notification under section 30. Thus, to prove the guilt of the accused, the existence of a notification under section 30 prohibiting such encroachment and wide circulation of such notification by the Collector has to be established before the court. (5) In case of altering boundary marks – If the encroachment also involves alteration of the boundary marks by the offender, that is, if the offender alters, moves, destroys defaces any 27 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES boundary-mark of any forest, the offence will also attract section 63of IFA. Therefore, in such case the prosecution should be under sec 26(1)(h) or sec33(1)(c), as the case may be, as well as sec 63 of IFA. It may be noted that according to sec 65A of IFA, offence punishable under section 63 is a non-bailable offence. Shifting Cultivation Shifting cultivation is defined as a method of cyclical cultivation, where the cultivators cut the tree crop, burn the area, and raise field crops for one or more years before moving on to another forest site and repeating the process. Technique of shifting cultivation – While the technique practiced in different states may vary in certain details, by and large it consists of the following steps. Cutting down trees and other vegetation on the site during the period from January to March; Burning the debris as it dries up in the month of April; Ash is mixed in the soil and seeds are broadcast during pre-monsoon shower; Crop is harvested during September-October. The process is repeated on the same site for 2 to 4 years, after which the site becomes thoroughly infertile for any cultivation; the site loses fertility because of repeated cultivation without manure and due to soil erosion. Thereafter a new forest patch next to the previous one is taken up and the same cycle of operation is repeated; The process continues until the forest within the limits of cultivation of a village is exhausted and cultivation comes back to the area in which it was started, after a period known as jhumming cycle. The jhumming cycle that is the interval after which the same area is cultivated again gradually shortens due to rise in population and decrease in fertility. After every cycle the land becomes 28 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES poorer and, after a stage, is abandoned as unfit for cultivation. Adverse effects of shifting cultivation It reduces soil fertility and ultimately makes the land unfit for cultivation. It leads to soil erosion which continues unchecked. It operates on a low productivity level, that is, production per unit area remain slow. Considering the hard work and low productivity, the practice of shifting cultivation is actually uneconomic and undoubtedly unscientific. In hilly terrains it is a source of increased run off and may lead to floods causing damage to life and property. Measures to control shifting cultivation Awareness among the fringe population – The villagers living in the fringe areas, particularly the tribal population, who practice shifting cultivation, should be made aware of the adverse effects of shifting cultivation and of those damage which are irreversible. Induce to settled and scientific cultivation – The shifting cultivators may be induced and encouraged to switch over to settled cultivation under scientific methods. The primary requirement to do this is to provide land. Implementation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA) 2006 may come in good stead in this connection. The right to hold and live in the forest land vested in forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers under the FRA for self-cultivation may be suitably made use of to induce such dwellers to adopt settled and scientific cultivation. Proper Land Use – It is necessary to make the forest and fringe dwellers understand that all available lands should not be ploughed indiscriminately and brought under settled cultivation.For example, some lands (e.g. land in the valleys) may be suitable for settled cultivation for agriculture, while some other lands may be kept for horticulture, some for cash crop, and some for forests and pastures. Alternative means of livelihood – In order to reduce pressure of shifting cultivation on forest land, the cultivators should be provided with alternative means of livelihood. These may 29 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES include Development of animal husbandry and dairy farming Vocational training and development of handicrafts Value addition to and marketing of non-wood forest produce Distribution of usufruct share in forest produce Employment in forestry works and forest-based industries Making beneficial use of shifting cultivation – Taungiya method of cultivation has been successfully used and adopted in Sal regeneration in North Bengal forests. Artificial regeneration in Sal Working Circles in North Bengal is done by sowing, and the seedlings that sprout from the seeds need clear space over and all around for growth and survival. However, the forests of North Bengal are characterized with heavy and vigorous growth of weeds that invade any clear space in no time and suppress the young plan. Legal measures – While the above measures, as deemed appropriate in a case, can be considered for adoption to contain shifting cultivation or make it beneficial, there will be cases where shifting cultivation should not be allowed or at least should be fairly regulated. Under such situations, shifting cultivation should be regulated and, if necessary, stopped altogether by taking recourse to legal measures. For example, shifting cultivation should not be allowed in wildlife protected areas, around water springs and close to hill roads. Poaching Fauna and flora together constitute the biotic components of forest ecosystem. Both flora and fauna discharge important functions in maintaining the dynamic equilibrium of the ecosystem. Their existence and role are interdependent. It is thus natural that destruction of forest fauna by poaching or otherwise will upset the food chain and ecological balance resulting in damage to the forests. Therefore, protection of wildlife should form a major task in forest management. Protection measures should include (1) creation of awareness among people, (2) intensive patrol and field visit, and 30 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES (3) legal measures in wildlife offences. Ancient trade routes for salt, spices and wool are being used to smuggle tiger skins and bones. These illegal goods are sent to buyers based largely in northern India and are then smuggled out of the country through couriers. The main route is via Nepal, with whom India has a porous border, or directly across the border to China. More recently, routes through Myanmar have also been used. Apart from tigers, India is also witnessing a rise in wildlife crime against Rhinoceros. Driven by a soaring demand for their horn, hundreds of rhinos are being killed, illegally. According to a report by TRAFFIC and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), sophisticated poachers are using veterinary drugs, poison, cross bows and high calibre weapons to kill rhinos. It is not only large mammals, but also smaller species that are under threat. Star tortoises from South India are illegally traded in huge numbers. Due to their popularity in Feng Shui, they are kept as pets, believed to bring prosperity and can cost as much as $500 in the illegal market. Many protected marine species such as sea cucumbers, molluscs, sea horses and coral are also illegally harvested in Indian waters for export. In India, the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 is a strong legislation that covers wildlife crime. However, the implementation and enforcement needs to be strengthened in order to curb this transnational crime. According to a report released by the TRAFFIC, there has been a significant increase in reported poaching of wild animals during the lockdown. The report was named as ‘Indian wildlife amidst Covid-19 crisis: An analysis of poaching and illegal wildlife trade trends’. Poaching of ungulates (a group of large mammals with hooves), hunted mainly for their meat, saw the highest increase during the lockdown period. Poaching of small mammals such as hares, porcupines, Red panda, pangolins, giant squirrels, civets, monkeys and smaller wild cats also showed a marked increase. Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change conducted number of species-specific enforcement operations with coordination of State Enforcement Agencies: 31 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Operation Save Kurma-focus on the poaching, transportation and illegal trade of live turtles and tortoises. Operation Turtshield-tackle the illegal trade of live turtles Operation Lesknow-gain attention of enforcement agencies towards the illegal wildlife trade in lesser-known species of wildlife. Operation Clean Art-attention of enforcement agencies towards illegal wildlife trade in Mongoose Operation Softgold-To Tackle Shahtoosh Shawl (made from Chiru wool) illegal trade and to spread awareness among the weavers and traders engaged Operation Birbil-To curb illegal trade in wild cat and wild bird species Operation Wildnet-to draw the attention of the enforcement agencies within the country to focus their attention on the ever increasing illegal wildlife trade over internet using social media platforms. Operation Freefly-illegal trade of live birds Operation Wet mark-to ensure prohibition of sale of meat of wild animals in wet markets across the country Fences These are the structures that prevent the entry of animals and humans from outside into the defined boundary. Forest is a vast area and it is difficult to provide fence to the entire forest area. Owing to extensive area and need for huge money in fencing entire forest area, it is usually the area that need essential protection alone can be fenced in forest. It includes nursery, newly planted areas, seed orchards, economically important area, areas prone to extensive poaching and others. Types of fences 1) Live fence This type of fence consists of rows of living plants of trees raised on the boundary of a forest plantation or nursery. It includes hedges. The species that may be used for live fences are Agave sisalana, Acacia, Cassia, Euphorbia, Ipomea, Jatropha, Opuntia, Prosopis and Vitex. 32 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 2) Thorn fence It consists of thorny plants along with erected poles at specific intervals. This is a fence made by heaping thorns bushes such as Zizyphus 3) Brush wood fence It composed of series of poles. In between the poles, brushwood are woven horizontally. It is usually suitable to residential and office areas. 4) Stone wall fence It is made up of stones. This is applicable to region where plenty of stones are available. It is usually suitable to parks and general separation of lands. In sloppy lands, it acts as anerosion control measure too. No cementing material is used in these walls. It is able to keep out cattle and human beings. 5) Barbed wire fence This fence is made of barbed wire that is strung horizontally across wooden or angle iron posts or poles at regular intervals. Barbed wire fences are commonly used as a forest protection measure in India. Three types of barbed wire fences are commonly erected. Simple barbed wire fence: These are made of simple barbed wire strands (4 or 5) strung across wooden or angle iron posts. The purpose is to keep out cattle and human beings from the protected forest or nursery. The distance between two posts is 4 or 5 mts. and the spacing between two strands of the barbed wire may be 20 to 30 cms. Small gates or revolving stiles may have to be provided at regular intervals for the entry of forest staff. Game or deer and antelope fence: The purpose of this barbed wire fence is to prevent the entry of deers and antelopes. It is a modification of the simple barbed wire fence and consists of the following: (1) fence posts of wood or angle iron having a height of about 2.5 mts above the ground (2) 6 to 7 strands of barbed wire at a spacing of about 10 to 20 cms (3) cross strands of barbed wire 33 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 6) Porcupine fence It is a special kind of fence in which a barbed wire is trenched at a depth of15-20 cm which prevents the entry of porcupines inside the lands. It consists of the following: a wire mesh dug into the ground , fence posts of wood or angle iron, 3 or 4 strands of barbed wire fixed between these poles above the ground 7) Trenches They are used to prevent the entry of elephants and rhinoceros. These animals can't be controlled by any other fences. The normal width and depth of the trenches should be 4.5 m and 3-4 respectively. The slope of the wall should be vertical and base beds are planted with thorny plants. 8) Solar fence: This fence utilizes solar energy to supply electricity to fence. It is used to protect forest bungalows, newly planted areas and other needy areas within the forest. It controls the animals by giving a safe and short electric shock. Owing to this, animals will not touch again the fence. It consists of two components viz., fence and solar power system. Solar power system consists of solar panel (trap and convert solar energy to electric energy),battery system (to store electricity generated)and control unit. Fence system consists of poles with conducting wire of durable nature. Theft or Illicit felling and illicit removal of forest produce Theft/ Illicit felling and removal of forest produce constitute the most frequent and common damage to forests. It is also the most frequent among all forest offences. Of the various forest produce, trees of commercially valuable timber are highly vulnerable to damage in the process. By way of indiscriminate felling and clandestine removal of the produce, the forests lose, in varying extent, their valuable assets, biodiversity and capacity to regenerate. Factors responsible for illicit felling: The household requirement of the villagers– 34 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Villagers living in the areas adjoining to the forests depend very much on forests to meet their regular household requirements. In their day-to-day life the villagers need timber for making huts/building, small timber for agricultural implements, bamboos and posts for various constructions, and firewood for fuel. When these requirements are not fully met through legal means or rights, they are constrained to indulge in illicit felling and removal of forest produce. Villagers earning a livelihood – When forests lie close to large human habitations like small towns or cities, use of firewood as fuel becomes popular, and a great demand for firewood is automatically generated in the markets of such habitations. By unscrupulous contractors /Timber merchants – There is no reason to believe that illicit felling is caused by the villagers alone. Working of forest coupes by contractors has been long discontinued in west Bengal. Activities of miscreants – Forests are huge resource of wood that lie open in the nature. It is neither possible nor advisable to have protective fencing for the entire forest areas. The protection force at the disposal of forest department is also limited. Preventive Measures – Illicit felling and illicit removal of produce from forest can be contained by taking the following preventive measures: Forest patrolling, field visits/inspection – Central to forest protection measures is forest patrolling, field visits and inspection on a regular basis by the foresters working at various levels. The forest areas which need intensive and careful inspection are the following Forest blocks / compartments adjoining to human habitation. Clear felling coupes, thinning coupes and areas adjoining to these coupes Checking in transit – Prevention of illicit felling is definitely the first and foremost preventive measure to control forest offence. Illicit felling may still occur despite rigorous patrol and inspection. So, checking of forest produce in transit should be made to prevent illicit removal of forest produce. Following are the types of common challan or pass that are 35 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES in use for transport of timber/firewood/poles etc: Intermediate Transit Challan (ITC) - ITCs are issues by the passing officers, generally of the rank of Dy Ranger/Forester, to transport frost produce from felling coups to timber depots, while the harvesting operation is in progress. Transit Pass - transit pass are issued by officers of the rank Dy Ranger/Forester Range officer, authorized in this regard, to allow movement of timber or other forest product from any place within the state to the destination. Meeting reasonable demands of the villages - when villagers living in the outskirts of forest are found to be involved in theft of forest produce for their daily needs, it indicates that the existing arrangement does not meet their reasonable demand. In order to address the reasonable expectation of the villagers living in forest fringe areas, the concept of Joint Forest Management (JFM) has been put in practice in West Bengal since long. Creation of alternative means of livelihood - The villagers who have adopted illicit collection and sale of forest produce as their means of living need to be prevented from indulging in forest offence and provided alternative means of livelihood. Remedial Measures – Despite making all preventive measures it is difficult to have foolproof arrangement against illicit forest felling. Even in the best possible management, some offences relating to forest felling and removal of produce may occur. In such cases the remedial measures to be taken are legal course of actions to deal with the offences. It is also very important to remember that legal actions are to be taken promptly. Forest Fire Forest fires are wildfires that spread uncontrollably, burning plants, animals, grasslands and brushlands that fall in their path. The wind spreads the fire rapidly, causing significant air pollution. 36 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Forest fires in India India has also witnessed several episodes of wildfires in recent times very recently Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand have had major wildfire breakouts. Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tripura, Mizoram, and Odisha also report frequent forest fires annually. Mizoram has had the highest number of wildfire incidences in the last two decades, with more than 95% of its districts being forest fire hotspots. The Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland-Manipur border saw prolonged fires in January. There was a major wildfire between February and March in the Simlipal National Park in Odisha. According to the Indian Express, Southern Chhattisgarh, Central Odisha, Western Maharashtra, and areas of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are highly prone to forest fires. Bandhavgarh Forest Reserve in Madhya Pradesh and sanctuaries in Gujarat also witnessed forest fires. According to the Indian Express, Uttarakhand witnessed nearly 1,000 forest fires over the last six months, up to April 2021. Causes of forest fire 1) Environmental causes are largely related to climatic conditions such as temperature, wind speedand direction, soil moisture and duration of dry spells. The different natural causes are as follows: Friction of bamboos swaying due to high wind velocity Volcanoes Rolling stones that result in sparks setting off fires 2) Human related causes are the direct results from human activity. These can be intentional or unintentional. Grazers starts fire to promote the growth of grasses in next growing seasons and gatherers initiate fire to facilitate gathering certain MFPs. The practice of shifting cultivation causes forest fire 37 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES The use of fires by villagers to ward off wild animals Fires lit intentionally by people living around forests for recreation Fires started accidentally by careless visitors (discard of cigarette and bidi butts etc.) Types of fires a) General classification of forest fire 1) Wild fires Wild fires arise because of the various natural causes inside the natural forest. It is the natural force in the evolution of plant communities. In some regions, these are infrequent, erratic and often so severe that this forces plant communities back to early succession stages. 2) Prescribed fires Also called planned fire or controlled burning, it is a form of land management done intentionally for the sake of agriculture or grazing operations. These fires are of particular interest from the silvicultural stand point. These fires also sometimes used to meet specific objectives such as to restore fire in adapted ecosystem or to limit the amount of dry bush in an area prone to wild fires. These fires can also be used to improve ecosystem health in forests, woodlands, shrub-lands and grasslands by reducing competition, decreasing diseases and pests and decreasing the fire intensity during wildfires. b) Based on the position of fuel 1) Underground fire occurs some meters below the ground surface. This consumes organic matter presents in the soil. It is very difficult to detect and control. It may takes place for a longer period of time with a low intensity. 2) Ground fire utilizes the fuel materials on the forest floors such as grasses and organic matter. 3) Creeping fire consumes the ground flora such as weeds and small shrubs. 38 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 4) Surface fire consumes the ground flora along with some middle storey plants. 5) Crown fire occurs in the coniferous forests. Here fire is restricted only to the upper part of the trees. c) Based on the cause of forest fire 1) Natural fire is caused by the natural agents. These agents include rubbing bamboos, rolling stones, lightening and volcanoes. The possibility of natural fire is very low inside the forests. 2) Accidental fire is caused by the human activities without intention of doing that. Fire from railway engine, unextinguished camp fire and fire due to control burning is included in the accidental fire. 3) Intentional fire is caused by the human being with specific intention. This includes graze land fire, fire caused by human to found out the wild animal’s article under the shrub and others. Fire extinguisher Fire extinguishing process depends upon the duration and intensity of fire, availability of water, earth and man power. The fire is extinguished by any one of the following ways: 1) Extinguishment by water 2) Extinguishment by earth and mud 3) Extinguishment by beating with wet gunny bag or green leaves 4) Extinguishment by counter firing for crown fires Consequences of forest fire Fires are a major cause of forest degradation and have wide range of adverse ecological, economic and social impacts. It includes loss of valuable timber resources, degradation of catchments, loss of biodiversity, extinction of plants and animals, loss of wildlife habitat, depletion of wildlife, loss of the natural regeneration, reduction in forest cover, global warming, loss of carbon sink resource, change in microclimate of the area and increases soil erosion. 39 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 1) Effect of forest fire on flora Fire damages the trees, shrubs and plants. The extent of damage depends on the species, intensity of fire and age of the tree. Broad leaved species are more vulnerable than the conifers due to the corky bark. Resin tapped trees are severely affected by fire than the non-tapped trees. The damage to regeneration is higher than to the trees. Characteristics of vegetation that affects the fire effects 1. Initial temperature of vegetation: Higher the initial temperature of vegetation, higher the possibility to get burn by the fire. 2. Thickness of bark: thick bark in trees reduces the fire attack and vice versa. 3. Size of the portion affected by fire: Bigger the portion of the tree affected by fire, larger will be the damage to vegetation. 4. Branching and morphology: Short and branching characters favors easy catching of fire and its spread. 5. Organic matter cover of the soil: Higher organic matter in the soil surface encourages the spread of fire and causes much impact on trees. 6. Presence of foliage: Green foliage reduces the impact where as dry branches increases the fire hazard. 2) Effect of forest fire on fauna Forest fire burns the eggs of birds and young ones of mammals. It destructs the habitat and shelter of animals mainly of animals living in dense shrubs. This causes migration of wild animals from one place to other. 3) Effect of forest fire on soil properties Wild fires eliminate organic matter content in soil. 40 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Soil colour becomes darker than the normal soil. It increases the soil temperature. Removal of litter greatly affects mulching property in temperate zones. The fire reduces the soil moisture by decreasing water absorption. It reduces the rate of water infiltration and increase in the runoff. Porosity and infiltration rates decreased and bulk density increases. The available nutrient status of the soil after burning increases because of release of nutrients through facilitated decomposition. The total nutrient reserves of the soil are depleted because of releases of nutrients to atmosphere. There is no considerable variation in soil reaction and electrical conductivity of the soil. The microbial population decreased due to death of microbes by the higher temperature. 4) Effect of forest fire on society The forest fire influences the society indirectly. Decreased deforestation and associated pollution increase the health problems of humankinds. Tribal employment is severely affected because of the non-availability of different minor forest produces. Fire adversely influences the livelihood of tribal people. Fire affects the aesthetic value of forest. Forest fire as a management tool Fire is used as a versatile management practice in many ways. It can be positively exploited for some beneficial uses to humankind. Fire was used to convert forests to agricultural lands from time immemorial. Fire is an essential component of shifting cultivation. Forest fire can destroy dry vegetation and facilitates new sprouting in plants. It augments livestock population through fodder manipulation in an arca. 41 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES It reduces unpalatable weeds by destructive action. Forest fire reduces the fire hazards in a forest by reducing the fuel load of that area. It enhances site preparation, manipulate plant structure and habitats. Some of the seed dormancy can be broken by the fire action and stimulate flowering in some species (Cyrtanthuscontractas). It promotes growth of few plants (Lagopus lagopus). It enhances water yield in catchments. Soil acidity can be reduced slightly as it enhances bacterial population in the soil. Besides all, harmful pathogens in the soil can be destructed. Forest fire control 1) Prevention measure reduces the possibility of fire occurrence in an area. 2) Fire danger rating forecasts the likelihood occurrence of forest fire at aparticular period of time, day or week. Five fire danger classes are recognized. These are determined according to parameters such as barometric pressure, wind condition, precipitation, temperature conditions, relative humidity, ground water level, condition of vegetation, ignition sources and fuel moisture. This is presented as green, blue, orange, and red. This forecasts the probability of fire occurrence and informs the public about the possibility of fire in that region. Fire danger rating is helpful in regulating the following activities viz., controlled acid for resin tapping and grass cutting on high fire risk days. Besides all, it educates the local peoples to burning, people movement, collection of honey by smoke, collection of fallen horns and bones, use of some extent. 3) Rewards and punishments Rewards to those helps in fire suppression and fire management will anchor the local support. Punishment to offenders is needed to contain the fire occurrence. 4) Legislative measures should be implemented in a effective manner. 5) Signs and posters across the forest inculcate the general awareness on forest fire. 42 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 6) Hazard reduction (reducing fuel inside the forest) reduces the fire possibility. 7) Control or early burning is done before the onset of dry season. This reduces the fuel load. This is done during last February to March. For this purpose, the area is visited and familiarized with site condition. The main constraints in this process are the uncertainty of weather condition. Certain forest types are not suitable for this. In case of fewer forest staff, it may lead to uncontrolled fire. 8) Fire breaks and fire lines are the natural or constructed barrier for controlling or checking forest fires. It serves as a control line from which other firefighting operation may be carried out. Fire lines are constructed in the following ways: Strip clearance of vegetation Roads and paths River and streams Ridge top clearing of vegetation Fuel Any material that is consumed by the fire is called as fuel. Continuity of fuel in forest helps the fire spread through radiation, conduction and convection of heat both vertically and horizontally. The fuel in the forest is of three kinds: 1) Ground fuel is one, which is found in the ground layer. It includes humus, peat, mucks, etc. 2) Surface fuels include weeds, roots, stumps that are found on the surface of the ground. 3) Aerial fuels include branches, boles, etc. which are found above the ground level. Combustion Fuel combustion takes place in three steps: 1) First phase: This is the pre-heating phase in combustion process. In this stage, the fuel temperature is brought to ignition point. 2) Second phase: In this stage, ignition of gases and easily flammable materials takes place. 3) Third phase: This is the stage where combustion process is intense. In this, all solid and residual materials are burned and gases such as CO, CO₂ are produced. 43 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES The energy released from the fuel depends upon the following factors: a) Quantity of moisture: Higher the moisture in the fuel, lower will be the heat released from the fuel. b) Wind movements, speed and direction determine the heat flow. Higher flow of wind decreases the heat released. Because it dissipates the heat on all sides. Fire behavior is a complex chain reaction process. Fire is formed by the ignition of fuels. Fire behavior is influenced by the parameters such as 1) nature of fuels, 2) wood, 3) temperature and4) terrain conditions. The fire has three main regions: 1) Head: The fire head is a part of the fire perimeter, which enlarges itself very rapidly. 2) Flank or side fires: This is the fire region, which moves perpendicular to the fire head direction. The spreading of fire is comparatively slow in this direction. 3) Read or base or tail fire: This region moves slowly in opposite to fire head. GRAZING: Grazing refers to the feeding of leaves and twigs of the plants alone. In case of browsing, the whole twigs and branches are eaten by the animals. Hence, plants are not able to recover its normal condition. Sheep grazes the vegetation whereas goat browses the plants. Because of this goat are no tallowed inside the forest for grazing. Example of Grasses used for grazing : Andropogon gayanus, Brachiaria brizantha, Brachiaria decumbens, Cenchrus ciliaris, Chloris gayana, Cynodon dactylon and Pennisetum clandestinum. Grazing pattern 1) Migratory grazing 44 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES In this grazing, animals move from the higher to lower altitude in winter seasons. This avoids cool weather conditions in the uphill. 2) 24-hour grazing In this livestock’s are remain inside the forest for throughout the day. After the end of the designated period, animals are captured again for domestic uses. 3) Day grazing Here, animals are allowed inside the forest on daytime for grazing. In night time, livestock are made to return back to cattle sheds located nearby the human settlements. 4) Penning and stall feeding In this kind, fodder is collected from the forest and fed to the cattle in the cattle shed itself. Animals are not allowed to go out from the cattle shed. Grazing damage to plants Grazing animals feed only the desired plant species and reduces palatable species population. Grazing influences the plant succession negatively and results in retrogressive succession. It causes mechanical injury to plants. It disturbs the physiology of the plant system. All these factors result in changes in floral composition in the forest. It creates problem on regeneration of the concern species. Cattle damage the roots of the seedling too. Soil aggregates break down. Soil is compacted due to the livestock load. This reduces soil porosity, soil aeration and water absorption capacity of the soil. As a result, surface runoff is increased and soil erosion is enhanced. Grazing management It ensures the balance between the number of animals and the available fodder resources in an area. Grazing management allows grazing during correct seasons and ensures proper scientific distribution of animals. Thereby it keeps optimum level of fodder production. This ensures 45 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES well-being of livestock and renders the enterprises economically feasible. Principles of grazing 1. Continuous grazing on the same areas is destructive to grasses. 2. Grazing incidence should be kept at minimum in protection forests. 3. Grazing should not be allowed in regeneration areas and young plantations. 4. All grazing in forest would be on permits only. 5.Cheap Forest grazing has a demoralizing effect and leads to increase in number of cattle. 6. Grazing should not be looked upon primarily as a source of revenue. Carrying capacity is the maximum number of animals that can graze on a specific area over a given period of time without causing any adverse effect. Carrying capacity (animal basis) = (Number of animals/day) X area 365 The carrying capacity determination has following limitations. There is a variation in annual fodder production and variation in consumption by animals. The loss of soil, climatic conditions and floral composition makes this task as a difficult one. Forage index is the part of range that is covered with vegetation that can be entirely devoured by animals without permanent damage. Forage ha product = % of species composition xuses factor of each species x forage density Forage ha= Forage ha factor x surface area Grazing plan 1) Continuous grazing In this grazing, the area subjected is allowed for grazing throughout the year. This is not advisable because continuous grazing decreases the palatable crops inside the forest besides 46 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES increasing the weeds. 2) Unitary grazing In this grazing, particular type of animal is allowed for grazing and other animals are restricted. 3) Mixed grazing In this grazing, all kinds of animals are allowed for grazing inside the forest in the same time period. Forage is uniformly used in case of large number of different animals per unit area. 4) Deferred grazing It delays the grazing in order to establish young regeneration safely. In the establishment period of younger regeneration, the area is closed for grazing. Advantages of deferred grazing Deferred grazing favors growth of palatable species It is useful for plants that are regenerated by vegetative means During the time delay for grazing, large quantity of seeds is produced which helps regeneration in the subsequent period It is beneficial to pastures 5) Rotational Grazing In this grazing, the grazing land is divided into number of units. At a time one part is allowed for grazing and other part is left as rest. Normally, the area receiving rest ensures the establishment of palatable species. The trampling damage by livestock is reduced. The rotational grazing system is developed by subdividing a large pasture into two or more smaller paddocks and grazing these paddocks in a planned sequence. This provides rest periods for plants while others are being grazed. Once all the paddocks have been grazed, the sequence restarts with the first pasture that has been rested the longest being grazed. If done correctly, rotational grazing has many benefits including increased forage production, animal performance, and overall profitability. 47 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Rotational grazing allows plants to remain healthy by renewing energy reserves, rebuilding plant vigor, and giving long-term maximum production. Manure nutrients are more evenly distributed across the field as well. EFFECT OF WILD ANIMALS ON FOREST REGENERATION, Wild animals are an integral part of the forest eco-system. They co-exist with the vegetation usually in a harmonious relationship. However, once the balance of nature is disturbed, the impact of wild animals on the forest vegetation is seen. These may be classed into the following: 1. Carnivores: This group of animals feed on other animals e.g. tiger, leopard and even the cat. They occupy the apex of the ecological triangle and help to keep the population of the herbivores in check. 2. Herbivores: These animals feed on vegetative matter such as leaves, flowers, fruits, branches, twigs and seeds. The important herbivores are deers, antelopes, wild goats, elephant and rhinoceros. Herbivores cause more damage to trees than carnivores. Their population too is more as compared to the former. ELEPHANTS The adverse effects of elephants on trees and the forest ecosystem has been discussed in the following text: The vegetation occurring on the forest floor is trampled upon under the feet of elephants. This includes the seedlings and saplings of the favoured species. Elephants feed on trees and poles may be uprooted by them after feeding, thus hampering the establishment of regeneration. A vast quantity of leaves and branches are eaten by the elephants thus affecting the productivity of the forest, opening gaps in the canopy and affecting the process of regeneration when the flowers and seed are also eaten. Elephants strip the bark of species like Artocarpus and Shorea robusta (sal), there by 48 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES causing permanent damage. Elephants also cause immense damage to forest plantations and nurseries. They eat the young trees and uproot others thereby causing loss of both money and effort that had been put in to raise and maintain the nursery and plantation. They also destroy forest buildings, telephone poles, boundary pillars and fences. Elephant herds moving in a particular area may also hinder forestry operations. Preventive and control measures: The following preventive and control measures may betaken against damage by elephants: Anit-elephant trenches or ditches dug around areas to be protected are the cheapest way to prevent damage by elephants. These are wide and deep ditches dug in a way that elephants are unable to cross them Another method is to beat drums or fire guns in the air to scare away elephants. Nowadays electrified fences are also being put up to keep away elephants from a particular area. BISONS AND WILD BUFFALOES Bisons and wild buffaloes are found in many forest areas of India. They move in herds and may cause considerable damage to the forest ecosystem. These have been discussed in the following text: (a)Bisons tend to strip off the bark of certain species such as Acrocarpous fraxinifolius. As aresult the physiology of the tree is adversely affected. (b) They browse the seedlings and saplings of the desired species thus hampering regeneration. (c) Herds of Bisons and buffaloes may trample upon the young regeneration of the favored species. (d)These animals also cause mechanical damage to the seedlings, saplings and poles of the favored species. (e) They may also enter forest nurseries and plantations and cause considerable damage. 49 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Prevention and control: (a)Digging trenches so as to prevent the entry of these animals in the areas to be protected. (b) Firing of guns and crackers and beating of drums to scare away herds of bisons and wild buffaloes. (c) Adoption of damage control measures such as plantings and sowings in gaps and also removing the individuals damaged by these animals. WILD PIGS Wild pigs or boars are very widely distributed in India. They live not only in the forest areas but also in the adjoining tracts. (a) They readily eat the roots and tubers of many species which are dug up from the soil. (b) While digging the soil the wild pigs expose or even damage the roots of the favoured species thus hampering regeneration. (c)They are fond of eating the germinating sal seedlings which may also be uprooted in the process. (d) In the hills wild pigs tend to girdle the deodar and cypress trees thus affecting their physiology. (e) Wild pigs are extremely fond of the rhizomes of bamboos which they readily dig up thus destroying large clumps of bamboos both natural and planted. (f) These animals may cause widespread damage to all types of forest plantations and nurseries. They dig up the succulent roots of the young plants in plantations and nurseries These animals also eat the young shoots of the favoured species. Prevention and control: The measures adopted for preventing and control of damage by wild pigs have been discussed below Special fences are erected as protection against wild pigs. These are provided with a wire mesh that is buried into the soil in order to prevent them wild boar from digging beneath the fence Guns may be fired in the air or crackers used for scaring away these animals. 50 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES DEERS AND ANTELOPES They may readily devour the seedlings of the favoured species. Sal seedlings are eaten by cheetal and sambhar thus having an adverse effect on regeneration. In the summer season, when most shrubs are dry, the sal seedlings remain succulent and hence are largely eaten by these animals, resulting in their death or at leasts lowing down of growth. Sambhar and cheetal also have a liking for the young individuals of many other species such as Albizzia lebbeck, Artocarpus chaplasha, Chloroxylon sweitinia, Dalbergia latifolia, Hopea,Morus lavegata and Ptreocarpus marsupium. They eat the tender leave sand shoots of these species Prevention and control: The prevention and control measures commonly adopted include: Erecting special fences for preventing the entry of deer’s and antelopes into an area. Using electrified fences in which a low intensity current is constantly passed. BLACK BEARS In the Himalayas, black bears damage the poles of deodar, blue pine and spruce by stripping off the bark to suck the sap. This has an adverse effect on regeneration. Fencing off areas with pole or younger crop is an effective way of preventing this form of damage. MONKEYS Monkeys and langurs eat the fruits and seeds of the desired species thus affecting regeneration. They also uproot saplings in plantation areas and seedlings in the nursery. Damage by these animals is prevented by firing crackers to scare them away RODENTS Rodents causing adverse effects on young regeneration of the favored species include porcupines, hares, rats and squirrels. They eat the seeds and fruits and also the succulent shoots and roots of seedlings. Rats extensively damage bamboos particularly when they are 51 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES flowering. Damage from rodents can be prevented by erecting special fences with underground wire meshes. BIRDS Birds eat the fruits and seeds of the tree species both in forest areas and in the nursery. Nurseries may be protected from damage by birds in the following manner. MYCORRHIZA Mycorrhiza are non-pathogenic soil fungi that invade most absorbing roots of forest trees, thereby forming a distinct morphological structure. The mycorrhiza, physiologically, is a case of symbiosis in which the higher and lower symbionts live to mutual benefit or reciprocal parasitism, but generally not of pathogenesis. Types There are three main types of mycorrhiza: Ectotrophic mycorrhiza In this type of mycorrhiza, the root system is heterozoic and may be made up of the long and short root. The latter tends to become infected and turn mycorrhizal. Roots infested with mycorrhiza have the following characteristics they have a limited growth they are short lived tend to become swollen when fresh and active attain various hues due to the colours of the fungal symbionts root hairs may be absent and replaced by a fungal covering. The hyphae usually radiate from the mantle into the soil. The morphology and structure of this mantle varies from. species to species and is largely influenced by the species of the fungal symbionts. 52 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES Secretion of pectolytic enzymes helps the fungi to enter the cortex thus enabling the hyphae to grow in the intercellular space and form a network of hyphae which is known as the Hertig net. These type of mycorriza are found in members of the families Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Salicaceae and Abietineae. Endotrophic mycorrhiza In this type of mycorrhiza, the morphology of the infected roots remains unchanged or may become beaded. The fungal mantle is lacking and the root hairs develop normally. The fungi occur as individual hyphae on the surface of the roots and are able to penetrate into the cells of the cortex by secreting special cellulolytic enzymes. Coils and swellings are produced by the intracellular hyphao that disappear over time due to digestion by the invaded cells while the hyphae follow the advancing meristematic root tip. This type of mychorrhiza are present in members of the following genera Araucaria, Cupressus, Podocarpus and Taxus. Ectendotrophic mycorrhiza In this type of mycorrhiza the typical ectrotrophic infection is accompanied by the intracellular penetration of the hyphae. Ectendotrophic mycorrhiza occur in species like beech and lodgepole pine. MECHANISM The mechanism through which there occurs infection of roots by fungi leading to the formation of mycorrhiza is still not clear. The following observations and conclusions made by various workers help to understand the mechanism of symbiosis (of mycorrhiza) in a better way. 1. Bjorkman: IN 1942 and 1949 he advanced the carbohydrate theory which explains that 53 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES mycorrhiza are formed in soils deficient in available nitrogen and phosphorous and under conditions of higher light intensity. Soluble carbohydrates accumulate in the root in strong light. These favour infection and occurrence of mycorrhiza. 2. Slankis: In 1961, he too concluded that mycorrhiza are not formed in low light intensity due to the lack of surplus soluble carbohydrates in the roots. It was concluded that probably the excess of carbohydrates in roots of trees and metabolites exuded by them induce infestation by mycorrhiza. Considerable work has been done in this field but the symbiosis mechanism remains to be fully understood. FUNGI FORMING VARIOUS TYPES OF MYCORRHIZAE 1. Ectomycorrhiza Fungi which form ectomycorrhiza belong primarily to Basidiomycetes; and partly to Ascomycetes and Fungi imperfecti. They may be of the following genera: Amanita, Boletus, Cantharellus, Clitopilus Clitocybe, Lactarius, Leccinum, Russula, Calvatia. Rhizopogon and Elaphomyces. In the soil, ectomycorrhiza fungi may occur in the following forms - as spores as free living mycelia as hyphal strands as sclerotia. It is possible to identify them from sporophores which usually develop in association with mycorrhizal roots. They are difficult to isolate and maintain in culture in which they grow slowly. 2. Endomycorrhiza Fungi that form endomycorrhiza belong primarily to Phycomycetes except in the case of Orchidaceae, Ericales and Gentinaceae in which the lower symbionts may belong to the 54 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES species Rhizoctania. In the soil, endomychorrhiza may occur in the following forms - as free spores. as sporocarps 3. Ectendomycorrhiza Fungi which form ectendomycorrhiza are non-sporing and termed as E. stains. They are abundant in nurseries that have been raised on old agricultural sites and have weak competitive ability in forest soils. FUNCTIONS OF MYCORRHIZA Mycorrhizal fungi use carbohydrates from the tree and hence their functions are symbiotic rather than pathogenic. The main functions of mycorrhiza fungi are listed below: 1. Increase in the absorption area of the roots 2. The mantle and hyphae radiating from the mantle and in a manner similar to root hairs. 3. Mycorrhiza may also translocate various nutrients from the soil to the tree/plant. 4. They afford protection to trees/plants against attack by root diseases either by functioning as a physical barrier and/or by producing antibiotics. MYCORRHIZIA MANAGEMENT IN THE NURSERY It is important to follow the correct package of nursery management practices with respect to mycorrhiza. The age and previous use to which the nursery was being put are of vital importance while selecting the site of a nursery. For better results, nurseries may be established in an area previously under a tree cover. This will ensure the presence of naturally occurring mycorrhiza. The soil may be either mildly acidic or neutral. Best growth of conifers is seen on soil pH varying from 4.5 to 5.5. In case such soils are not readily available, the pH can be lowered for raising conifer seedlings by using sulphuric acid and ammonium sulphate. 55 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES The seedlings are raised either directly in the nursery bed on local soil to which fertilizers have been added or in polythene bags filled with specially prepared soil. Introducing mycorrhiza Mycorrhiza usually occur naturally on a site which is or has recently been under a forest cover. Hence, if a nursery is established by clear felling an existing forest and indigenous species are being raised, it may not be necessary to introduce mycorrhiza. On the other hand when nurseries are established on a site that has not borne a natural cover in recent times or if exotic species have to be raised, in the nursery, mycorrhiza need to be introduced. It is preferable to introduce mycorrhiza at the nursery stage due to the following reasons - much higher concentration of seedlings/plants than in a plantation ease of introduction seedlings develop mycorrhiza in the initial stages The following methods may be adopted for introducing mycorrhiza: a) Soil inoculum This method involves introducing soil containing mycorrhiza into the nursery. It consists of the following steps - soil from good stands of the same (or closely allied species) is collected from a top depth of 10 to 25 cms where mycorrhiza are more frequent. It should also contain active mycorrhizal short roots. - the inoculum must be used within 10 to 15 days of collection so as to ensure viability of the fungi. It is not exposed to direct sunlight, which leads to the death of the mycorrhia. - the inoculum is spread on the nursery beds in a proportion of 10 to 20 parts of inoculum and 80 to 90 parts of local nursery soil. The mixture is raked up and well mixed. 56 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES - the seeds are broadcast in nursery beds and the seedlings develop mycorrhiza. - a small quantity of the inoculum may be added to the soil of polythene bags if seeds are sown directly in them. b) Interplanting In this method, mother or wild seedlings are interplanted in the nursery beds along with the usual seedlings. These could be of the same or closely allied species. It involves the following steps - - seedlings collected from a good natural stand containing mycorrhiza are transplanted in the seed beds at a regular spacing (say 0.3 x 0.3 mts) - seeds are then sown in these beds. The seedlings that germinate will have develop mycorrhiza infection. c) Inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi This method uses pure cultures of mycorrhizal fungi as in the soil inoculum and interplanting methods, there is always a possibility of transfer of pathogenic microorganisms together with the mycorrhiza. In this method, the following pure mycorrhiza may be inoculated - fruiting bodies. - spores - pure cultures. It has the advantages listed below: i. There is no risk of transfer of unwanted pathogens. ii. No problem of bulk handling or transportation. iii. The introduction of the appropriate mycorrhizal strain is ensured. Impact of biocides Many different forms of biocides are used in forest nurseries for controlling diseases and insect attacks. These biocides may have a retarding effect on the mycorrhiza introduced for the benefit of the seedlings. However, as these biocides are usually present only in the upper 57 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTRY NOTES 10 cms of the soils mycorrhiza tend to develop normally once the roots penetrate deeper than this zone. Impact of soil nutrients Soil nutrients are widely used in forest nurseries for boosting the growth of seedlings. The various impacts of these nutrients on mycorrhiza could be - - the formation of ectotrophic mycorrhiza is inversely proportional to soil fertility. Their development and growth is profuse in relatively infertile soils and in soils rich in humus but where nutrients are not available in a readily assumable form. Thus, high dosages of inorganic fertilizers, tends to suppress the development of mycorrhiza. - high rate of application of fertilizers produces large root stock but mycorrhizal growth is poor and later on when fertilizers are not applied, the saplings become stunted and tend to die. Thus, it is recommended that in nurseries where mycorrhiza have been introduced, fertilizers must be very sparingly used. Physical conditions of the soil The relationship between mycorrhiza and physical condition of the soil have been brought out in the following text: 1. The growth and development of mycorrhiza is best when soil moisture is abundant though not too high. 2. Mycorrhiza grow best in loose, well-aerated and acidic soils. 3. Their growth is adversely affected in saline/alkaline soils and also under very dry conditions. However, there are some mycorrhiza that are adapted to grow on dry sites. Impact of light The prevailing light conditions also have a bearing on the growth and development of mycorrhiza. This has been brought out in the following points: 58 | P a g e  WWW.FORESTRYNOTES.IN @FORESTRYNOTES FORESTR