Morphology PDF

((Morphology) word 'tourists' minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function is named morpheme. For example, the A the three morphemes tour,...

((Morphology) word 'tourists' minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function is named morpheme. For example, the A the three morphemes tour, -ist, -s. Morphology, which literally means the study of (forms) is the contains the rules by which words are formed. 1dentification, analysis, and description of morphemes, as well as include a list of the morphemes used in the Grammar, as an account of a speaker's knowledge of language, must of each morpheme, along with formation of words. Information is provided about the pronunciation and meaning of speech a root is). For details about its grammatical features (e.g. whether it 1s prefix, suffix, root; what part The list of morphemes in literate speakers, the spelling, or orthography, of most of the words we know is included. list words rather than a grammar is called a lexicon in order to avoid confusion with normal dictionaries that morphemes. Each morpheme in the lexicon, along with the information about it, is called a lexical entry. 1. Two Classifications of Morphemes 1.1. Classification Based on Form Free Open class/ Content words/ Lexical words h Closed class/ Function words/ Grammatical words Morphemes Root Inflectional Bound Affix Derivational " Free morpheme is a single morpheme which can stand by itself as a single word. o Content words denote concepts such as objects, actions, attributes, and ideas that we think about such as system, kill, pretty, badly, etc.; then nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverb_ are content words. o Functions words specify grammatical relations and have little or no semantic content. For example, the articles indicate whether a noun is definite or indefinite - the boy or a boy. 'Pronouns, o conjuctions', 'articles' and 'auxiliaries' fall in this category. prepositions', Bound norpheme must be attached to other morphemes. o Inflectional morphemes: Function words like to, it, and be are free morphemes. Many languages, including English, also have bound morphemes that have a strictly tense, number, person, and so forth. Such bound grammatical function, They mark properties such as morphemes derivational morphemes, they never phange the grammatical category are called inflectional morphemes, Unlike English there are only eight of them, all of which are of the stems to which they are attached. In suffixes attached to either nouns or verbs or adiectives. N+ possissive 's, plural -s Vt-ed, -ing, -en, -s (third person singular) Adj + -er, -est An inflected morpheme in which the regular rules o not apply is called suppletive form such as sobildren'. In suppletive forms there 1S morphological usion, 'went' that 1s, the form of the two meanings are not and ela hut are fused. In a morpheme like dogs we neatly Can separate the torms dog and -s; almost impossible to separate the two morphemes. however in criteria it is Linguistics 41 Suppletive forms muy be oblaincd through the proceN% of alterinp the vowcl of stemthat indicates yrammatical information as in sing/sang/sung or g0Ose/geesNC, This process is tefered to as /ablaut/ apophony/ alternation/ vowel mutation. vowel Derivationalmorphemes are added to a stem or root to form anew slem or word and of speech For example in imposxible, the addition of in- doesn't possibly changing part Rart of spcech in adnmiration. As you sce, derivational change part of specch, however tion changes morphemes could bcboth sufix andprefix Root: Root is the morpheme which remains when all affixcs,arc stripped, Stem is produced wheri one or more aftixes are added to a base form (root). For example, when we he root administer. However, not always do roots are remove affixes fron readministeration, we obtain simple words. For cxample words takcn from atin such as nogt or receive consist of 'retpeat and 'retceive'. The root in, thesc morphemes are -peat and -ceieve which don't stand alone. Amorpheme was defined as the basic element of meaning, a phonological form that is narticular meaning and that cannot be analyzed into simpler elements. Although it holdsarbitrarily united with a truc for most of the morphemes in a language, this definition has presented problems for linguistic analysis for many ycars. morphemes occur in Some many words, but they seem to lack a constant meaning from one word to another as in receive, conceive, perceive Such words taken from Latin h¡ve the sam root -ceieve' with djfferent example of bound root) Ues BeeEingsThisisan paint + -er painter + -s ’ painters root, word) (stem, word) (stem, word) -ceive t -er -ceiver + re receiver (root) (stem) (stem, word) Clitic is a morphème that has syntactic characteristics of aword, but depends phonologically on another word or phrase. In this sense, itis syntactically independent but phonologically dependent -alwaysattached to a host. Clitics have the form oflafixes For example, the contracted forms of the auxiliary verbs in Im and we've are clitics. 1.2.Classification Based on Meaning Lexical free bound (derivational) New Morpheme free Grammatical bound (inflectinal) No Ned dal in enumerate some characteristics. The definitions remain constant in this second classification. Here, we will Five characteristics of lexical morphemes are: are talking about; that is, they are used to convey the 1) Their persence is directly determined by what we etc. with these words. verbs usually refer to actions, meaning and we convey our thoughts, intentions, ideas, qualities or properties (lucky, old), etc. events, and states (kick, love, marry); adjectives toconcrete meanings, like decide, happily, wall, etc. somewhat 4) Concreteness: they tend to express certainly compared to grammatical morphems. Take a individually, they are very infrequent, grammatical 5) Infrequency: occur in this chapter or a think this content word is more probable to cOntent word like free; do you probably -ing. That one specific content word is much less probable to occur Word like-ingfThe answer is most generally, refers to the infrequency property of content words. grammatical morpheme, members. In other words, as COmpared with one specific sets which regularly get new 4) Open-set membership: they are members of large are created. new things are invented new content words 5) They almost always carry stress. JJ (derivational morphemes) are: they are Ihree characteristics of lexical affixes part of spèech of the word or morpheme to whichproduced. typically change the adjective like general, the verb generalize is Function change: they suffix -ize to an example, by adding e to a For example, by adding the generalization. For added. prefixes, don't conform to this 0Wever, English derivational Verb like do, the verb redo is produced. Derinahional praiket dot  42 Chapter Six: Morphology prcdict novel uscs of the derivational affixcs, We can 2) Non-productivity: one can't rcadily produce or Now, if un imaginary noun like spluk Were convert nouns into verbs by adding such affixes like -fy. -ule. -ize. or -lze? thc answer would most verb by adding -f%, -ate added to the language, would you surcly turn it into norphemes freely to form new words is callcd non. probably be 'No. That we cannot use derivational complez When anew word enters the lexicon by the application of morphological rules, othcr productivity. Communian Commwnist entered the language, a word such as derivations may be blocked. For example, when (as in grammarian) was not needed. system could be followed by Suffixability: the derived suffixes may be followed by other suffixes. The noun adjective and finally 3) form an adjective; this adjective could be further followed by -al to form another -atic to -ly could be added to form systematically. iNestio Five characteristics of grammatical morphemes are determiners specify whether a presence is obligated by the grammar of the language. For example, 1) Their context (this boy vs, that indefinite or definitye (a bov vs, the bov), or the relation of the noun to the noun is whether ongoing (Sara is studying), completed in the past boy); auxiliaries provide the verb with a time frame, (Sara has studied), or occuring in the future (Sara will study). such as meanings, having to do with relationships of the grammar, 2) Abstractness:they express rather abstract tense of verbs, hearer-knowledge of nouns etc. a group and individually, certainly_compared to 3) Frequency: grammatical morphemes are very frequent, as lexical morphemes. sets which get new memebers 4) Closed-set membership: the grammatical morphemes are members of that would be relatively infrequently. Some proposals have been made for adding a neutral singular pronoun neither masculine nor feminine and that could be used as the general, or generic form such as the gender neutral pronoun e' (though this has not happened so far). 5) They typically lack stressed sylable Three characteristics of grammatical affixes (inflectional morphemes): 1) Nofunction change: they don't change the function (part of speech) of the word or morpheme to which they are added. For example, when plural -s is added to a noun like cat, the word keeps its part of speech. 2) Productivity: one predicts newuses of the inflectoinal affixes in new words. Thus a given noun like plousak is predictably pluralized by adding third pefson singular -s The exception to this characteristic is the past participle suffix -en: it is not being employed with new verbs which come into English which instead form their past participle, like their past tense form, with -ed. Jy 3) Non-suffixability: the English inflectional suffixes may not ordinarily be followed by other süffixes. The only exception is the co-0ccurance of plural -s and possessive -s, for we can say the learners' pamflets, where learners'is both plural and possessive in meaning. Some affixes may have both inflectional and derivational characteristics. The suffix -ly, for example, SJinflectional characteristics of productivity and the derivational characteristic of Junction change: new fulfills the adjectives willform adverbs by suffixing -ly. Y'ou should also know that some -forms are shared between inflectional and dèrivational morphemes. To distinguish them you should notice if they have changed part of speech of the word. The morpheme -ing in walking does not change part of speech. It only makes the verb progressive and is thus an ìnflectional morpheme. The same morpheme in interesting changes part of speech of a verb (interest) to an morpheme. adjective and is thus a derivatioanl 2. Two Purposes of Morphology Morphological processes are traditionally classified into two broad types, cach with a rather 2.1. Derivation different function. M, Derivation creates or derives new words from existing ones. It, allows new also extremely useful for expressing (phrase mord words to enter a language. Derivation is compactly someone working in the field of science, politics, or banking as a It is much more efficient, for instance, to refer to scientist, reneatedly use more cumbersome phrases such as "somcone who works in the field politician, or bauker than to have to shorthandsystem that allows us to \econgmize- by packing more of..". Derivation is a kind of information into shorter utterances.  nowitive Verbt intit Linguistics. 43 2.2. Inflection We observed carlier that morphological inllection ads particular syntactic requirenments of alanguoge. The kind of grmatical information infoaton to aa lexeme, added indicates property depend1ng ot afeature onwith1n thc asett of gramatical contrasts, such as singular Vs. plural. The follo0wing scctions provIde a nini-cataloguc of Me ol commOn grammatical contrasts markcd by the more inflectional morpholkogy across the world's languaycs Person is'a grammatical feature'that distinguishes entities referred to in an speaker in English, Ine), and second person refers to the addressee (vou), Third utferance. First person refers to the refers to evervthing else (for example, she/her, hehim, it, the dog, person is adefault category that John, the fact that it might rain today). Person is RRn combined with number and thus we often speak of person-number combinations such as 'third person Number is a grammatical property of nouns, The most fundamcntal contrast is betwecn singular andsingular plural. although many languages also mark a distinct dualformsuch asArabic, (W a Cender: In many languages, nouns are sorted into different classes referred to as gender, meaning 'kind' or bsort. Gender agreement helps to indicate which adjectives, determiners, etc. are associated with a particular noun. languages that mark grammatical gender, every noun is assigned to a