ADMS2400 Comprehensive Notes for the Midterm (Organizational Behaviour) PDF

lOMoARcPSD|1379935 ADMS2400 - Comprehensive Notes for the Midterm Organizational Behaviour (York University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Nithya Kumar (nithya...

lOMoARcPSD|1379935 ADMS2400 - Comprehensive Notes for the Midterm Organizational Behaviour (York University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 #1 What is Organizational Behaviour? What is Organizational Behaviour? Organizational Behaviour Defined Organizational Behaviour (OB) - is a field of study devoted to understanding, explaining, and ultimately improving attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups in organizations. Human Resources Management - is a field of study that focuses on the applications of OB theories and principles in organizations. Strategic Management - is a field of study devoted to exploring the product choices and industry characteristics that affect an organization’s profitability. The Role of Management Theory Classical Approach: Scientific Management (Frederick Taylor) - using scientific methods to design optimal and efficient work processes and tasks. Heavy emphasis on: specialization coordination efficiency Bureaucracy (Max Weber) - an organizational form that emphasizes the control and coordination of its members through a strict chain of command, formal rules and procedures, high specialization, and centralized decision-making. the division of labour with a high level of technical specialization a strict chain of command (authority hierarchy) a system of formal rules and procedures that ensured consistency, impartiality, impersonality throughout the organization decision making at the top of organization Human Relations Movement - field of study that recognizes that the psychological attributes of individual workers and the social forces within work groups have important effects on work behaviours. Importance of: group values and norms leadership motivation job satisfaction organizational culture Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 “Contingency” Approach - is the idea that there is no one best, universal principle. An Integrative Model of OB Two primary outcomes in studies of OB: Individual Outcomes: job performance and organizational commitment. Factors affect the two primary OB outcomes: Individual Characteristics and Mechanisms: Personality, Cultural Values, and Ability Job Satisfaction Stress Motivation Trust, Justice, and Ethics Learning and Decision Making Relational Mechanisms: Communication Team Characteristics and Processes Power, Influence, and Negotiation Leadership Styles and Behaviours Organizational Mechanisms: Organizational Structure Organizational Culture and Change OB INTERNATIONALLY Impact of globalization on the organizational behaviour concepts: Cross-Cultural Differences International Corporations Expatriation (removal or withdrawal from one's native land) Managing Diversity Building a Conceptual Argument Resource-based view - a model that argues that rare (short in supply) and inimitable (incapable of being imitated) resources help firms maintain competitive advantage. Inimitable resources: History - a collective pool of experience, wisdom, and knowledge that benefits the organization. Numerous small decisions - small decisions that people make every day. Socially complex resources - resources created by people, such as culture, teamwork, Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 trust, and reputation. RULE OF ONE-EIGHT - the belief that at best one-eight, or 12 %, of organizations will actually do what is required to build profits by putting people first. Methods of Knowing Things Method of experience Method of intuition Method of authority Method of science The Scientific Method Hypotheses - written predictions that specify relationships between variables. Theory - Hypothesis - Data - Verification Correlation - the statistical relationship between two variables, abbreviated r; it can be positive or negative and range from 0 (no statistical relationship) to 1 (a perfect statistical relationship) Causal inference - concluding that one variable really does cause another. Meta-analysis - a method that combines the results of multiple scientific studies by essentially calculating a weighted-average correlation across studies (with larger studies receiving more weight) Evidence-based management - a perspective that argues that scientific findings should form the foundation for management education Analytics - the use of data (rather than just opinions) to guide decision making. #2 Job Performance Job Performance Job Performance - employee behaviours that contribute either positively or negatively to the accomplishment of organizational goals. POSITIVE Task Performance - employee behaviours that are directly involved in the transformation of organizational resources into the goods or services that the Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 organization produces 1. Routine task performance - well-known or habitual responses by employees to predictable task demands 2. Adaptive task performance - thoughtful responses by an employee to unique or unusual task demands 3. Creative task performance - ideals or physical outcomes that are both novel and useful Citizenship behaviour - voluntary employee behaviours that contribute to organizational goals by improving the context in which work takes place 1. Interpersonal citizenship behaviour - go beyond normal job expectations to assist, support, and develop co-workers and colleagues. helping courtesy (sharing important information with co-workers) sportsmanship (maintaining a positive attitude with co-workers through good and bad times) 2. Organizational citizenship behaviour - going beyond normal expectations to improve operations of the organization, defend it, and be loyal to it. voice (speaking up to offer constructive suggestions for change, often in reaction to a negative work event) civic virtue (participating in company operations at a deeper-than-normal level through voluntary meetings, readings, and keeping up with news that affect the company) boosterism (positively representing the organization when in public) NEGATIVE Counterproductive behaviour - employee behaviours that intentionally hinder organizational goal accomplishment. property deviance (behaviours that harm the organization’s assets and possessions) 1. sabotage (intentional destruction of equipment, organizational processes, or company products) 2. theft (stealing company products or equipment from the organization) production deviance (intentionally reducing organizational efficiency of work output) 1. wasting resources 2. substance abuse (the abuse of drugs or alcohol before coming to work or while on the job) political deviance (behaviours that intentionally disadvantage other individuals) Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 1. gossiping 2. incivicity (communication that is rude, impolite) 3. personal aggression 4. harassment 5. abuse Job analysis - a process by which an organization determines requirements of specific jobs. 1. a list of all the activities involved to the job is generated 2. each activity is rated by “subject-matter experts” 3. the activities rated highly in terms of their importance and frequency to define task performance National Occupational Classification (NOC) - a national database of occupations in Canada, organizing over 40,000 job titles into 500 occupational group descriptions. PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT Management by Objectives Management by Objectives (MBO) - a management philosophy that bases employee evaluations on whether specific performance goals have been met. Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) - use of examples of critical incidents to evaluate an employee’s job performance behaviours directly. “Critical incidents” - short descriptions of effective and ineffective behaviours to create a measure that can be used to evaluate employee performance. 360-Degree Feedback - a performance evaluation system that uses ratings provided by supervisors, co-workers, subordinates, customers, and the employees themselves. unclear which source is “correct” unclear how the information should be weighted raters may give biased evaluation Forced Ranking - a performance management system that forces managers to rank each of their people into one of three categories: the top 20 %, the vital middle 70 %, or the bottom 10%. #3 Organizational Commitment Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 Organizational Commitment - an employee’s desire to remain a member of an organization. Withdrawal Behaviour - employee actions that are intended to avoid work situations. Behaviours may eventually culminate in quitting the organization. The higher commitment the lower withdrawal Forms of Commitment Affective Commitment - an employee’s desire to remain a member of organization due to a feeling of emotional attachment. (EMOTION-BASED) Staying because you want to. Employees who feel a sense of affective commitment identify with the organization accept that organization’s goals and values, and are more willing to exert extra effort of behalf of the organization. Strong correlation between affective commitment and citizenship behaviour. Focus of Commitment - the people, places, and things that inspire a desire to remain a member of an organization. People aren’t always committed to companies. They are also committed to the top management that leads the firm at a given time, department in which they work, the manager who directly supervises them, or the specific team or co-workers with whom they work most closely. A Social Network Diagram summarizes the bonds among employees. Erosion Model - a model that suggests that employees with fewer bonds with co-workers are more likely to quit the organization. Social Influence Model - a model that suggested that employees with direct linkages to co- workers who leave the organization will themselves more likely to leave. Continuance Commitment - an employee’s desire to remain a member of organization due to an awareness of costs of leaving. (COST-BASED) Staying because you need to. Factors that increase continuance commitment 1. Total amount of investment (time, effort, energy) employees have made in mastering their work roles or fulfilling their organizational duties 2. A lack of employment alternatives 3. Embeddedness - an employee’s connection to and sense of fit in the organization and community (links, fit, sacrifice) Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 Normative Commitment - an employee’s desire to remain a member of organization due to feeling of obligation. (OBLIGATION-BASED) Staying because you ought to. The sense that people should stay. Withdrawal Behaviour 1. Exit - an active response to a negative work event in which one ends or restricts organizational membership. 2. Voice - an active constructive response in which individuals attempt to improve the situation. 3. Loyalty - a passive response to a negative work event in which one publicly supports the situation but privately hopes for improvement. 4. Neglect - a passive, destructive response to a negative work event in which one’s interest and effort in the job declines. Psychological Withdrawal Actions that provide a mental escape from the work environment. Daydreaming - work is interrupted by random thoughts and concerns. Socializing - verbally chats with co-workers about non-work topics. Looking Busy - attempt to appear consumed with work when not performing actual work tasks. Moonlighting - employees use work time and resources to do non-work related activities. Cyberloafing - employees use Internet, email, and instant messaging access for their personal enjoyment. Physical Withdrawal A physical escape from the work environment. Tardiness - employees arrive late to work and leave work early. Long breaks - employees take longer-than-normal breaks to spend less time at work. Missing Meetings - employees neglect important work functions while away from the office. Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 Absenteeism - employees do not show up for an entire day of work. Quitting - employees voluntary leave the organization. A Different Prediction About the Relationships Among the Withdrawal Behaviour 1. Independent forms model - predicts that the various withdrawal behaviours are uncorrelated. 2. Compensatory forms model - a model indicating that the various withdrawal behaviours are negatively correlated, so that engaging in one type of withdrawal make it less likely to engage in other types. 3. Progression model - a model indicating that various withdrawal behaviours are positively correlated, so that engaging in one type of withdrawal makes it more likely to engage in other types. The Changing Employee-Employer Relationships Psychological Contracts - employee beliefs about what employees owe the organization and what organization owes them. Transactional Contracts - psychological contracts that focus on a narrow set of specific monetary obligations. Relational Contracts - psychological contracts that focus on a broad set of open-ended and subjective obligations. Perceived Organizational Support - the degree to which employees believe that the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. #3* Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations Self-concept refers to individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations. current (perceived self) and desired (ideal self) Our self-concept is defined at 3 levels: individual, relational, and collective. We view ourselves in terms of our personal traits (individual self), connections to friends and co-workers (relational self), and members in teams, organizations, social entities (collective Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 self). An individual’s self-concept can be described by: complexity, consistency, and clarity. Complexity - the number of distinct and important roles or identities that people perceive about themselves. People are motivated to increase their complexity (self-expansion) Consistency: High when the individual’s identities require similar personality traits, values and other attributes. Low when some self-views conflict. Clarity - the degree to which a person’s self-concept is clear, confidently defined, and stable. Self-enhancement - individuals tend to rate themselves above average. + Overconfidence generate a “can do” attitude that motivate persistence in difficult or risky tasks - Overestimation of future returns in investment decisions, unsafe behaviour Self-verification - trying to confirm and maintain existing self-concept Self-evaluation 1. self-esteem - the extent to which people like,respect, and are satisfied with themselves 2. self-efficacy - person’s belief that he or she can successfully complete a task 3. locus of control - person’s general beliefs about the amount of control he or she has over her personal life events Social-self - external self concept Social Identity Theory - we define ourselves by the groups which we belong to or have an emotional attachment. Perceiving the World around Us Perception - process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. Selective attention - attend/ignore information. Confirmation bias - tendency for people to ignore information which is contrary their beliefs. Categorical Thinking - process of organizing people and objects into categories. Stereotyping - perceptual process in which we assign characteristics to a group and then automatically transfer those to all people in the group. Categorization ( Russian, Canadian) Differentiation (my group is better than yours) Homogenization (people within group are very similar to each other) Problems with Stereotyping Stereotype threat (negative feature of the stereotyping) Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 minorities discrimination prejudice Attribution Theory Attribution process - characterizing behaviours and events into external and internal factors Consistency Distinctiveness Consensus Attribution errors self-serving bias - failures = external cause, successes = internal cause fundamental attribution error - we judge other people by internal causes ignore external causes Self-fulfilling Prophecy - expectations about other person make him act in a way that is consistent with those expectations. (strong effect at the beginning of the relations) 1. Supervisors forms expectations towards employee 2. Expectations affect supervisors behaviour 3. Supervisors behaviour affects employees motivation and ability 4. Employee’s behaviour becomes consistent with expectations #4 Personality, Cultural Values, and Ability Personality, Cultural Values, and Ability Personality - the structures and propensities inside a person that explain his or her characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour; personality reflects what people are like and creates their social reputation. Traits - recurring trends in people’s responses to their environment. Cultural Values - shared beliefs about desirable end states of modes of conduct in a given culture that influence the expression of traits. Ability - relatively stable capabilities of people for performing a particular range of related activities. The Big Five Taxonomy Conscientiousness - dimension of personality-reflecting traits like being dependable, Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 organized, reliable, ambitious, hard-working, and preserving. Conscientious employees prioritize accomplishment striving, a strong desire to accomplish task-related goals as a means of expressing personality. Agreeableness - dimension of personality-reflecting traits like being kind, cooperative, sympathetic, helpful, courteous, and warm. Agreeableness people prioritize communion striving, a strong desire to obtain acceptance in personal relationships as a means of expressing personality. Extraversion - dimension of personality reflecting traits like being talkative, sociable, passionate, assertive, bold, and dominant. Extraversion is the easiest to judge in zero acquaintance situations - situations in which two people have only just met. Extraverted people prioritize status striving, a strong desire to obtain power and influence within a social structure as a means of expressing personality. Positive affectivity - a dispositional tendency to experience pleasant, engaging moods such as enthusiasm, excitement, and elation. Neuroticism - dimension of personality-reflecting traits like being nervous, moody, emotional, insecure, jealous, and unstable. Negative affectivity - a dispositional tendency to experience unpleasant moods such as hostility, nervousness, and annoyance. Locus of control - one’s tendency to view the cause of events and personal outcomes as internally and externally controlled. Neurotic people tend to hold an external locus of control (luck,chance, fate) Less neurotic people tend to hold an internal locus of control, meaning that their own behaviour dedicates events. Openness to Experience - dimension of personality-reflecting traits like being curious, imaginative, creative, complex, and sophisticated. Cognitive Ability + Openness to Experience = Creative Thought leading to Creative Performance Cultural Values Culture - the shared values, beliefs, motives, identities, and interpretations that result from common experiences of members of a society and are transmitted across generations. HOFSTEDE’s DIMENSIONS OF CULTURAL VALUES 1. Individualism - Collectivism Individualistic - the culture is a loosely knit social framework in which people take care of themselves and their immediate family. Collectivistic - the culture is a tight social framework in which people take care of the members of a broader in-group. 2. Power Distance ( Low - High) Low - power is distributed in more egalitarian fashion. High - the power is distributed unequally within organizations. 3. Uncertainty Avoidance ( Low - High) Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 Low - tolerate uncertain situations, value unusual ideas and behaviours. High - feel threatened by uncertain situations and rely on formal rules to create stability. 4. Masculinity - Femininity Masculinity - value male traits. Femininity - value female traits. 5. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation PROJECT GLOBE DIMENSIONS OF CULTURAL VALUES 1. Gender egalitarianism ( promotes gender equality) 2. Assertiveness (values assertiveness, confrontation, and aggressiveness in social relations) 3. Future orientation (engages in planning and investment in the future) 4. Performance orientation (encourages and rewards members for excellence and performance improvement) 5. Humane orientation (encourages members for being generous, kind, fair, and altruistic) Ethnocentrism - a propensity to view one’s own cultural values as “right” and those of other cultures “wrong”. Multicultural personality questionnaire, which assesses 5 personality dimensions that can maximize the performance and commitment of expatriates. 1. cultural empathy 2. open-mindedness 3. emotional stability 4. social initiative 5. flexibility Summary: How Can We Describe What Employees Are Like? The Big Five conscientiousness | agreeableness | neuroticism | → Personality openness to experience| extraversion | → What Employees Are Like Cultural Taxonomies Hofstede’s Dimensions | Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 | → Cultural Values Project GLOBE Dimensions | Abilities Cognitive Ability - capabilities related to the use of knowledge to make decisions and solve problems. Verbal Ability (oral and written comprehension, oral and written expression) Quantitative (number facility, mathematical reasoning) Reasoning (problem sensitivity, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, originality) Spatial (spatial orientation, visualisation) Perceptual (speed and flexibility of closure, perceptual speed) The g Factor: General Cognitive Ability - the general level of cognitive ability that plays an important role in determining the more narrow cognitive abilities. Emotional Ability (Emotional Intelligence) - a set of abilities related to the understanding and use of emotions that affect social functioning. Self-Awareness (recognize and understand emotions in yourself) Other Awareness (recognize and understand the emotions that other people are feeling) Emotion Regulation (recover quickly from emotional experiences) Use of Emotions Physical Ability Strength (static: lifting, pushing; explosive: moving objects, dynamic: ability to exert force for a long period of time ) Stamina (ability of a person’s lungs and circulatory system work efficiently for a long period of time) Flexibility (bend, stretch,twist) and Coordination (quality of physical movement) Psychomotor (fine manipulative abilities, control movement abilities) Sensory (near and far vision, hearing sensitivity) #5 Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction - a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of job experience. Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 Values - things that people consciously or unconsciously want to seek or attain. Value-percept theory - job satisfaction depends on whether the employee perceives that his or her job supplies those things that he or she values. Dissatisfaction = (V want - V have) * V importance Pay satisfaction (employees’ feelings about the compensation for their jobs) Promotion satisfaction (employees’ feelings about how the company handles promotions) Supervision satisfaction (employees’ feelings about their boss, including his/her competency, communication, and personality) Co-worker satisfaction (employees’ feelings about their co-workers, including their abilities and personalities) Satisfaction with work itself Satisfaction with the Work Itself 3 “critical psychological states”make the work satisfying: meaningfulness of work (degree to which work tasks are viewed as something that counts in the employee’s system of philosophies and beliefs) responsibility for outcomes (degree to which employees feel they are the key drivers of the quality of work output) knowledge of results (extent to which employees are aware of how well and how poorly they are doing) Job Characteristics Theory - a theory that argues that 5 core characteristics combine to results in high levels of satisfaction with work itself. meaningfulness of work variety (job requires different activities and skills) identity (job offers completion of a whole piece of work) significance (job really matters and impacts society as a whole) responsibility for outcomes autonomy (job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to perform the work) knowledge of results feedback knowledge and skill - the degree to which employees have the aptitude and competence needed to succeed on their jobs. growth need strength - the degree to which employees desire to develop themselves further. Job enrichment - when job duties and responsibilities are expanded to provide increased levels of core job characteristics. Job crafting - when employees shape, mould, and redefine their jobs in a proactive way. Mood and Emotions Moods - states of feeling that are mild in intensity, last for an extended period of time, and Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 are not directed at anything. Pleasantness - the degree to which employees are in a good or bad mood. Activation - the degree to which mods are aroused and active, as opposed to unaroused and inactive. Flow - a state in which an employee feels a total immersion in the task, sometimes losing track of how much time has passed. Affective events theory - a theory that describes how workplace events can generate emotional reactions that impact work behaviours. Emotions - intense feelings, often lasting for a short duration. positive (joy, pride, relief, hope, love) negative (fear, guilt, shame, sadness, envy, disgust) Emotional Labour - the management of their emotions that employees must do to complete their job duties successfully. Emotional Contagion - the idea that emotions can be transferred from one person to another. Job Satisfaction represents a strong correlation to Organizational Commitment. Job Satisfaction represents a moderate correlation to Job Performance. Job Satisfaction represents a moderate correlation to Citizenship Behaviour. Life Satisfaction Job Satisfaction is strongly related to Life Satisfaction, the degree to which employees feel a sense of happiness with their lives in general. Job Descriptive Index - a facet measure of job satisfaction that assesses an individual’s satisfaction with pay, promotion, supervision, co-workers, and work itself. #7 Motivation Motivation Motivation - a set of energetic forces that determine the direction, intensity, and persistence of an employee’s work effort. Effective job performance requires high levels of ability and motivation. Engagement - most often refers to motivation, but can refer to affective commitment. Expectancy Theory A theory that describes the cognitive process employees go through to make choices among Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 different voluntary responses. It argues that employee’s behaviour is directed towards certain outcomes. Expectancy - the belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in successful performance on some tasks. EFFORT -> PERFORMANCE -> OUTCOMES (Valence) Factors shape expectancy: Self-efficacy - the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to perform the behaviours required on some task 1. past accomplishments - the degree to which they have succeeded or failed in similar sorts of tasks 2. vicarious experience - observations and discussions with others who performed such tasks 3. verbal persuasion 4. emotional cues Analysis of Task Requirements Assessment of Personal and Situational Resources Instrumentality - the belief that successful performance will result in some outcomes. EFFORT -> PERFORMANCE -> OUTCOMES (Valence) Valence - the anticipated value of the outcomes associated with successful performance. “Positively valenced” Outcomes are deemed more attractive when they help satisfy needs, outcomes viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences. Commonly Studied Needs in OB 1. Existence (physiological, safety) 2. Relatedness (love, belongingness) 3. Control (autonomy, responsibility) 4. Esteem (self-regard, growth) 5. Meaning (self-actualization) Extrinsic Motivation - desire to put forth work effort due to some contingency that depends on task performance. Examples: pay, bonuses, promotions, benefits and perks, job security, support. Intrinsic Motivation - desire to put forth work effort due to the sense that task performance serves as its own reward. Examples: enjoyment, accomplishment, knowledge gain, skill development Financial incentives often have a stronger impact on motivation than other sorts of outcomes. Money is relevant to many of the needs(food, house, retirement) Money convey a sense of esteem Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 Meaning of money - the idea that money can have symbolic value (e.g., achievement, respect, freedom) in addition to economic value) Goal Setting Theory A theory that views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort. The theory argues that assigning employees specific and difficult goals will result in higher levels of performance than assigning no goals, easy goals, or “do your best” goals. Specific and difficult goals - goals that stretch an employee to perform at his or her maximum level while still staying within the boundaries of his or her ability. As goals move from moderate to difficult, the intensity of effort become maximized. Self-set goals - the internalized goals that people use to monitor their own progress. Moderators: feedback task complexity goal commitment Strategies for Forsering Goal Commitment: rewards publicity support participation resources S.M.A.R.T goals, which MICROSOFT managers are trained to encourage in employees: Specific Measurable Achievable Results-based Time-sensitive Summary: Specific and Difficult | 1. Intensity of effort → → Self-Set Goals→ | 2. Persistence of effort → Task Performance Assigned Goals | 3. Task Strategies → + Feedback + Task complexity + Goal Commitment Equity Theory Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 A theory that suggests that employees create a mental ledger of the outcomes they receive for their job inputs, relative to some comparison other. Equity Theory acknowledges that motivation does not just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people. Employees create a mental ledger of inputs they bring to their job duties. COMPARE RATIO OF OUTCOMES AND INPUTS TO THE RATIO OF COMPARISON OTHER - another person who provides a frame of reference for judging equity. Outcomes Inputs 1. pay effort 2. seniority benefits performance 3. status symbols education Equity distress - an internal tension that results from being over-rewarded and underewarded relative to some comparison other. Ratio is less than your comparison’s other ratio (anger) : talk to your boss and explain why you deserve better outcomes or steal from the company shrink your inputs by lowering the intensity and persistence of effort Ratio is more than your comparison’s other ratio (guilt and anxiety) : shrink your outcomes (take less money) grow your inputs through more high-quality work or through “cognitive distortion” ( a re-evaluation of the inputs an employee brings to a job) Internal comparisons - comparing oneself to someone in your same company. External comparisons - comparing oneself to someone in a different company. One study showed that job equity was the most powerful driver of citizenship behaviours. Comparison Type: Job equity ( same job in the same company, with similar levels of education, performance) Company equity (same company but in different jobs, with similar level of responsibility) Occupational equity (same job in other companies) Educational equity (same education level) Age equity Psychological Empowerment An energy rooted in the belief that tasks are contributing to some larger purpose. Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|1379935 Four concepts are important: 1. meaningfulness ( easier to concentrate and get excited about it) 2. self-determination (a sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks) 3. competence 4. impact (sense of “make a difference”) Downloaded by Nithya Kumar ([email protected])