ACTION Personal Trainer Certification Textbook v2 PDF

PERSONAL TRAINER CERTIFICATION www.ActionCertification.org Table of Contents Chapter 1: The Science of Exercise.................................................. 1 The Importance of Understanding the Science of Exercise........................2 Nervous System............................

PERSONAL TRAINER CERTIFICATION www.ActionCertification.org Table of Contents Chapter 1: The Science of Exercise.................................................. 1 The Importance of Understanding the Science of Exercise........................2 Nervous System.......................................................................................3 Central Nervous System.............................................................................................................. 5 Peripheral Nervous System........................................................................................................ 5 Skeletal System........................................................................................6 Bones................................................................................................................................................... 6 Joints.................................................................................................................................................... 7 Muscular System......................................................................................8 Muscle Fibers.................................................................................................................................13 Cardiorespiratory System.......................................................................14 Heart..................................................................................................................................................15 Blood..................................................................................................................................................16 Lungs.................................................................................................................................................17 Energy Production.......................................................................................................................17 ATP............................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Glycolysis................................................................................................................................................................... 19 Summary...............................................................................................20 Review Questions...................................................................................20 References.............................................................................................22 Chapter 2: Biomechanics...............................................................23 What Is Biomechanics?..........................................................................24 The Importance of Biomechanics...........................................................25 Biomechanics and Exercise.....................................................................26 Warm-Up..........................................................................................................................................27 Cool-Down.......................................................................................................................................28 Motion and Kinematics..............................................................................................................29 Forces................................................................................................................................................30 Internal Forces....................................................................................................................................................... 31 External Forces....................................................................................................................................................... 32 Inertia......................................................................................................................................................................... 32 Stability of Equilibrium..............................................................................................................33 Anatomic Locations................................................................................34 Planes of Motion...........................................................................................................................35 Range of Motion............................................................................................................................37 i  Muscle Actions.......................................................................................38 Modes of Muscle Strength.....................................................................40 Motor Control........................................................................................42 Proprioception..............................................................................................................................43 Motor Learning..............................................................................................................................45 Review Questions...................................................................................48 References.............................................................................................49 Chapter 3: Client Assessment........................................................51 The Importance of a Client Assessment..................................................52 The General History Section of the Initial Client Assessment......................... 53 Occupation......................................................................................................................................53 Lifestyle............................................................................................................................................54 The Medical History Section of the Initial Client Assessment..................55 Injuries..............................................................................................................................................55 Surgeries..........................................................................................................................................56 Diseases and Medical Conditions..........................................................................................56 Medications.....................................................................................................................................57 Using a Questionnaire............................................................................58 Example of Initial Client Assessment Form......................................................................58 The ACTION Personal Training System Health Screening.........................59 PAR-Q.................................................................................................................................................59 PAR-Q, PARMED-X and PARMED-X for Pregnancy Printable Forms.......................60 Lifestyle Questionnaire..............................................................................................................61 Medical Screening........................................................................................................................62 The Physical Assessment Section............................................................63 Pulse...................................................................................................................................................63 Blood Pressure..............................................................................................................................64 Flexibility.........................................................................................................................................65 Posture..............................................................................................................................................66 Body Fat............................................................................................................................................67 Body Mass Index (BMI)..............................................................................................................68 Step Test...........................................................................................................................................69 Walk Test..........................................................................................................................................70 Muscular Performance...............................................................................................................71 How Thorough Should Each Initial Assessment Be?................................73 Personalizing or Designing Custom Test..................................................74 ii  The ACTION Personal Training System Assessment Tools........................77 Body Composition........................................................................................................................77 Cardiovascular Assessment.....................................................................................................80 Strength Assessment..................................................................................................................83 Ease of Movement Assessment..............................................................................................85 Functional Assessment..............................................................................................................87 Digital Posture Analysis.............................................................................................................91 Tracking Client Progress Using the ACTION Personal Training System......93 Measurement Tracking..............................................................................................................94 Fitness Assessment Tracking..................................................................................................95 Nutritional Tracking....................................................................................................................96 Competition Tracking.................................................................................................................97 Summary...............................................................................................98 Review Questions...................................................................................99 References...........................................................................................100 Chapter 4: Introduction to Designing Programs............................101 Introduction to Designing Programs.....................................................102 The ACTION Personal Training System Goals and Preferences...............103 Experience and Goals..............................................................................................................103 Weight Loss Goals..................................................................................................................... 104 Resistance Training Preferences.........................................................................................106 Cardio Preferences.................................................................................................................... 107 Schedule Preferences...............................................................................................................108 Program Design....................................................................................109 Health Precautions to Consider when Designing a Program.................................110 Avoiding Overexertion and Injury......................................................................................111 Signs of Dangerous Dysfunctional Breathing................................................................112 Avoiding Discouragement......................................................................................................113 Aerobic Programs for Beginners...........................................................113 Physiological Factors to Consider in Designing Programs......................114 Types of Muscle Actions.........................................................................................................114 Energy Usage............................................................................................................................... 115 The Kinetic Chain......................................................................................................................115 Proper Positioning....................................................................................................................115 Types of Training Used in Exercise Program Design...............................116 iii  Principles of Exercise Training...............................................................118 Target Heart Rate......................................................................................................................119 Measuring Exercise Intensity...............................................................................................120 Measuring Caloric Use.............................................................................................................121 Principles of Resistance Training (RT)............................................................................122 Determining Resistance..........................................................................................................123 Determining Rest Periods......................................................................................................124 Resistance Training Modalities...........................................................................................125 Periodization............................................................................................................................... 126 Ways to Vary Volume and Intensity...................................................................................127 Overtraining................................................................................................................................ 127 Resistance Program Design Using the ACTION Personal Training System....129 Setting and Understanding Client Access Levels.........................................................129 Prerequisites to Building a Program.................................................................................130 Creating Your Own Custom Exercises...............................................................................131 Program Design.......................................................................................................................... 132 Program Design Options........................................................................................................134 Editing Programs.......................................................................................................................135 Workout Tracking.....................................................................................................................137 Tracking Cardiovascular Activity Using the ACTION Personal Training System.....138 Cardio Program.......................................................................................................................... 138 Summary.............................................................................................139 Review Questions.................................................................................139 References...........................................................................................140 Chapter 5: Flexibility....................................................................143 The Warm-Up.......................................................................................144 What is a Warm-Up?................................................................................................................144 Benefits of a Warm-Up............................................................................................................144 Warm-Up Considerations......................................................................................................145 Types of Warm-Ups..............................................................................145 General Warm-Up......................................................................................................................145 Activity-Specific Warm-Up....................................................................................................146 Passive Warm-Up......................................................................................................................146 Warm-Ups and Stretching....................................................................146 Flexibility.............................................................................................147 What is Flexibility?................................................................................................................... 147 The Importance of Flexibility...............................................................................................147 The Science of Flexibility.......................................................................................................148 iv  Types of Flexibility................................................................................149 Corrective Flexibility................................................................................................................149 Active Flexibility........................................................................................................................ 150 Functional Flexibility...............................................................................................................150 Stretching Techniques..........................................................................151 Static Stretching.........................................................................................................................151 Passive Stretching.....................................................................................................................153 Active and Active Assistive Stretching..............................................................................153 Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Stretching............................................155 Dynamic and Ballistic Stretching........................................................................................155 Precautions and Safety.........................................................................157 Types of Stretches.....................................................................................................................157 Developing the Program.......................................................................159 Measuring Flexibility...............................................................................................................161 Summary.............................................................................................161 Review Questions.................................................................................162 References...........................................................................................163 Chapter 6: Program Design Elements...........................................165 Cardiorespiratory Conditioning............................................................166 The Importance of Cardiorespiratory Fitness..............................................................166 Training Design.....................................................................................167 Postural Considerations........................................................................168 Smart Progression................................................................................168 Interval Training........................................................................................................................ 169 Interval Training Model........................................................................170 Stage Training.......................................................................................171 Circuit Training.....................................................................................171 Fat Burning................................................................................................................................... 172 Muscular Strength................................................................................173 Endurance Conditioning........................................................................................................175 The Adaptation of Strength Training................................................................................177 Flexibility Training................................................................................179 Types of Stretching................................................................................................................... 180 Things to Avoid....................................................................................182 Postural Muscle Imbalance...................................................................................................182 v  Balance, Agility, Speed.........................................................................183 Balance........................................................................................................................................... 184 Balance Training........................................................................................................................ 184 Coordination and Speed.........................................................................................................186 Sensory Function.......................................................................................................................188 Speed.............................................................................................................................................. 189 Summary.............................................................................................189 Review Questions.................................................................................190 References...........................................................................................191 Chapter 7: Warning Signs.............................................................193 The Warning Signs that Can Mean Trouble...........................................194 Muscle Cramps........................................................................................................................... 195 Dehydration................................................................................................................................. 196 Heat Exhaustion......................................................................................................................... 199 Heat Stroke................................................................................................................................... 200 How to Respond to Various Events.......................................................202 Dehydration that Leads to a Loss of Performance and Energy.............................202 Dehydration and Muscle Cramps.......................................................................................202 Heat Exhaustion that Causes Light-headedness, Dizziness and Cold, Clammy Skin.......204 Heat Exhaustion that Causes Nausea and Headaches...............................................204 Heat Stroke, High Body Temperature and Dry Skin...................................................204 Heat Stroke that Causes Confusion and Unconsciousness......................................205 Summary.............................................................................................208 Review Questions.................................................................................208 References...........................................................................................209 Chapter 8: Special Populations....................................................211 Introduction to Special Populations......................................................212 Pregnant Women.................................................................................212 Designing a Safe Exercise Plan During Pregnancy......................................................213 Exercises to Perform and Avoid..........................................................................................214 Safety Precautions....................................................................................................................216 Seniors.................................................................................................217 Exercises to Perform and Avoid..........................................................................................217 Safety Precautions....................................................................................................................220 vi  Youths..................................................................................................221 Training Programs and Supervision.................................................................................222 Preventing and Controlling Childhood Obesity............................................................222 Safety Precautions....................................................................................................................223 Injured Persons....................................................................................224 Exercising with an Injury.......................................................................................................224 Exercising after an Injury.......................................................................................................225 Exercises to Perform and Avoid..........................................................................................225 Safety Precautions....................................................................................................................226 Persons with Specific Medical Conditions.............................................226 Arthritis......................................................................................................................................... 226 Asthma........................................................................................................................................... 229 Preparing for Exercise.............................................................................................................229 Diabetes Mellitus.......................................................................................................................231 Hypertension.......................................................................................235 Monitoring Blood Pressure...................................................................................................236 Types of Exercises for Persons with Hypertension....................................................236 Summary.............................................................................................238 Review Questions.................................................................................238 References...........................................................................................239 Chapter 9: Nutrition....................................................................243 Introduction to Nutrition......................................................................244 Recommended Caloric Intake..............................................................................................245 Nutrition for Working Out.....................................................................................................247 Carbohydrates......................................................................................249 Recommended Carbohydrate Intake................................................................................250 Types of Carbohydrates..........................................................................................................251 Carbohydrates for Working Out..........................................................................................252 Alcohol as a Carbohydrate?...................................................................................................253 Fats......................................................................................................254 The Role of Fats in the Body.................................................................................................254 Types of Fats................................................................................................................................ 256 Triglycerides......................................................................................................................................................... 256 Unsaturated Fats................................................................................................................................................ 256 Trans Fats.............................................................................................................................................................. 257 Saturated Fats..................................................................................................................................................... 257 Cholesterol............................................................................................................................................................. 257 vii  Problems with Fats...................................................................................................................258 Metabolic Syndrome......................................................................................................................................... 258 Obesity..................................................................................................................................................................... 258 Insulin Resistance............................................................................................................................................... 259 Heart Disease....................................................................................................................................................... 259 Fat Requirements......................................................................................................................259 Protein.................................................................................................260 Protein Digestion....................................................................................................................... 260 Factors that Affect Protein Requirements......................................................................262 Proper Hydration..................................................................................263 Sports Drinks vs. Water..........................................................................................................264 Signs of Dehydration................................................................................................................265 Hydration to Maximize Training.........................................................................................266 Supplements........................................................................................267 Types of Supplements..........................................................................268 Nutritional Programming with the ACTION Personal Training System...273 Setting Client Nutritional Preferences.............................................................................273 Prerequisites to Building a Nutritional Program.........................................................274 Adding Custom Foods and Recipes....................................................................................274 Building a Nutrition Program..............................................................................................276 Using the Nutrition Program................................................................................................278 Searching Recipes..................................................................................................................... 280 Favorite Recipes.........................................................................................................................281 Cookbooks and Grocery Lists...............................................................................................282 Micronutrient Analysis...........................................................................................................283 Nutritional Tracking.................................................................................................................284 Summary.............................................................................................285 Review Questions.................................................................................286 References...........................................................................................287 Chapter 10: Legal/Business..........................................................291 Legal Issues..........................................................................................292 Slip and Fall.................................................................................................................................. 293 Equipment Usage......................................................................................................................294 Supplements................................................................................................................................ 295 Sexual Harassment................................................................................................................... 296 Personal Trainer Qualifications..........................................................................................297 Emergency Response...............................................................................................................298 Confidentiality............................................................................................................................ 298 viii Risk Management................................................................................299 Proper Education......................................................................................................................299 Appropriate Training for Each Client...............................................................................300 Limiting Liability Through Avoidance, Retention, Reduction and Transfer....301 Proper Conduct.......................................................................................................................... 302 Proper Training Area...............................................................................................................302 Documentation........................................................................................................................... 302 Selling Your Services.............................................................................303 Marketing Your Business.......................................................................................................303 Determining the Cost of Your Service...............................................................................305 Retaining Clients..................................................................................306 READ—Rapport, Empathy, Assessment and Development....................................307 Customer Service....................................................................................................................... 308 Key Points for Success.............................................................................................................309 Referrals........................................................................................................................................ 310 Other Incentives......................................................................................................................... 311 Non-Compete Clauses.............................................................................................................311 Expanding Your Business......................................................................311 Organizing Your Business......................................................................................................312 The Business Plan.....................................................................................................................313 The Budget................................................................................................................................... 314 Establishing Policies................................................................................................................314 Clients............................................................................................................................................. 315 Advertisement............................................................................................................................ 316 Profits............................................................................................................................................. 317 Summary.............................................................................................318 Review Questions.................................................................................319 References...........................................................................................321 ix Chapter 1: The Science of Exercise Topics Covered The Importance of Understanding the Science of Exercise Nervous System Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Skeletal System Bones Joints Muscular System Muscle Fibers Cardiorespiratory System Heart Blood Lungs Energy Production ATP Glycolysis  withstand the stresses and strains of intense The Importance of Understanding effort without injury. T the Science of Exercise Exercise has also been known to strengthen raining or exercise should be a bones by causing an increase in the bone mineral positive and beneficial part of life. density by increasing the rate at which minerals It is a proven fact that exercise like calcium are deposited in the bones. Since improves a person’s overall health bones naturally become weaker as people age, when done on a regular basis. Besides its use older adults are at a high risk for bone fractures. in maintaining and losing weight, exercise is However, moderate to strenuous exercise has known to improve the heart and blood system been known to reduce the risk of older adults and to enhance muscular athletic getting a fracture in the heels, hips ability. It also prevents the onset and other bones. of brain diseases and boosts Additionally, exercise protects the effectiveness of the immune the brain and nervous system and system. These beneficial results are helps to improve brain and nerve due to the many physical changes function. Research has shown that that occur within the body during regular exercise can protect cells exercise. in the brain and nerves from the Over time with regular exercise, injury or erosion that normally the blood supply to the active occurs with neurodegenerative muscles improves, which causes and neuromuscular disorders like Alzheimer’s the capillaries to respond more quickly to the and MS (multiple sclerosis). This means that requirements of the muscles. Physical activity exercise can also minimize the risk of dementia. also enhances the mechanical effectiveness of In addition, exercise and other physical activity the heart by enhancing the volume of blood can enhance nerve growth factors which are that can be pumped. Due to this, training and known to support the endurance and growth exercise helps the heart learn to more quickly of several nerve cells. This stimulation of nerve adapt to exertion. It also increases the actual cell growth ultimately leads to increased brain mechanical strength of the muscle fiber and its functioning through improvement of certain surrounding membrane, allowing the heart to types of learning. This exercise-induced 2 improvement in mental health also helps to the nervous system, skeletal system, muscular prevent depression. system and cardio-respiratory system. Exercising on a regular basis can also boost the Nervous System immune system, a natural defense mechanism The nervous system serves as the control center used to ward off foreign organisms, viruses and of the body by integrating mass communication chemicals. Though exercise does not enhance networks consisting of billions of nerve cells the normal functioning of the immune system, called neurons, which are designed to convey exercise does strengthen it in times of illness or information. The three major functions of the chronic disease such as obesity, cardiovascular nervous system are sensory, integrative and disease, diabetes and heart disease. Exercise motor functioning. The ultimate is believed to encourage Exercising on a regular basis can purpose of this neural network is strong immune responses also boost the immune system. to gather information about our by increasing antibody and inner and external surroundings immune cell responses. There has also been (sensory function), process and interpret the scientific data suggesting additional exercise- information (integrative function), and then induced immune responses may be an indirect respond to these stimuli (motor function). The consequence of the brain and nervous system messages are relayed back and forth between benefits of exercise. different parts of the body. Because physical activity leads to physiological The neuron is the functional unit of the changes in the body, it is important for physical nervous system and the merging of these cells, trainers to understand more about exercise called neurons, creates the nerves of the body. physiology, the study of the body’s responses and The structure of neurons allows for very quick adaptation to the stress of exercise. The major communication to and from the cell as well as systems of the body each have their individual continuous conduction of signals across the roles during exercise performance and they neuron. A neuron’s main component is a cell work interactively to respond to exercise. All body, or soma, which contains the organelles these factors should be taken into consideration important to the proper functioning of this cell. when planning an exercise training program. A long branch called the axon projects out of This chapter will cover details on aspects of the soma and feeds information through nerve 3  impulses to muscles, organs and other neurons. to be myelinated or covered in a myelin sheath. Shorter branches called dendrites project from This insulation helps signals to be transmitted the soma, bringing information faster from one nerve cell to from other neurons of the another. In the brain, many nervous system. nerve cells are not myelinated All the communication occurs since they are located close across junctions referred to as together. But nerve cells that synapses, which occur either have long axons or dendrites between neurons or between a neuron and need myelin to speed up the transmission time another cell type. A synapse is just a tiny empty for their signals. space between two axons The different kinds of neurons or dendrites from different are interneurons, motor cells. Within these synapses, neurons and sensory neurons. neurotransmitters, the major Interneurons transmit signals chemical messengers of the from one neuron to another nervous system, are released neuron. Motor neurons send from the neurons before signals from the spinal cord or the synapse and bind to the the brain to other areas of the receiving cells located after the body. Sensory neurons send synapse. This stimulates a signal that is called an signals from areas of the body to either the action potential, which travels to the receiving spinal cord or to the brain. cell, called a receptor, and then on to the cells The nervous system is composed of two major that act on the signal in the desired location. compartments: the central nervous system This is how the continuation signal the neuron (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). was transmitting makes it to the end location. The brain and the spinal cord, a long tubular For example, a signal to move your finger would continuation of the brain, are collectively known travel from the brain, through many neurons as the CNS. This is the source of conscious and and finally to the muscle in your finger. unconscious thoughts, moods and emotions. Neurons are usually covered in a layer of The PNS is comprised of all the nerves in the insulation called myelin and are therefore said body, including the cranial and spinal nerves. 4  controls balance, posture and coordination. The brain stem connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord and is the center for the control of visual and auditory reflexes, heart rate, blood pressure and breathing. The entire brain is protected by three layers of membranes called meninges, which are located just under Central Nervous System the skull. The spinal cord branches out from the The four major sections of the brain are the brain stem and its function is to send, receive cerebrum, diencephalons, cerebellum and the and interpret nerve signals traveling between brain stem. The cerebrum is the largest part the brain and the rest of the body. of the brain, comprising 85% of the brain’s total weight. The cerebrum is divided into left Peripheral Nervous System and right hemispheres that communicate with The PNS is further divided into the voluntary each other to control muscles and organs as nervous system (somatic) and the involuntary nervous system (autonomic). The somatic system signals skeletal muscles to control voluntary movement. The autonomic system, on the other hand, regulates the contraction of internal organs and therefore controls involuntary well as thought, hearing and language. The outer portion of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex, which is primarily gray matter containing nerve cells. The central part of the brain is the diencephalon, which includes glands important for the release or regulation of hormones. The cerebellum is located at the rear of the brain and is similar in function to the cerebrum but 5  physiological processes like heart rate, Skeletal System digestion and breathing. Since these processes The major function of the skeletal system is could either be accelerated or decelerated, two to provide form and shape to the body, thereby distinct pathways of the autonomic nervous giving protection and support, plus allowing system (ANS) are present. The sympathetic ANS bodily movement. The skeletal kicks in under stress conditions When beginning an system also helps in producing and responds accordingly, exercise program, it is blood and storing minerals for usually accelerating bodily important that the nervous system be the homeostasis of the body. functions like heart rate, while properly trained. The skeletal system determines the parasympathetic pathways our stature and the positioning of our bones usually slow down bodily functions in rest determines our shape and size. conditions. Our skeletal system is separated into two parts, When beginning an exercise program, it is the appendicular and the axial skeletal systems. important that the nervous system be properly The axial skeleton consists of the trained to ensure that the right skull, rib cage and our vertebral movement patterns are being column; the appendicular skeleton developed. All movement within in includes our upper and lower the body is directly associated with extremities. the nervous system. This process will help improve performance Bones and decrease the risk of injuries. Bones also provide protection For example, mechanoreceptors, for internal organs. For example, the primary neurons important the ribcage protects the heart and to fitness and physical movement, lungs in the chest cavity. Nutrients respond to mechanical forces. and blood constituents are These receptors, found in muscles, tendons and provided to the body from bone. Our bones form ligaments, are responsible for sensing distortion junctions, referred to as joints, which are linked in tissues, such as tension induced by exercise. by our connective tissue and muscles, and they are the sites where movement due to muscle contraction takes place. 6  In the skeletal system there are approximately surface of another, similar to the tire of a motor 206 bones, 177 of which are used in voluntary bike that rolls down a road. A good example of movement. Our bones provide this movement in our body is us with two primary functions during a knee extension when during movement: support and the tibial condyles joint slides leverage. Bones are the support across to what is known as the system for soft tissues. Posture femoral condyles joint. The next is an essential component of common movement is called the support system provided the spin movement. This is by our bones and is essential when one joint surface rotates for the allocation of resources on another, similar to twisting within the body. With regard to a lid off a jar of spaghetti sauce. leverage, our bones act like rigid An example of this movement levers, altering the direction and force exerted is when the forearm is rotated from the hand by our muscles. facing down to the hand facing up. Stretching is the best exercise for increasing Joints nutrition to the joints. Flexibility is the range Our joints are formed by one bone that of motion (ROM) available to a joint or joints. articulates with another bone. Joints can be Increased ROM can provide greater mechanical categorized by their structure, function or efficiency. This efficiency results in more movement, known as arthrokinemeatics. The effective and safer movement. A mobile joint joints that are most affiliated with our body moves more easily through a range of motion and movement are known as the it requires less energy. Healthy synovial joints. These joints Stretching is the best exercise for increasing flexibility means the capacity are held by a joint capsule nutrition to the joints. to move freely in all desired and ligaments. They consist of directions. The movement should be restricted roughly 80% of the joints within the body and to the intended movement capabilities or to the have a large capacity for motion. joint’s functional range of motion (FROM). During a roll movement—especially during exercise—a bone in the joint rolls across the 7  alternating large myosin and thin actin Muscular System strands made of protein. The forces that help the body perform Myosin develops in the middle physical activity are supplied by the of every M line, a line that runs the muscular system. Muscle cells, also length of myofibrils. The actin strands known as fibers, are multinucleated develop a Z shaped pattern down the and connected in cylindrical bundles or points that are anchored, commonly individual cells. A single muscle is built called a Z line, which is characterized from many bundles of muscle fibers by having a darker color than other called fascicule. Connective tissues areas. When stimulation occurs and an run from one end of the muscle to the action potential is received, the skeletal other, binding cells together and giving muscles carry out a contraction by rise to muscle fiber bundles. decreasing every sarcomere. The Muscle tissue is categorized into three types easiest way to understand contraction is according to function and structure: cardiac, probably through the sliding filament model of smooth and skeletal. As the names suggest, cardiac muscle is exclusively found in the walls of the heart and smooth muscle composes the epithelial of other hollow organs. Both of these muscle groups are under involuntary control. Skeletal muscle, however, is attached to the skeleton and is under voluntary control. Due to the important role of skeletal muscle in exercise contraction in a muscle. Actin and myosin fibers and fitness, the following section reports more overlap in a contractile motion toward each on the structure and function of skeletal muscle. other. Skeletal muscle is composed of many thread- Myosin filaments have club-shaped heads like striations and is attached to the skeleton. that project toward the actin filaments. Larger The sarcomere is the basic contractile unit of structures, known as myosin heads, are found the myofibril, expanding from a Z line to the along the myosin filament and give attachment next closest Z line. Sarcomeres are composed of points on binding sites for the actin filaments. 8 Myosin heads move in a synchronized manner a muscle does not need to contract, calcium toward the center of the sarcomere. They then ions are drawn out from the sarcomere and are detach and reattach to the closest active site of stored back in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. the actin filament. This is known as a “ratchet As a whole unit, skeletal muscles produce type drive system.” As a result, this movement by pulling on the skeleton process uses up large quantities of in a nervous system-controlled adenosine triphosphate (ATP). manner. When a muscle shortens, Where does the energy for it moves a bone by pulling on the contraction come from? It comes tendons which attach the muscle to directly from ATP, which is the the bone. The integration of bones, energy source of the cell. The job skeletal muscles and joints create of ATP is to link the cross bridges apparent movements like running among myosin heads and actin and walking. Skeletal muscles can filaments. Energy powers the even generate movements that twisting of the myosin head. are more subtle, which result in A muscle is stimulated When used up, ATP converts to to contract when respiration, eye movements and calcium is released. adenosine diphosphate (ADP). A facial expressions. The number of person’s muscles accumulate a small amount skeletal muscles used during a workout depends of ATP by constantly reusing the ADP and entirely on which exercises are chosen and the converting it back into ATP quickly. Inside methods used during their implementation. muscle tissues there is a storage supply of a This determines which muscles and how many high-speed recharge chemical called creatine are involved in the particular physical activity. phosphate. This assists in producing the fast The skeletal muscles are grouped together, renewal of ADP into ATP. though this does not mean that they function What happens when a muscle needs to together. They can either function separately contract? A muscle is stimulated to contract or in groups along with other muscles. Power when calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic and muscle force are formed by the action of reticulum into the sarcomere. Calcium ions are skeletal muscles. Moreover, muscle contraction needed for every cycle of the sarcomere. It is movement can fulfill several other vital functions calcium that reveals the actin binding sites. When in the human body, like heat production, posture 9  and joint stability. Sitting and standing with concentric muscle actions, referred to as posture can be accomplished by contraction of muscle contractions, happen when the muscle muscles. fibers are shortened. Eccentric muscle actions As soon as the nervous system triggers generate force continuously during regular movement in the body, the entire muscle does body movements and this tension causes the not respond because a muscle has several muscles to lengthen. An example of this would motor units (a motor neuron and the muscle be the movement of the quadriceps when a fibers it innervates) and the movement may person walks down a steep hill. Other examples require just a small part of the muscle. All of the would be when a person sits down on a bench fibers contract when a motor unit is stimulated. or the action of the forearm flexor muscles Clusters of motor units work in unison to when throwing a ball. Day-to-day tasks such as manage the contractions of a muscle. Each fiber walking or jogging cause spur-of-the-moment within the motor unit moves simultaneously. actions that are both eccentric and concentric. One individual muscle might have several motor Isometric (static) muscle actions are a form units and the nervous system may contact many of muscular activity that causes tension in the or a small percentage of them. The frequency muscle; however, this action does not shorten or at which the motor units fire is variable; it can lengthen the muscle. be increased or decreased to help When a person begins body control force production. Force training, the blood supply to regulation is often referred to active muscles improves and the as force gradation—this is what capillaries begin to respond at a allows people to control their fast pace. Experts have determined body movements. By combining that an increased amount of alkali recruitment of motor units and is placed in the fibers to defuse the the speed of their firing, patterns acid that develops by physical force. of neural discharge allow a vast An increased amount of glycogen is selection of weak to strong contractions. apparently placed in muscles to store energy, There are three muscle actions: concentric thereby allowing the nervous system which muscle actions, eccentric muscle actions controls the muscles to work more efficiently. and isometric (static) muscle actions. The This is why the recovery process seems to 10 accelerate during training. Also, not considered a waste product; it during training, the mechanical is a by-product of anaerobic effort. strength of both the muscle fiber The majority of lactic acid buildup and the membrane (sarcolemma) normally dissolves within 30 to 60 is enlarged so that they have the minutes. ability to stand the aggressive According to physiologists, lactate action of exercise without damage. buildup is not associated with Muscle damage is often the post-exercise soreness and pain result of aggressive training, that happens 24 to 48 hours after which can cause a breakdown of muscle fibers. ending a normal training session. When enough In fact, aggressive training does not cause oxygen is present, lactate is metabolized and can a muscle to grow or the nervous system to actually be used as energy. The remaining two adapt. A good example of this would be when types of soreness can happen for a prolonged a person overstretches a muscle. If the muscle amount of time right after finishing a workout. becomes damaged it will cause soreness and Muscle and joint soreness may develop a few pain. Damaging a muscle during hours after a workout, followed Skeletal muscles are exercise doesn’t lead to nervous consistently making by a Delayed-Onset Muscle extremely fine adjustments. system adaptations. The damage Soreness (DOMS) which can last lessens the blood supply to the scarred area for a few days. DOMS can happen when a person because of buildup of trauma; therefore, the begins exercising after stopping for a while— fibers become more prone to repeated injury. the body is simply adjusting to the exercise. There are three types of muscle pain that Skeletal muscles are consistently making people encounter after a workout. Soreness, extremely fine adjustments which hold the often accompanied by a burning sensation, can human body in positions that are stationary. be experienced after high-impact resistance The muscle tendons extend over body joints, training, cardiorespiratory conditioning contributing to the stability of joints. This is or even after cooling off following a high- particularly obvious in the shoulder and knee impact exercise session. Soreness is due to an joints, where muscle tendons are a serious factor accumulation of lactic acid during anaerobic in the stabilization of the joints. To maintain the effort. It is important to note that lactic acid is temperature of the body, heat production is a 11  vital muscle by-product for metabolism. In fact, During a customized fitness training program muscular contraction produces approximately that consists of aerobic and anaerobic exercises, 85% of the body’s heat. various types of muscles are used. Weightlifters There are two different fiber types in the and bodybuilders use fast twitch muscle fibers, muscles of the body: “slow twitch,” or Type I, and which provide brief bursts of strength, whereas “fast twitch,” or Type II. More power is generated marathon runners, hikers, bicyclists and walkers as the fibers of muscles move more rapidly. utilize slow twitch muscle fibers, which do not In regards to fitness training that requires fatigue quickly. endurance and stamina, slow twitch muscle Fast twitch fibers do not require oxygen; fibers are utilized. Fast twitch muscle fibers instead they utilize sugars to produce body are used for strength and intensity involved in fuel for optimal force and quick action involved fitness training. In simpler terms, slow twitch in fitness training for strength. Slow fibers fibers are considered low threshold because normally employ oxygen-utilizing (or aerobic they are the first muscle fibers to be recruited for physical activity, while fast twitch fibers are considered high threshold because they are only recruited under intense conditions. Slow- twitch muscles are found more in muscles like postural muscles. These slow-twitch muscles must sustain contractions for long times without fatigue. They depend relatively more on fats for energy. Slow Twitch Fibers (Type I) = Red in Color Comparison of Slow- and Fast-Twitch Muscles: Fast Twitch Fibers (Type II) = White in Color Slow-Twitch Fast-Twitch pathways) to fuel activities that require lots of Twitch Rate Slow Fast Glycogen Content Low High stamina and endurance. Research has shown Glycolytic Capacity Low High that endurance athletes, like long-distance Fatigue Resistance High Low runners, produce less of a protein made mostly Respiration Type Aerobic Anaerobic Capillary Supply High Low by fast twitch fibers due to a genetic mutation. Sprinters and other athletes that rely on quick 12 bursts of energy, however, less frequently have baseball or throwing a boxing jab, entails this mutation. diminishing braking on an eccentric level. This Within the duration of eccentric (fast twitch) allows a much greater power to develop during contraction, a muscle extends while under any movement. Eccentric contractions are still being tension because an opposite force is greater than studied and researched for an ability to hasten force produced by muscle. Instead of working to rehabilitation of injured or weak tendons. For pull any joint in a direction of muscle contraction, example, Achilles tendonitis has been proven muscles decelerate the body joint at an end of to derive therapeutic benefits from high load any movement or else control repositioning eccentric contractions. of any load. This happens involuntarily, such Muscle Fibers as attempting to move much too heavy weight Protein filaments make up the muscle for muscles to lift, or voluntarily, such as fibers. Warm-up exercises increase muscle smoothing out movement with muscles. During temperatures, which allow for the short term, strength training Virtually any movement of greater mechanical efficiency. involves contractions that are routine action involves eccentric contractions. This efficiency is achieved by both concentric (slow twitch) lowered viscous resistance within and eccentric, which appears to enhance the muscles, which helps to decrease the viscosity of strength of muscles more than fitness training the muscle. In turn, this helps protein filaments with concentric contractions alone. that make up muscle fibers to contract with less To safeguard body joints from any damage, resistance, thus increasing the movement of the eccentric contractions generally occur as muscles. a brake-like force on the opposition to a Muscle fibers are specialized cells which are contraction that’s concentric. Virtually any controlled by the nervous system. The chief movement of routine action involves eccentric function of these fibers is muscle contractibility. contractions assisting in the maintenance of Where attached to internal organs, blood vessels smooth body motions. Eccentric contractions or bones, muscles are liable for movement. can also slow down rapid muscle movements Almost all bodily movements result from like a throw or a punch. An aspect of training contractions of the muscles. Of course there for these rapid movements, like pitching a are exceptions, such as cilia action, flagellum on 13  cells of sperm, and movements of amoeboid of Transportation of oxygenated blood several white blood cells. from the lungs to different parts of the body and deoxygenated blood back to Cardiorespiratory System the lungs. The cardiorespiratory system is an Distribution of nutrients (e.g., free fatty umbrella term for the entire respiratory and acids, glucose and amino acids) to cells. cardiovascular systems. Acting together they Removal of end products and metabolic offer oxygen, protective waste products (carbon dioxide, lactate agents and nutrients to and urea) from the periphery for reuse the tissues of the kinetic or elimination. chain, a term referring to Regulation of pH to control alkalosis and the muscular, articular and acidosis. neural systems. The kinetic Transportation of enzymes and chain is also a mechanism hormones to control physiological for removing waste by- function. products. Basically the cardiorespiratory system Maintenance of fluid volume which helps is the support system for the kinetic chain to in preventing dehydration. produce movement. Maintenance of body temperature by The cardiovascular system has three absorbing and redistributing heat. components: the heart, the blood vessels The respiratory system is often referred carrying blood between the heart and tissues, to as the pulmonary system and is made up and the blood itself. The of soft tissues and skeletal cardiovascular system plays an The cardiovascular system helps with continuation of normal structures. The major role of important role in maintaining function during exercise and rest. the respiratory system is to homeostasis in the body. It make sure all cells function also helps with continuation of normal function properly. This system works closely with the during exercise and rest. The cardiovascular cardiovascular system to accomplish this task. It system is accountable for the following seven also provides a means of gathering oxygen from functions in the body: the environment and conveying it to the blood 14 stream. In order to accomplish the movement of from conduction passageways. Respiratory air in, out and through the body, the functionality passageways allow oxygen and carbon dioxide of the respiratory and respiratory passageways to go in and out of the blood. must be integrated. Heart The primary respiratory muscles are the The heart is a muscular pump. It rhythmically external intercostals and diaphragm, which contracts to push blood throughout the body. help normal breathing, while the secondary It is located in the center of the chest and is respiratory muscles (pectorals minor and flanked by the lungs. The heart weighs about scalenes) aid in heavy, deep or forced breathing. 300 grams, with an average size of an adult fist. All the structures that air travels through before Clients should be advised for medical checkup entering the two respiratory passageways for diagnosing heart disease before selecting are called conduction passageways. The any kind of exercise or training program. respiratory passageways collect the air coming 15  The heart is Blood composed of four Blood transports the hollow chambers. necessary oxygen to tissues Valves separate each and gathers waste products chamber from one from all tissues. It also another and from the transports hormones and arteries and major delivers nutrients from the veins, which prevents gastrointestinal tract to specific tissues. Blood backflow or spillage of blood back into the provides a means to regulate the temperature chambers. These chambers are divided into of the body through its conduction of heat, two interdependent but separate pumps on primarily due to its water content and its flow both sides. The interatrial spectum separates path. Blood travels close to the skin which helps these two pumps. Each side of the heart has to give off heat or cool the skin, depending on the two chambers: an atrium and a ventricle. The environment. The regulation of the body’s water right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood content and acid balance is based on pH values coming from the right atrium then pumps and is dependent on the blood. The clotting the deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The mechanism of blood provides protection from reoxygenated blood coming from the lungs is excessive blood loss by sealing off damaged received by the left atrium and then goes to the tissue. Blood also generates specialized immune left ventricle. When the left ventricle contracts, it cells to fight against foreign toxins within pushes the blood from the heart and distributes the body, leading to a decrease in illnesses. it to the body’s tissues. The amount of Ironically, by the same blood pumped out with each contraction mechanism, blood can of the ventricle is known as the stroke promote the spread of volume. Additionally, an adequate foreign organisms that oxygen supply is critical for myocardium invade the body. because, compared to skeletal muscle, The ventricles of the heart tissue has a very limited ability to heart pump and disperse generate energy anaerobically. the blood throughout 16 the body. Simultaneously the blood is also re- is saturated by the lungs with incoming oxygen. entering the heart. For proper circulation of Breathing, or ventilation, is the actual process of blood throughout the body and back to the moving air in and out of the body. heart there must be a network through which Breathing is divided into two phases: inspiration blood can travel. This network is composed and expiration. Inspiratory ventilation is active of blood vessels. Arteries are the vessels that while expiratory ventilation can be both active carry blood from the heart to the entire body. and passive. When you inhale the diaphragm Arteries are typically large and elastic and are contracts and flattens out. Also the rib muscles further divided into medium-sized muscular lift the ribs up and outward. Thus the lungs get arteries, which again branch into small more space to grow larger and fill up with air. arteries called arterioles. These arterioles are The process is reversed during expiration. The again divided into capillaries, which help the diaphragm relaxes, moves up and pushes the air exchange of nutrients, oxygen, waste products out of the lungs. The rib muscles also relax and and hormones. Veins are the blood vessels they move in. Now the lungs have smaller space, that carry blood back to the heart. The waste causing the air to push out. products collected in capillaries are transported Patients having problems with their lungs for cleaning purposes by the veins. find difficulty with exercise. Training helps to strengthen the lungs and muscles, improve Lungs endurance and reduce breathlessness. The two lungs, located in the chest cavity, are essential respiratory organs. Though humans Energy Production have two lungs, they are non-identical and differ Energy is the capacity to do work. Chemical in size. The left lung is typically smaller than the energy obtained from food is converted to right lung. Lungs bring mechanical energy that oxygen into the body then fuels physical activity, and remove carbon often in the form of muscle dioxide from the body. contractions. When energy Deoxygenated blood is used, it is referred to as coming from the right AN energy utilizing reaction. ventricle of the heart In other words, energy is 17  collected from an energy utilizing source (the Oxidative energy production is the major source breakdown of food) by some storage unit and of energy for greater than two minutes worth of then transferred to a site that can use this energy. activity. Energy is generated from fat, carbohydrates The ATP-CP system is inefficient in producing and protein gathered from consumed food, and large amounts of ATP so training these systems it can be produced aerobically (with oxygen) and is neither easy nor enjoyable for most clients. anaerobically (without oxygen). The intensity The glycolytic system can generate a greater of activity determines which energy system amount of energy than the ATP-CP system but will predominate. The aerobic energy system it is very limited. Many training programs give contributes toward certain goals, more importance to this system while the anaerobic system can Energy is generated from fat, compared to the ATP-CP system carbohydrates and protein. be trained for other goals. There because a typical repetition are three energy systems for the body which range of 8 to 12 repetitions falls within this are: time frame. For long-term energy an oxidative Immediate Energy (ATP-CP system) system is needed. It depends mainly on fats and Short term Energy (Lactic acid or carbohydrates for generating ATP. Energy is Glycolytic system) produced more slowly in this system compared Long term energy (Aerobic or Oxidative to other systems, because it requires a larger system) a