A-Smarter-Way-to-Learn-JavaScript-The-new-approach-that-uses-technology-to-cut-your-effort-in-half.pdf

A Smarter Way to Learn JavaScript The new approach that uses technology to cut your effort in half Mark Myers copyright © 2013 by Mark Myers 2  Chapters 1. Alerts 2. Variables for St...

A Smarter Way to Learn JavaScript The new approach that uses technology to cut your effort in half Mark Myers copyright © 2013 by Mark Myers 2  Chapters 1. Alerts 2. Variables for Strings 3. Variables for Numbers 4. Variable Names Legal and Illegal 5. Math Expressions: familiar operators 6. Math Expressions: unfamiliar operators 7. Math Expressions: eliminating ambiguity 8. Concatenating text strings 9. Prompts 10. if statements 11. Comparison operators 12. if...else and else if statements 13. Testing sets of conditions 14. if statements nested 15. Arrays 16. Arrays: adding and removing elements 17. Arrays: removing, inserting, and extracting elements 18. for loops 19. for loops: flags, Booleans, array length, and breaks 20. for loops nested 21. Changing case 22. Strings: measuring length and extracting parts 23. Strings: finding segments 24. Strings: finding a character at a location 25. Strings: replacing characters 26. Rounding numbers 27. Generating random numbers 28. Converting strings to integers and decimals 29. Converting strings to numbers, numbers to strings 30. Controlling the length of decimals 31. Getting the current date and time 32. Extracting parts of the date and time 33. Specifying a date and time 34. Changing elements of a date and time 35. Functions 36. Functions: passing them data 37. Functions: passing data back from them 38. Functions: local vs. global variables 39. switch statements: how to start them 40. switch statements: how to complete them 3 41. while loops 42. do...while loops 43. Placing scripts 44. Commenting 45. Events: link 46. Events: button 47. Events: mouse 48. Events: fields 49. Reading field values 50. Setting field values 51. Reading and setting paragraph text 52. Manipulating images and text 53. Swapping images 54. Swapping images and setting classes 55. Setting styles 56. Target all elements by tag name 57. Target some elements by tag name 58. The DOM 59. The DOM: Parents and children 60. The DOM: Finding children 61. The DOM: Junk artifacts and nodeType 62. The DOM: More ways to target elements 63. The DOM: Getting a target's name 64. The DOM: Counting elements 65. The DOM: Attributes 66. The DOM: Attribute names and values 67. The DOM: Adding nodes 68. The DOM: Inserting nodes 69. Objects 70. Objects: Properties 71. Objects: Methods 72. Objects: Constructors 73. Objects: Constructors for methods 74. Objects: Prototypes 75. Objects: Checking for properties and methods 76. Browser control: Getting and setting the URL 77. Browser control: Getting and setting the URL another way 78. Browser control: Forward and reverse 79. Browser control: Filling the window with content 80. Browser control: Controlling the window's size and location 81. Browser control: Testing for popup blockers 82. Form validation: text fields 4 83. Form validation: drop-downs 84. Form validation: radio buttons 85. Form validation: ZIP codes 86. Form validation: email 87. Exceptions: try and catch 88. Exceptions: throw 89. Handling events within JavaScript 5  How I propose to cut your effort in half by using technology. When you set out to learn anything as complicated as JavaScript, you sign up for some heavy cognitive lifting. If I had to guess, I'd say the whole project of teaching yourself a language burns at least a large garden-cart load of brain glucose. But here's what you may not realize: When you teach yourself, your cognitive load doubles. Yes, all the information is right there in the book if the author has done a good job. But learning a language entails far more than reading some information. You need to commit the information to memory, which requires some kind of plan. You need to practice. How are you going to structure that? And you need some way to correct yourself when you go off-course. Since a book isn't the best way to help you with these tasks, most authors don't even try. Which means all the work of designing a learning path for yourself is left to you. And this do-it- yourself meta-learning, this struggle with the question of how to master what the book is telling you, takes more effort than the learning itself. Traditionally, a live instructor bridges the gap between reading and learning. Taking a comprehensive course or working one-on-one with a mentor is still the best way to learn JavaScript if you have the time and can afford it. But, as long as many people prefer to learn on their own, why not use the latest technology as a substitute teacher? Let the book lay out the principles. Then use an interactive program for memorization, practice, and correction. When the computer gets into the act, you'll learn twice as fast, with half the effort. It's a smarter way to learn JavaScript. It's a smarter way to learn anything. And as long as we're embracing new technology, why not use all the tech we can get our hands on to optimize the book? Old technology—i.e. the paper book—has severe limitations from an instructional point of view. New technology—i.e. the ebook—is the way to go, for many reasons. Here are a few: Color is a marvelous information tool. That's why they use it for traffic lights. But printing color on paper multiplies the cost. Thanks to killer setup charges, printing this single word —color—in a print-on-demand book adds thirty dollars to the retail price. So color is usually out, or else the book is priced as a luxury item. With an ebook, color is free. Paper itself is expensive, so there usually isn't room to do everything the author would like to do. A full discussion of fine points? Forget it. Extra help for the rough spots? Can't afford it. Hundreds of examples? Better delete some. But no such limitation applies to an ebook. What do an extra hundred digital pages cost? Usually nothing. When a book is published traditionally, it may take up to a year for the manuscript to get into print. This means there isn't time for extensive testing on the target audience, or for the revisions that testing would inevitably suggest. And once the book is in print, it's a big, 6 expensive deal to issue revised editions. Publishers put it off as long as possible. Reader feedback usually doesn't lead to improvements for years. An ebook can go from manuscript to book in a day, leaving lots of time for testing and revision. After it's published, new editions with improvements based on reader feedback can come out as often as the author likes, at no cost. With all this going for them, is there any doubt that all the best instructional books are going to be ebooks? And would anyone deny that the most helpful thing an author can do for you, in addition to publishing a good book electronically, is to take on the whole teaching job, not just part of it, by adding interactivity to help you with memorization, practice, and correction? Here, then, is how I propose to use current technology to help you learn JavaScript in half the time, with half the effort. Cognitive portion control. Testing showed me that when they're doing hard-core learning, even strong-minded people get tired faster than I would have expected. You may be able to read a novel for two hours at a stretch, but when you're studying something new and complicated, it's a whole different ballgame. My testing revealed that studying new material for about ten minutes is the limit, before most learners start to fade. But here's the good news: Even when you've entered the fatigue zone after ten minutes of studying, you've still got the mental wherewithal to practice for up to thirty minutes. Practice that's designed correctly takes less effort than studying, yet teaches you more. Reading a little and practicing a lot is the fastest way to learn. 500 coding examples that cover every aspect of what you're learning. Examples make concepts easy to grasp and focus your attention on the key material covered in each chapter. Color cues embedded in the code help you commit rules to memory. Did I go overboard and put in more examples that you need? Well, if things get too easy for you, just skip some them. Tested on naive users. The book includes many rounds of revisions based on feedback from programming beginners. It includes extra-help discussions to clarify concepts that proved to be stumbling blocks during testing. Among the testers: my technophobe wife, who discovered that, with good instruction, she could code—and was surprised to find that she enjoyed it. For that matter, I got a few surprises myself. Some things that are simple to me turned out not to be not so simple to some readers. Rewriting ensued. Free interactive coding exercises paired with each chapter—1,750 of them in all. They're the feature that testers say helps them the most. No surprise there. According to the New York Times, psychologists "have shown that taking a test—say, writing down all you can remember from a studied prose passage—can deepen the memory of that passage better than further study." I would venture that this goes double when you're learning to code. After reading each chapter, go online and practice everything you learned. Each chapter ends with a link to its accompanying online exercises. Find an index of all the exercises at http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/. 7 Live coding experience. In scripting, the best reward is seeing your code run flawlessly. Most practice sessions include live coding exercises that let you see your scripts execute in the browser. 8  How to use this book This isn't a book quite like any you've ever owned before, so a brief user manual might be helpful. Study, practice, then rest. If you're intent on mastering the fundamentals of JavaScript, as opposed to just getting a feel for the language, work with this book and the online exercises in a 15-to-30-minute session, then take a break. Study a chapter for 5 to 10 minutes. Immediately go online at http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js and code for 10 to 20 minutes, practicing the lesson until you've coded everything correctly. Then go for a walk. Use the largest, most colorful screen available. This book can be read on small phone screens and monochrome readers, but you'll be happier if things appear in color on a larger screen. I use color as an important teaching tool, so if you're reading in black-and- white, you're sacrificing some of the extra teaching value of a full-color ebook. Colored elements do show up as a lighter shade on some black-and-white screens, and on those devices the effect isn't entirely lost, but full color is better. As for reading on a larger screen— the book includes more than 2,000 lines of example code. Small screens break long lines of code into awkward, arbitrary segments, jumbling the formatting. While still decipherable, the code becomes harder to read. If you don't have a mobile device that's ideal for this book, consider installing the free Kindle reading app on your laptop. If you're reading on a mobile device, go horizontal. For some reason, I resist doing this on my iPad unless I'm watching a video. But even I, Vern Vertical, put my tablet into horizontal mode to proof this book. So please: starting with Chapter 1, do yourself a favor and rotate your tablet, reader, or phone to give yourself a longer line of text. It'll help prevent the unpleasant code jumble mentioned above. Do the coding exercises on a physical keyboard. A mobile device can be ideal for reading, but it's no way to code. Very, very few Web developers would attempt to do their work on a phone. The same thing goes for learning to code. Theoretically, most of the interactive exercises could be done on a mobile device. But the idea seems so perverse that I've disabled online practice on tablets, readers, and phones. Read the book on your mobile device if you like. But practice on your laptop. If you have an authority problem, try to get over it. When you start doing the exercises, you'll find that I can be a pain about insisting that you get every little detail right. For example, if you indent a line one space instead of two spaces, the program monitoring your work will tell you the code isn't correct, even though it would still run perfectly. Do I insist on having everything just so because I'm a control freak? No, it's because I have to place a limit on harmless maverick behavior in order to automate the 9 exercises. If I were to grant you as much freedom as you might like, creating the algorithms that check your work would be, for me, a project of driverless-car proportions. Besides, learning to write code with fastidious precision helps you learn to pay close attention to details, a fundamental requirement for coding in any language. Subscribe, temporarily, to my formatting biases. Current code formatting is like seventeenth-century spelling. Everyone does it his own way. There are no universally accepted standards. But the algorithms that check your work when you do the interactive exercises need standards. They can't grant you the latitude that a human teacher could, because, let's face it, they aren't that bright. So I've had to settle on certain conventions. All of the conventions I teach are embraced by a large segment of the coding community, so you'll be in good company. But that doesn't mean you'll be married to my formatting biases forever. When you begin coding projects, you'll soon develop your own opinions or join an organization that has a stylebook. Until then, I'll ask you to make your code look like my code. Email me with any problems or questions. The book and exercises have been tested on many learners, but haven't been tested on you. If you hit a snag, if you're just curious about something, or if I've found some way to give you fits, email me at [email protected]. I'll be happy to hear from you. I'll reply promptly. And, with your help, I'll probably learn something that improves the next edition. 10  1 Alerts An alert is a box that pops up to give the user a message. Here's code for an alert that displays the message "Thanks for your input!" alert("Thanks for your input!"); alert is a keyword—that is, a word that has special meaning for JavaScript. It means, "Display, in an alert box, the message that follows." Note that alert isn't capitalized. If you capitalize it, the script will stop. The parentheses are a special requirement of JavaScript, one that you'll soon get used to. You'll be typing parens over and over again, in all kinds of JavaScript statements. In coding, the quoted text "Thanks for your input!" is called a text string or simply a string. The name makes sense: it's a string of characters enclosed in quotes. Outside the coding world, we'd just call it a quotation. Note that the opening parenthesis is jammed up against the keyword, and the opening quotation mark is hugging the opening parenthesis. Since JavaScript ignores spaces (except in text strings), you could write... alert ( "Thanks for your input!" ); But I want you to know the style conventions of JavaScript, so I'll ask you to always omit spaces before and after parentheses. In English, a careful writer ends every declarative sentence with a period. In scripting, a careful coder ends every statement with a semicolon. (Sometimes complex, paragraph-like statements end with a curly bracket instead of a semicolon. That's something I'll cover in a later chapter.) A semicolon isn't always necessary, but it's easier to end every statement with a semicolon, rather than stop to figure out whether you need one. In this training, I'll ask you to end every statement (that doesn't end with a curly bracket) with a semicolon. Some coders write window.alert instead of, simply, alert. This is a highly formal but perfectly correct way to write it. Most coders prefer the short form. We'll stick to the short form in this training. In the example above, some coders would use single rather than double quotation marks. This is legal, as long as it's a matching pair. But in a case like this, I'll ask you to use double quotation marks. 11 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/1.html 12  2 Variables for Strings Please memorize the following facts. My name is Mark. My nationality is U.S. Now that you've memorized my name and nationality, I won't have to repeat them, literally, again. If I say to you, "You probably know other people who have my name," you'll know I'm referring to "Mark." If I ask you whether my nationality is the same as yours, I won't have to ask, "Is your nationality the same as U.S.?" I'll ask, "Is your nationality the same as my nationality?" You'll remember that when I say "my nationality," I'm referring to "U.S.", and you'll compare your nationality to "U.S.", even though I haven't said "U.S." explicitly. In these examples, the terms "my name" and "my nationality" work the same way JavaScript variables do. My name is a term that refers to a particular value, "Mark." In the same way, a variable is a word that refers to a particular value. A variable is created when you write var (for variable) followed by the name that you choose to give it. It takes on a particular value when you assign the value to it. This is a JavaScript statement that creates the variable name and assigns the value "Mark" to it. var name = "Mark"; Now the variable name refers to the text string "Mark". Note that it was my choice to call it name. I could have called it myName, xyz, lol, or something else. It's up to me how to name my variables, within limits. With the string "Mark" assigned to the variable name, my JavaScript code doesn't have to specify "Mark" again. Whenever JavaScript encounters name, JavaScript knows that it's a variable that refers to "Mark". For example, if you ask JavaScript to print name, it remembers the value that name refers to, and prints... Mark The value that a variable refers to can change. Let's get back to the original examples, the facts I asked you to memorize. These facts can change, and if they do, the terms my name and my nationality will refer to new values. I could go to court and change my name to Ace. Then my name is no longer Mark. If I want you to address me correctly, I'll have to tell you that my name is now Ace. After I tell you that, you'll know that my name doesn't refer to the value it used to refer to (Mark), but refers to 13 a new value (Ace). If I transfer my nationality to U.K., my nationality is no longer U.S. It's U.K. If I want you to know my nationality, I'll have to tell you that it is now U.K. After I tell you that, you'll know that my nationality doesn't refer to the original value, "U.S.", but now refers to a new value. JavaScript variables can also change. If I code... var name = "Mark"; name refers to "Mark". Then I come along and code the line... name = "Ace"; Before I coded the new line, if I asked JavaScript to print name, it printed... Mark But that was then. Now if I ask JavaScript to print name, it prints... Ace A variable can have any number of values, but only one at a time. You may be wondering why, in the statement above that assigns "Ace" to name, the keyword var is missing. It's because the variable was declared earlier, in the original statement that assigned "Mark" to it. Remember, var is the keyword that creates a variable— the keyword that declares it. Once a variable has been declared, you don't have to declare it again. You can just assign the new value to it. You can declare a variable in one statement, leaving it undefined. Then you can assign a value to it in a later statement, without declaring it again. var nationality; nationality = "U.S."; In the example above, the assignment statement follows the declaration statement immediately. But any amount of code can separate the two statements, as long as the declaration statement comes first. In fact, there's no law that says you have to ever define a variable that you've declared. JavaScript variable names have no inherent meaning to JavaScript. In English, words have meaning. You can't use just any word to communicate. I can say, "My name is Mark," but, if I want to be understood, I can't say, "My floogle is Mark." That's nonsense. But with variables, JavaScript is blind to semantics. You can use just any word (as long as it doesn't break the rules of variable-naming). From JavaScript's point of view... var floogle = "Mark";...is just as good as... 14 var name = "Mark"; If you write... var floogle = "Mark";...then ask JavaScript to print floogle, JavaScript prints... Mark Within limits, you can name variables anything you want, and JavaScript won't care. var lessonAuthor = "Mark"; var guyWhoKeepsSayingHisOwnName = "Mark"; var x = "Mark"; JavaScript's blindness to meaning notwithstanding, when it comes to variable names, you'll want to give your variables meaningful names, because it'll help you and other coders understand your code. Again, the syntactic difference between variables and text strings is that variables are never enclosed in quotes, and text strings are always enclosed in quotes. It's always... var lastName = "Smith"; var cityOfOrigin = "New Orleans"; var aussieGreeting = "g'Day"; If it's an alphabet letter or word, and it isn't enclosed in quotes, and it isn't a keyword that has special meaning for JavaScript, like alert, it's a variable. If it's some characters enclosed in quotes, it's a text string. If you haven't noticed, let me point out the spaces between the variable and the equal sign, and between the equal sign and the value. var nickname = "Bub"; These spaces are a style choice rather than a legal requirement. But I'll ask you to include them in your code throughout the practice exercises. In the last chapter you learned to write... alert("Thanks for your input!"); When the code executes, a message box displays saying "Thanks for your input!" But what if you wrote these two statements instead: 1 var thanx = "Thanks for your input!" 2 alert(thanx); Instead of placing a text string inside the parentheses of the alert statement, the code above assigns the text string to a variable. Then it places the variable, not the string, inside the parentheses. Because JavaScript always substitutes the value for the variable, JavaScript 15 displays—not the variable name thanx but the text to which it refers, "Thanks for your input!" That same alert, "Thanks for your input!" displays. 16 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/2.html 17  3 Variables for Numbers A string isn't the only thing you can assign to a variable. You can also assign a number. var weight = 150; Having coded the statement above, whenever you write weight in your code, JavaScript knows you mean 150. You can use this variable in math calculations. If you ask JavaScript to add 25 to weight... weight + 25...JavaScript, remembering that weight refers to 150, will come up with the sum 175. Unlike a string, a number is not enclosed in quotes. That's how JavaScript knows it's a number that it can do math on and not a text string, like a ZIP code, that it handles as text. But then, since it's not enclosed in quotes, how does JavaScript know it's not a variable? Well, because a number, or any combination of characters starting with a number, can't be used as a variable name. If it's a number, JavaScript rejects it as a variable. So it must be a number. If you enclose a number in quotation marks, it's a string. JavaScript can't do addition on it. It can do addition only on numbers not enclosed in quotes. Now look at this code. 1 var originalNum = 23; 2 var newNum = originalNum + 7; In the second statement in the code above, JavaScript substitutes the number 23 when it encounters the variable originalNum. It adds 7 to 23. And it assigns the result, 30, to the variable newNum. JavaScript can also handle an expression made up of nothing but variables. For example... 1 var originalNum = 23; 2 var numToBeAdded = 7; 3 var newNum = originalNum + numToBeAdded; A variable can be used in calculating its own new value. 1 var originalNum = 90; 2 originalNum = originalNum + 10; If you enclose a number in quotation marks and add 7... 1 var originalNum = "23"; 2 var newNum = originalNum + 7; 18...it won't work, because JavaScript can't sum a string and a number. JavaScript interprets "23" as a word, not a number. In the second statement, it doesn't add 23 + 7 to total 30. It does something that might surprise you. I'll tell you about this in a subsequent chapter. For now, know that a number enclosed by quotation marks is not a number, but a string, and JavaScript can't do addition on it. Note that any particular variable name can be the name of a number variable or string variable. From JavaScript's point of view, there's nothing in a name that denotes one kind of variable or another. In fact, a variable can start out as one type of variable, then become another type of variable. Did you notice what's new in... 1 var originalNumber = 23; 2 var newNumber = originalNumber + 7; The statement assigns to the variable newNumber the result of a mathematical operation. The result of this operation, of course, is a number value. The example mixes a variable and a literal number in a math expression. But you could also use nothing but numbers or nothing but variables. It's all the same to JavaScript. I've told you that you can't begin a variable name with a number. The statement... var 1stPresident = "Washington";...is illegal, thanks to that initial "1" in the variable name. But you can include numbers in variable names, as long as none of them come first. The statement... var prezWhoCame1st = "Washington";...is legal. Conveniently, if you specify a number instead of a string as an alert message... alert(144);...or if you specify a variable that represents a number as an alert message... 1 var caseQty = 144; 2 alert(caseQty);...JavaScript automatically converts it to a string and displays it. 19 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/3.html 20  4 Variable Names Legal and Illegal You've already learned three rules about naming a variable: You can't enclose it in quotation marks. The name can't be a number or start with a number. It can't be any of JavaScript's keywords—the special words that act as programming instructions, like alert and var. Here are the rest of the rules: A variable name can't contain any spaces. A variable name can contain only letters, numbers, dollar signs, and underscores. Though a variable name can't be any of JavaScript's keywords, it can contain keywords. For example, userAlert and myVar are legal. Capital letters are fine, but be careful. Variable names are case sensitive. A rose is not a Rose. If you assign the string "Floribundas" to the variable rose, and then ask JavaScript for the value assigned to Rose, you'll come up empty. I teach the camelCase naming convention. Why "camelCase"? Because there is a hump or two (or three) in the middle if the name is formed by more than one word. A camelCase name begins in lower case. If there's more than one word in the name, each subsequent word gets an initial cap, creating a hump. If you form a variable name with only one word, like response, there's no hump. It's a camel that's out of food. Please adopt the camelCase convention. It'll make your variable names more readable, and you'll be less likely to get variable names mixed up. Examples: userResponse userResponseTime userResponseTimeLimit response Make your variable names descriptive, so it's easier to figure out what your code means when you or someone else comes back to it three weeks or a year from now. Generally, userName is better than x, and faveBreed is better than favBrd, though the shorter names are perfectly legal. You do have to balance readability with conciseness, though. bestSupportingActressInADramaOrComedy is a model of clarity, but may be too much for most of us to type or read. I'd shorten it. 21 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/4.html 22  5 Math expressions: Familiar operators Wherever you can use a number, you can use a math expression. For example, you're familiar with this kind of statement. var popularNumber = 4; But you can also write this. var popularNumber = 2 + 2; You can also write: alert(2 + 2); This displays the messge "4" in an alert box. When it sees a math expression, JavaScript always does the math and delivers the result. Here's a statement that subtracts 24 from 12, assigning -12 to the variable. var popularNumber = 12 - 24; This one assigns the product of 3 times 12, 36, to the variable. var popularNumber = 3 * 12; In this one, the number 10 is assigned to a variable. Then 1 is added to the variable, and the sum, 210, is assigned to a second variable. As usual, you can mix variables and numbers. 1 var num = 10; 2 var popularNumber = num + 200; You can also use nothing but variables. 1 var num = 10; 2 var anotherNum = 1; 3 var popularNumber = num + anotherNum; The arithmetic operators I've been using, +, -, *, and /, are undoubtedly familiar to you. This one may not be: var whatsLeftOver = 10 % 3; 23  % is the modulus operator. It doesn't give you the result of dividing one number by another. It gives you the remainder when the division is executed. If one number divides evenly into another, the modulus operation returns 0. In the following statement, 0 is assigned to the variable. var whatsLeftOver = 9 % 3; 24 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/5.html 25  6 Math expressions: Unfamiliar operators There are several specialized math expressions you need to know. Here's the first one. num++; This is a short way of writing... num = num + 1; It increments the variable by 1. You decrement using minuses instead of pluses. num--; You can use these expressions in an assignment. But the result may surprise you. 1 var num = 1; 2 var newNum = num++; In the example above, the original value of num is assigned to newNum, and num is incremented afterward. If num is originally assigned 1 in the first statement, the second statement boosts its value to 2. newNum gets the original value of num, 1. If you place the pluses before the variable, you get a different result. 1 var num = 1; 2 var newNum = ++num; In the statements above, both num and newNum wind up with a value of 2. If you put the minuses after the variable, the new variable is assigned the original value, and the first variable is decremented. 1 var num = 1; 2 var newNum = num--; num is decremented to 0, and newNum gets the original value of num, 1. But if you put the minuses before the variable, newNum is assigned the decremented, not the original, value. Both num and newNum wind up with a value of 0. 1 var num = 1; 2 var newNum = --num; 26 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/6.html 27  7 Math expressions: Eliminating ambiguity Complex arithmetic expressions can pose a problem, one that you may remember from high school algebra. Look at this example and tell me what the value of totalCost is. var totalCost = 1 + 3 * 4; The value of totalCost varies, depending on the order in which you do the arithmetic. If you begin by adding 1 + 3, then multiply the sum by 4, totalCost has the value of 16. But if you go the other way and start by multiplying 3 by 4, then add 1 to the product, you get 13. In JavaScript as in algebra, the ambiguity is cleared up by precedence rules. As in algebra, the rule that applies here is that multiplication operations are completed before addition operations. So totalCost has the value of 13. But you don't have to memorize JavaScript's complex precedence rules. You can finesse the issue by using parentheses to eliminate ambiguity. Parens override all the built-in precedence rules. They force JavaScript to complete operations enclosed by parens before completing any other operations. When you use parens to make your intentions clear to JavaScript, it also makes your code easier to grasp, both for other coders and for you when you're trying to understand your own code a year down the road. In this statement, the parentheses tell JavaScript to first multiply 3 by 4, then add 1. The result: 13. var totalCost = 1 + (3 * 4); If I move the parentheses, the arithmetic is done in a different order. In this next statement, the placement of the parens tells JavaScript to first add 1 and 3, then multiply by 4. The result is 16. var totalCost = (1 + 3) * 4; Here's another example. var resultOfComputation = (2 * 4) * 4 + 2; By placing the first multiplication operation inside parentheses, you've told JavaScript to do that operation first. But then what? The order could be.. 1. Multiply 2 by 4. 28  2. Multiply that product by 4. 3. Add 2 to it....giving resultOfComputation a value of 34. Or the order could be... 1. Multiply 2 by 4. 2. Multiply that product by the sum of 4 and 2....giving resultOfComputation a value of 48. The solution is more parentheses. If you want the second multiplication to be done before the 2 is added, write this... resultOfComputation = ((2 * 4) * 4) + 2; But if you want the product of 2 times 4 to be multiplied by the number you get when you total 4 and 2, write this... resultOfComputation = (2 * 4) * (4 + 2); 29 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/7.html 30  8 Concatenating text strings In Chapter 1 you learned to display a message in an alert, coding it this way. alert("Thanks for your input!"); Or you could code it this way. 1 var message = "Thanks for your input!"; 2 alert(message); But suppose you wanted to personalize a message. In another part of your code you've asked the user for her name and assigned the name that she entered to a variable, userName. (You don't know how to do this yet. You'll learn how in a subsequent chapter.) Now, you want to combine her name with a standard "Thanks" to produce an alert that says, for example, "Thanks, Susan!" When the user provided her name, we assigned it to the variable userName. This is the code. alert("Thanks, " + userName + "!"); Using the plus operator, the code combines—concatenates—three elements into the message: the string "Thanks, " plus the string represented by the variable userName plus the string "!" Note that the first string includes a space. Without it, the alert would read, "Thanks,Susan!". You can concatenate any combination of strings and variables, or all strings or all variables. For example, I can rewrite the last example this way. 1 var message = "Thanks, "; 2 var banger = "!"; 3 alert(message + userName + banger); Here it is, with three strings. alert("Thanks, " + "Susan" + "!"); You can assign a concatenation to a variable. 1 var message = "Thanks, "; 2 var userName = "Susan"; 3 var banger = "!"; 4 var customMess = message + userName + banger; 5 alert(customMess); 31  If you put numbers in quotes, JavaScript concatenates them as strings rather than adding them. This code... alert("2" + "2");...displays the message "22". If you mix strings and numbers... alert("2 plus 2 equals " + 2 + 2);...JavaScript automatically converts the numbers to strings, and displays the message "2 plus 2 equals 22". 32 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/8.html 33  9 Prompts A prompt box asks the user for some information and provides a response field for her answer. This code asks the user the question "Your species?" and provides a default answer in the response field, "human". She can change the response. Whether she leaves the default response as-is or changes it to something else, her response is assigned to the variable. var spec = prompt("Your species?", "human"); Prompt code is like alert code, with two differences. In a prompt, you need a way to capture the user's response. That means you need to start by declaring a variable, followed by an equal sign. In a prompt, you can specify a second string. This is the default response that appears in the field when the prompt displays. If the user leaves the default response as-is and just clicks OK, the default response is assigned to the variable. It's up to you whether you include a default response. As you might expect, you can assign the strings to variables, then specify the variables instead of strings inside the parentheses. 1 var question = "Your species?"; 2 var defaultAnswer = "human"; 3 var spec = prompt(question, defaultAnswer); The user's response is a text string. Even if the response is a number, it comes back as a string. For example, consider this code. 1 var numberOfCats = prompt("How many cats?"); 2 var tooManyCats = numberOfCats + 1; Since you're asking for a number, and the user is presumably entering one, you might expect the math in the second statement to work. For example, if the user enters 3, the variable tooManyCats should have a value of 4, you might think. But no such luck. All responses to prompts come back as strings. When the string, "3", is linked with a plus to the number, 1, JavaScript converts the 1 to a string and concatenates. So the value of tooManyCats winds up being not 4 but "31". You'll learn how to solve this problem in a subsequent chaper. If the user enters nothing and clicks OK, the variable is assigned an empty string: "" If the user clicks Cancel, the variable is assigned a special value, null. 34 Some coders write window.prompt instead of, simply, prompt. This is a highly formal but perfectly correct way to write it. Most coders prefer the short form. We'll stick to the short form in this training. In the example above, some coders would use single rather than double quotation marks. This is legal, as long as it's a matching pair. But in a case like this, I'll ask you to use double quotation marks. 35 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/9.html 36  10 if statements Suppose you code a prompt that asks, "Where does the Pope live?" If the user answers correctly, you display an alert congratulating him. This is the code. 1 var x = prompt("Where does the Pope live?"); 2 if (x === "Vatican") { 3 alert("Correct!"); 4 } If the user enters "Vatican" in the prompt field, the congratulations alert displays. If he enters something else, nothing happens. (This simplified code doesn't allow for other correct answers, like "The Vatican." I don't want to get into that now.) There's a lot to take in here. Let's break it down. An if statement always begins with if. The space that separates it from the parenthesis is new to you. I've taught you to code alerts and prompts with the opening parenthesis running up against the keyword: alert("Hi"); Now I'm asking you not to do that in an if statement. It's purely a matter of style, but common style rules sanction this inconsistency. Following the if keyword-plus-space is the condition that's being tested—does the variable that's been assigned the user's response have a value of "Vatican"? The condition is enclosed in parentheses. If the condition tests true, something happens. Any number of statements might execute. In this case, only one statement executes: a congratulatory alert displays. The first line of an if statement ends with an opening curly bracket. An entire if statement ends with a closing curly bracket on its own line. Note that this is an exception to the rule that a statement ends with a semicolon. It's common to omit the semicolon when it's a complex statement that's paragraph-like and ends in a curly bracket. But what about that triple equal sign? You might think that it should just be an equal sign, but the equal sign is reserved for assigning a value to a variable. If you're testing a variable for a value, you can't use the single equal sign. If you forget this rule and use a single equal sign when you should use the triple equal sign, the code won't run properly. As you might expect, you can use a variable instead of a string in the example code. 1 var correctAnswer = "Vatican"; 2 if (x === correctAnswer) { 3 alert("Correct!"); 4 } When a condition is met, you can have any number of statements execute. 37 1 var correctAnswer = "Vatican"; 2 if (x === correctAnswer) { 3 score++; 4 userIQ = "genius"; 5 alert("Correct!"); 6 } Some coders write simple if statements without curly brackets, which is legal. Some put the opening curly bracket on its own line. Some put the whole if statement, if it's simple, on a single line. I find it easiest not to have to make case-by-case decisions, so I format all if statements the same way, as shown in the example. In the exercises, I'll ask you to follow these style rules for all if statements. In most cases, a double equal sign == is just as good as a triple equal sign ===. However, there is a slight technical difference, which you may never need to know. Again, to keep things simple, I always use the triple equal sign. 38 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/10.html 39  11 Comparison operators Let's talk a little more about ===. It's a type of comparison operator, specifically an equality operator. As you learned in the last chapter, you use it to compare two things to see if they're equal. You can use the equality operator to compare a variable with a string, a variable with a number, a variable with a math expression, or a variable with a variable. And you can use it to compare various combinations. All of the following are legal first lines in if statements: if (fullName === "Mark" + " " + "Myers") { if (fullName === firstName + " " + "Myers") { if (fullName === firstName + " " + "Myers") { if (fullName === "firstName + " " + lastName) { if (totalCost === 81.50 + 135) { if (totalCost === materialsCost + 135) { if (totalCost === materialsCost + laborCost) { if (x + y === a - b) { When you're comparing strings, the equality operator is case-sensitive. "Rose" does not equal "rose." Another comparison operator, !==, is the opposite of ===. It means is not equal to. 1 if (yourTicketNumber !== 487208) { 2 alert("Better luck next time."); 3 } Like ===, the not-equal operator can be used to compare numbers, strings, variables, math expressions, and combinations. Like ===, string comparisons using the not-equal operator are case-sensitive. It's true that "Rose" !== "rose". Here are 4 more comparison operators, usually used to compare numbers. > is greater than < is less than >= is greater than or equal to 0) { if (0 < 1) { if (1 >= 0) { 40 if (1 >= 1) { if (0 avg || GPA > 2.5 || sport === "football") { 2 alert("Welcome to Bubba State!"); 3 } 4 else { 5 alert("Have you looked into appliance repair?"); 6 } If in line 1 any or all of the conditions are true, the first alert displays. If none of them are true (line 4), the second alert displays. You can combine any number of and and or conditions. When you do, you create ambiguities. Take this line... if (age > 65 || age < 21 && res === "U.S.") { This can be read in either of two ways. The first way it can be read: If the person is over 65 or under 21 and, in addition to either 46  of these conditions, is also a resident of the U.S. Under this interpretation, both columns need to be true in the following table to qualify as a pass. The second way it can be read: If the person is over 65 and living anywhere or is under 21 and a resident of the U.S. Under this interpretation, if either column in the following table is true, it's a pass. It's the same problem you face when you combine mathematical expressions. And you solve it the same way: with parentheses. In the following code, if the subject is over 65 and a U.S. resident, it's a pass. Or, if the subject is under 21 and a U.S. resident, it's a pass. if ((age > 65 || age < 21) && res === "U.S.") { In the following code, if the subject is over 65 and living anywhere, it's a pass. Or, if the subject is under 21 and living in the U.S., it's a pass. if (age > 65 || (age < 21 && res === "U.S.")) { 47 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/13.html 48  14 if statements nested Check out this code. 1 if ((x === y || a === b) && c === d) { 2 g = h; 3 } 4 else { 5 e = f; 6 } In the code above, if either of the first conditions is true, and, in addition, the third condition is true, then g is assigned h. Otherwise, e is assigned f. There's another way to code this, using nesting. 1 if (c === d) { 2 if (x === y) { 3 g = h; 4 } 5 else if (a === b) { 6 g = h; 7 } 8 else { 9 e = f; 10 } 11 } 12 else { 13 e = f; 14 } Nest levels are communicated to JavaScript by the positions of the curly brackets. There are three blocks nested inside the top-level if. If the condition tested by the top-level if—that c has the same value as d—is false, none of the blocks nested inside executes. The opening curly bracket on line 1 and the closing curly bracket on line 11 enclose all the nested code, telling JavaScript that everything inside is second-level. For readability, a lower level is indented 2 spaces beyond the level above it. In the relatively simple set of tests and outcomes shown in this example, I would prefer to use the more concise structure of multiple conditions. But when things get really complicated, nested ifs are a good way to go. 49 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/14.html 50  15 Arrays Let's assign some string values to some variables. var city0 = "Atlanta"; var city1 = "Baltimore"; var city2 = "Chicago"; var city3 = "Denver"; var city4 = "Los Angeles"; var city5 = "Seattle"; The variable names are all the same, except they end in different numbers. I could have named the variables buffy, the, vampireSlayer, and so on if I'd wanted to, but I chose to name them this way because of where this discussion is going. Now, having made these assignments, if I code... alert("Welcome to " + city3);...an alert displays saying, "Welcome to Denver". I'm going to show you another type of variable, one that will come in handy for many tasks that you'll learn about in later chapters. I'm talking about a type of variable called an array. Whereas an ordinary variable has a single value assigned to it—for example, 9 or "Paris"—an array is a variable that can have multiple values assigned to it. You define an array this way: var cities = ["Atlanta", "Baltimore", "Chicago", "Denver", "Los Angeles", "Seattle"]; In the example at the beginning of this chapter, I ended each variable name with a number. city0 was "Atlanta", city1 was "Baltimore", and so on. The array I just defined is similar, but in the case of an array defined the way I just defined one, JavaScript numbers the different values, or elements, automatically. (You can control the numbering yourself by defining elements individually. See below.) And you refer to each element by writing the array name —cities in this case—followed by a number enclosed in square brackets. cities is "Atlanta", cities is "Baltimore", and so on. Because JavaScript automatically numbers array elements, you have no say in the numbering. The first element in the list always has an index of 0, the second element an index of 1, and so on. This is the alert I coded above, but now specifying an array element instead of an ordinary variable. alert("Welcome to " + cities); An array can be assigned any type of value that you can assign to ordinary variables. You 51 can even mix the different types in the same array (not that you would ordinarily want to). var mixedArray = [1, "Bob", "Now is", true]; In the example above, mixedArray has a numerical value of 1, mixedArray has a string value of "Bob", and so on. Things to keep in mind: The first item always has an index of 0, not 1. This means that if the last item in the list has an index of 9, there are 10 items in the list. The same naming rules you learned for ordinary variables apply. Only letters, numbers, $ and _ are legal. The first character can't be a number. No spaces. Coders often prefer to make array names plural—cities instead of city, for example— since an array is a list of things. Like an ordinary variable, you declare an array only once. If you assign new values to an array that has already been declared, you drop the var. 52 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/15.html 53  16 Arrays: Adding and removing elements As you learned in earlier chapters, you can declare an empty variable, one that doesn't have a value. Then you can assign it a value whenever you like. And you can change its value at will. You can do all these things with an array, as well. This is how you declare an empty array. var pets = []; Assume that the array pets has already been declared. This is how you assign values to it. 1 pets = "dog"; 2 pets = "cat"; 3 pets = "bird"; In the example above, I defined the first three elements of the array, in order. But you can legally leave gaps in an array if you choose to (not that you normally would). For example, suppose you start with the same empty array and code these lines. 1 pets = "lizard"; 2 pets = "snake"; Now, if you refer to pets, you'll get "lizard". If you refer to pets, you'll get "snake". But if you refer to pets through pets or pets or pets, you'll get undefined. You can assign additional values to an array that already has values. Assume that the first three elements of the array pets are "dog", "cat", and "bird". Then you write this code. 1 pets = "lizard"; 2 pets = "fish"; 3 pets = "gerbil"; 4 pets = "snake"; Now the array has 7 elements: "dog", "cat", "bird", "lizard", "fish", "gerbil", and "snake". If you assign a new value to an array element that already has one, the old value is replaced by the new one. Using the keyword, pop, you can remove the last element of an array. Suppose you have an array, pets, whose elements are "dog", "cat", and "bird". The following code deletes the last element, "bird", leaving a two-element array. 54 pets.pop(); Using the keyword, push, you can add one or more elements to the end of an array. Suppose you have that same array consisting of "dog", "cat", and "bird". The following code adds two new elements to the end of the array. pets.push("fish", "ferret"); 55 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/16.html 56  17 Arrays: Removing, inserting, and extracting elements Use the shift method to remove an element from the beginning of an array. Suppose you have an array, pets, whose elements are "dog", "cat", and "bird". The following removes the first element, "dog", leaving you with a two-element array. pets.shift(); To add one or more elements to the beginning of an array, use the unshift method. The following code adds two elements to the beginning of the array. pets.unshift("fish", "ferret"); Use the splice method to insert one or more elements anywhere in an array, while optionally removing one or more elements that come after it. Suppose you have an array with the elements "dog", "cat", "fly", "bug", "ox". The following code adds "pig", "duck", and "emu" after "cat" while removing "fly" and "bug". pets.splice(2, 2, "pig", "duck", "emu"); The first digit inside the parentheses is the index of the position where you want to start adding if you're adding and deleting if you're deleting. The second digit is the number of existing elements to remove, starting with the first element that comes after the element(s) that you're splicing in. The code above leaves you with an array consisting of "dog", "cat", "pig", "duck", "emu", and "ox". You could make additions without removing any elements. The following code adds "pig", "duck", and "emu" without removing any elements. pets.splice(2, 0, "pig", "duck", "emu"); You can also remove elements without adding any. If you start with the elements "dog", "cat", "fly", "bug", and "ox", the following code removes two elements starting at index 3 —"bug" and "ox". This leaves "dog", "cat", and "fly". pets.splice(2, 2); Use the slice method to copy one or more consecutive elements in any position and put them into a new array. If you start with an array, pets, consisting of "dog", "cat", "fly", "bug", 57 and "ox", the following code copies "fly" and "bug" to the new array noPets and leaves the original array, pets, unchanged. var noPets = pets.slice(2, 4); The first digit inside the parentheses is the index of the first element to be copied. The second digit is the index of the element after the last element to be copied. Two things could trip you up here: Since the first index number inside the parentheses specifies the first element to be copied, you might think the second index number specifies the last element to be copied. In fact, the second number specifies the index number of the element after the last element to be copied. You must assign the sliced elements to an array. It could, of course, be the same array from which you're doing the slicing. In that case, you'd be reducing the original array to only the copied elements. 58 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/17.html 59  18 for loops You know the song "99 Bottles of Beer on the Wall"? If you're teaching someone the song, you could give them these instructions: 1. Sing "99 bottles of beer on the wall, 99 bottles of beer." 2. Sing "Take one down and pass it around, 98 bottles of beer on the wall." 3. Sing "98 bottles of beer on the wall, 98 bottles of beer." 4. Sing "Take one down and pass it around, 97 bottles of beer on the wall." 5. Sing "97 bottles of beer on the wall, 97 bottles of beer." 6. Sing "Take one down and pass it around, 96 bottles of beer on the wall."...and so on, for 192 more lines of instructions. But that isn't how you'd give the instructions, is it? You'd be more concise. You'd say something like this: Sing "99 bottles of beer on the wall, 99 bottles of beer. Take one down and pass it around, 98 bottles of beer on the wall." Repeat this, subtracting 1 each time, until there are no more bottles of beer on the wall. In coding, you run into the bottles-of-beer situation quite often. For example, suppose you've offered to check if the user's city is one of the 5 cleanest in the U.S. The user has entered her city, and you've assigned her city to the variable cityToCheck. You've already assigned the list of the 5 cleanest cities to the array cleanestCities. var cleanestCities = ["Cheyenne", "Santa Fe", "Tucson", "Great Falls", "Honolulu"]; Now you go through the array to see if there's a match with the user's city. If there is, you display an alert telling the user her city is one of the cleanest. If there's no match, you display an alert telling the user her city isn't on the list. 1 if (cityToCheck === cleanestCities) { 2 alert("It's one of the cleanest cities"); 3 } 4 else if (cityToCheck === cleanestCities) { 5 alert("It's one of the cleanest cities"); 6 } 7 else if (cityToCheck === cleanestCities) { 8 alert("It's one of the cleanest cities"); 9 } 10 else if (cityToCheck === cleanestCities) { 11 alert("It's one of the cleanest cities"); 12 } 13 else if (cityToCheck === cleanestCities) { 14 alert("It's one of the cleanest cities"); 15 } 60 16 else { 17 alert("It's not on the list"); 18 } Conveniently, JavaScript provides a more concise coding approach. Here's a for loop that accomplishes most of what the verbose code in the example above accomplishes. 1 for (var i = 0; i = 100) { 3 orderTot = merchTot; 4 } 5 else if (merchTot < 50.01) { 6 orderTot = merchTot + 5; 7 } 8 else { 9 orderTot = merchTot + 5 + (.03 * (merchTot - 50)); 10 } If the merchandise total is at least $100 (line 2), the order total is the same as the merchandise total (line 3). If the merchandise total is $50 or less (line 5), the order total is the merchandise total plus $5 (line 6). If the order total is between $50 and $100 (line 8), the order total is the merchandise total plus $5 plus 3 percent of the amount over $50 (line 9). Something costing $150 is $150 total. Something costing $15 is $20 total. Something costing $70 is $75.60 total. Here's how we turn the code above into a function. 1 function calcTot(merchTot) { 2 var orderTot; 3 if (merchTot >= 100) { 4 orderTot = merchTot; 5 } 6 else if (merchTot < 50.01) { 7 orderTot = merchTot + 5; 8 } 9 else { 10 orderTot = merchTot + 5 + (.03 * (merchTot - 50)); 11 } 12 return orderTot; 13 } The thing to focus on here is that we declare a variable, orderTot (line 2), and then— here's what's new—after the processing is done and the merchandise total is known, the function returns the value held in orderTot to the calling code (line 12). It passes data back. 119  But then the calling code needs something to catch the data. What else could this something be but a variable? Here's the code that calls the function. var totalToCharge = calcTot(79.99); If you're new to coding, this statement may look odd to you. How can a function be assigned to a variable? You may be used to seeing a literal value assigned to a variable.... var totalToCharge = 85.00; You may be used to seeing a variable assigned to a variable... var totalToCharge = merchTotal; And you may be used to seeing an arithmetic or other expression assigned to a variable... var totalToCharge = merchTotal + ship + tax; But assigning a function to a variable? Well, it's not really that odd, because, remember, what you're actually assigning to the variable is the value passed back by the return statement in the function code. The statement... var totalToCharge = calcTot(79.99);...is shorthand for: "Assign to the variable totalToCharge the value returned by the function calcTot." So now there's two-way communication between the calling code and the function. The calling code passes the value 79.99 to the function, which is caught by the function's parameter merchTot. This variable, merchTot, is used in the body of the function to calculate an order total. Then, through the return statement, that order total is passed back to totalToCharge in the calling code. It's a complete circle. Notice that the variable in the calling code, totalToCharge, that catches the value is different from the variable inside the function, merchTot, that returns the value. I did this purposely, so you wouldn't think the two variables have to share the same name. In the last chapter you learned that when an argument in the calling code passes a value to a parameter in the function definition, they can have the same name, but don't have to. The same applies to the variable that's returned from a function and the variable in the calling code that catches it. They can share the same name, but don't have to. Anywhere you can use a variable, you can use a function. (Technically, a function is a variable.) For example... You can use a function to specify the message in an alert. alert(calcTot(79.99)); In the example above, the alert message is the value returned by the function calcTot 120 when the function is passed 79.99 as a parameter. You can use a function in an expression. var orderTot = merchTot + calcTax(merchTot); In the example above, the value assigned to orderTot is the sum of merchTot and the value returned by the function calcTax when the function is passed merchTot as an argument. You can use a function in a function call. var tot = calc(merchTot, calcTax(merchTot)); In the example above, the calling code passes two arguments to the function calc. The first argument is merchTot. The second argument is the function calcTax, which is also passed merchTot. Within a function, you can call another function. 1 function calcTot(price) { 2 return price + calcShip(price); 3 } In the example above, the function calcTot calls the function calcShip. It passes price as an argument and receives the shipping charge back. It adds the shipping charge to the price, and returns the sum to the original calling code as a total. You've learned that you can pass any number of arguments to any number of parameters. Unfortunately, you don't have this flexibility in the return statement. No matter how many parameters it takes or how much processing it does, a function can return only a single value to the code that calls it. 121 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/37.html 122  38 Functions: Local vs. global variables Now we come to the subject of variable scope. That is, the difference between global and local variables. Some variables have global scope, which makes them global variables. Other variables have local scope, which makes them local variables. Nothing could be simpler, but for some reason, when the subject comes up in books and tutorials, obfuscation often rules. Relax. This will be easy. A global variable is one that's declared in the main body of your code—that is, not inside a function. A local variable is one that's declared inside a function. It can be either a parameter of the function, which is declared implicitly by being named as a parameter, or a variable declared explicitly in the function with the var keyword. What makes a global variable global is that it is meaningful in every section of your code, whether that code is in the main body or in any of the functions. Global scope is like global fame. Wherever you go in the world, they've heard of Bill Clinton. A local variable is one that's meaningful only within the function that declares it. Local scope is like local fame. The mayor of Duluth is known within Duluth, but pretty much unknown everywhere else. So there are two differences between global and local variables—where they're declared, and where they're known and can be used. Before I show you the first example, I want you to set aside what you know about passing values to a function through arguments, and passing a value back to the calling code by way of the return statement. Pretend you don't know anything about these things. I'll come back to them later. Here's an example. First, in the main code, a variable declaration followed by a call to a function: 1 var theSum 2 addNumbers(); Then the function: 123 1 function addNumbers() { 2 theSum = 2 + 2; 3 } In the example, the variable theSum is declared in the main code. The function addNumbers is called to assign it a value. Having been declared in the main code, the variable has global scope, so this function or any other function can use it. So can anything in the main code. The function assigns the sum of 2 + 2 to this global variable. Since the variable has global scope, the assignment is meaningful in all sections of your code, both the main code and in all functions. The variable now has the value 4 in the function addNumbers, in the main code, and in any other functions that use it. It doesn't matter where I write... alert(theSum); Wherever I write it—in the main code, in the function addNumbers, or in any other function, an alert will display the number 4. But if I declare the variable not in the main code, but inside the function... 1 function addNumbers() { 2 var theSum = 2 + 2; 3 }...the variable has the value 4 only inside the function. Everywhere else, it's unknown. Everywhere else, it has no value at all. Since the variable theSum is declared with the keyword var inside the function, not in the main code, its scope is local. It is meaningful only inside the function. In other functions and in the main code, it is unknown. If I write... alert(theSum);...in the function, an alert displays the number 4, because the variable theSum is known inside the function, where it was declared. But if I write the same alert statement anywhere else—in the main code or in another function—the code breaks, because theSum is unknown outside the function. Note: I say that a variable has local scope when you declare it in a function. By "declaring it in a function" I mean that you declare the variable explicitly with the keyword var—as opposed to casually introducing it into the function without var. (The exception is if you name it as a parameter, in which case it's declared implicitly as a local variable of the function.) If you get sloppy and begin using a new variable in the body of a function without explicitly declaring it in the function with the keyword var, it is global—even though you haven't declared it anywhere in the main code. Now, to illustrate a point, I'm going to do something you'd actually never want to do in your code. I'm going to declare a variable both in the main code and in the function. First, in the main code: 1 var theSum = 1000; 2 addNumbers(); 124  Then in the function: 1 function addNumbers() { 2 var theSum = 2 + 2; 3 } By declaring the variable twice—once in the main code and again in the function—I've created two different variables that share the same name. One theSum is global. The other theSum is local. This is not something you would ever want to do—it sets you up for coding mistakes and makes your code almost impossible to follow—but I did it to show the difference between global and local scope. By declaring theSum once in the main code, and again in the function, I've created (1) a global variable that's useable almost everywhere and (2) a local variable of the same name that's useable only inside the function. Why do I say the global variable is useable almost everywhere? Because it's no good inside the function. Inside the function, the name theSum stands for a local variable, so the name can't refer to the global variable. In this situation, coders say the global variable is in the shadow of the local variable. Inside the function, it can't be seen. Inside the function, only the local variable of that name can be seen. The local variable theSum has a value of 4 inside the function, but theSum outside the function has a value of 1000. Now let's journey a little farther into Wonderland, Alice. First, a statement in the main code: 1 var theSum = addNumbers(); Then a function: 1 function addNumbers() { 2 var theSum = 2 + 2; 3 return theSum; 4 } Again, this isn't something you'd actually code. I use the example only to demonstrate principles. In this code, you still have two different variables—a global variable and a local variable—that share the same name, theSum, but now, thanks to the return statement, the value of the local variable is assigned to the global variable. Now both variables have the same name and the same value, but they're still different variables. Which brings us to a question you may be asking: If a function can use a global variable, why do you have to pass a value from an argument to a parameter? Why not just declare a global variable, then have the function use it? Well, you can, but asking functions to work with global variables is asking them to eavesdrop on the main code, and like human eavesdropping, it invites mischief in the form of confusion and unintended consequences. There is no controversy among coders about this. It's always best to pass values explicitly to functions through arguments. Global variables have no place in functions. 125  The same logic applies to the the argument for using the return statement. You can change the value of a global variable within a function. When you do, the value of it changes everywhere, including in the main code. No return is needed. But it's better practice to use a local variable within the function, then pass that value back explicitly through a return statement. 126 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/38.html 127  39 switch statements: How to start them Consider this chain of conditional statements. 1 if (dayOfWk ==="Sat" || dayOfWk === "Sun") { 2 alert("Whoopee!"); 3 } 4 else if (dayOfWk === "Fri") { 5 alert("TGIF!"); 6 } 7 else { 8 alert("Shoot me now!"); 9 } If it's a weekend day, the "Whoopee!" alert displays. If it's Friday, the "TGIF" alert displays. If it's a weekday, the "Shoot me now" alert displays. It works, but it's unwieldy and a little ugly, especially if you have many conditions to test. It's time for you to learn a more elegant alternative that you can use for testing myriad conditions, the switch statement. The more conditions you need to test, the more you'll like the switch statement. This switch statement duplicates the functionality of the example above 1 switch(dayOfWk) { 2 case "Sat" : 3 alert("Whoopee"); 4 break; 5 case "Sun" : 6 alert("Whoopee"); 7 break; 8 case "Fri" : 9 alert("TGIF!"); 10 break; 11 default : 12 alert("Shoot me now!"); 13 } 128  For the moment, I want you to focus on just the first three lines of the code above. 1. Begins with the keyword switch. Bumping up against it is the variable that's being tested, inside parentheses. Then there's an opening curly bracket. 2. The first possibility, that the variable dayOfWeek has the value "Sat". Begins with the keyword case. Then the value that is being tried, "Sat". Then a space and a colon. 3. The statement that executes if the test passes—if dayOfWeek does, in fact, have the value "Sat". This statement is indented. Any number of statements can execute if the test passes. 129 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/39.html 130  40 switch statements: How to complete them In the last chapter you focused on the first three lines of this switch statement. 1 switch(dayOfWk) { 2 case "Sat" : 3 alert("Whoopee"); 4 break; 5 case "Sun" : 6 alert("Whoopee"); 7 break; 8 case "Fri" : 9 alert("TGIF!"); 10 break; 11 default : 12 alert("Shoot me now!"); 13 } In this chapter you'll tackle the rest of the code. The first line of an if statement is followed by a statement (or statements) that executes if the condition is true. A switch statement works similarly. On the line below each case clause, there's a statement (or statements) that executes if the case is true. Once again, the code that executes if the case is true is indented 2 spaces. (The universal convention is that it is indented by some amount. Opinions differ on how much is best. I standardize on a 2-space indentation, which is common but far from universal.) But why do all of the cases except the last one include a break statement? JavaScript has an inconvenient quirk: After a true case is found, JavaScript not only executes the statement(s) immediately below that case. It executes all the statements for all the cases below it. So after a true case is found and the conditional code executes, you need to jump out of the switch block by coding a break statement. If, for example, you omit the break statements in the code above, this happens: 1. An alert displays saying "Whoopee!" 2. A second alert displays saying "Whoopee!" 3. A third alert displays saying "TGIF!" 4. A fourth alert displays saying "Shoot me now." Now let's look at line 11. 11 default : 12 alert("Shoot me now!"); 13 } 131  The keyword default works like else in an if...else statement. The code that follows it executes if none of the conditions above it are met. So, in the example above, if dayOfWk isn't "Sat" or "Sun" or "Fri"—if it's anything other than those three values—an alert displays saying "Shoot me now." Note that default is followed by a space and a colon, just like the case clauses above it. Note also that there's no break statement. That's because default always comes last, which means there are no statements below it to execute inappropriately. In a switch statement, default code is optional, just as else code is optional after an if statement. Without the default code, if none of the cases test true, nothing happens. When there is no default code, careful coders include a break statement after the last condition anyway as insurance, even though it may be superfluous. If you decide to add a new condition to the end later, you won't have to remember to add a break to the block above it in order to avoid a disastrous cascade of statements. 132 Find the interactive coding exercises for this chapter at: http://www.ASmarterWayToLearn.com/js/40.html 133  41 while loops This for loop displays an alert on each iteration. 1 for (var i = 0; i