A Level Core Ideas PDF

AUDIO-VISUAL CODES: EDITING As with other audio-visual codes, there are some specific terms you need to learn. These are important considerations when analysing editing: JUXTAPOSITIONING: how different parts of the footage or even individual shots are cut together to create effects on the audien...

AUDIO-VISUAL CODES: EDITING As with other audio-visual codes, there are some specific terms you need to learn. These are important considerations when analysing editing: JUXTAPOSITIONING: how different parts of the footage or even individual shots are cut together to create effects on the audience PACE: shot durations and the effect these have on the audience – control of pace and altering of cutting rate or rhythm to create effects, use of accelerated or decelerated motion to create effects SOUND: it’s important to notice how sound has been edited to match visuals (parallel sound) or deliberately mismatch (contrapuntal sound) PARALLEL DEVELOPMENT: editing which gives cuts between more than one scene, giving the impression which are happening simultaneously ‘SCENE’ ORGANISATION: Editing controls the order and sequence of events in everything from a TV drama to a news report. You should also consider the uses of montage editing here. SCREEN TIME: how long is devoted to a particular subject in an edit can make it more important EFFECTS: Anything added post-production such as graphics, titling, captioning, special effects etc. TRANSITIONS: most are straight cuts but we sometimes see dissolves, fades, wipes etc. AUDIO CODES in AV MEDIA Sounds in media texts are broadly divided into diegetic (produced within the world of the text) and non-diegetic (e.g. voice-over or score). You need to listen carefully for the following and what they signify: Specific sound effects which are very noticeable in the sound mix- especially if they are selective sound which is sound used louder than you would expect in the real world for effect. Soundscape, which is a general term for any background sound which sets the scene, or adds to atmosphere. Dialogue – the content of dialogue and qualities of vocal performance Score, soundtrack Any use of narration or voice-over AUDIO-VISUAL CODES: CAMERAWORK Like many sign systems, we read the codes of camerawork without even thinking about it. You need to be able to recognise and name different shot types, and you will quickly become familiar with how to analyse them. You should always think about: SHOT TYPE: How close a shot is affects what we can see and therefore directs our attention CAMERA ANGLE: affects how we perceive characters and power relationships or the unfolding of events – positions us in the action CAMERA MOVEMENT: again, this helps us to interpret events on screen – fast movements are exciting and energetic, slower movements more reflective and give us time to absorb what we see. SEMIOTICS 1 Saussure described a sign as the combination of a signifier (the symbol or real-world object) and a signified (the mental concept). Signs such as a print advertisement are complex signs. They consist of multiple signifers + signifieds, which are read almost simultaneously. The meanings created by signifiers + signifieds come from codes – a mode of expression /way of structuring something such as magazine or newspaper layouts and the images used. In cultures, users of the codes which signifiers come from agree on the signified, the meaning of the signifier, e.g. a headline in a newspaper signifies that something is important even before you decode the lexical codes of the headline itself. SEMIOTICS 2 There are three types of sign. You may see a range of these signifiers + signifieds arranged in combination into the overall sign that is the media text. Slowing down this process helps us to decode more carefully the intended meaning of the text. ARBITRARY SIGNS only work because culture teaches us the relationship between signifier and signified. ICONIC SIGNS look like the thing they are intended to represent. INDEXICAL SIGNS imply a relationship you can’t see but is understood. Another useful term is paradigm. A paradigm is a range of related signifiers from which one has been chosen, e.g. within a dress code Signifiers can form chains of meaning, known as syntagms. This is one way in which meanings are created semiotically, when signifiers selected from a paradigm interact and form a greater meaning than they have alone. SEMIOTICS 3: BARTHES Roland Barthes studied more closely the processes of denotation and connotation, denotation equating roughly to the signifiers, and connotation being the signified. Barthes classified the process of the construction of meaning into orders of signification The first order of signification is the recognition of the literal meaning of the sign. In a print advert this might be the individual elements it’s comprised of. The second order of signification is the ways in which these elements are ordered to create a more complex meaning – the product being advertised in a particular way, for example. Barthes also identified the use of cultural myths which are shared ideologies about how the world works. These form the link between the first and second order and myth, known as the third level of signification. Print advertisements often rely heavily on myths about a type of product in order to sell it. PRINT AND DIGITAL MEDIA CODES: GENERAL We know from semiotics that media texts are complex signs which communicate using technical codes. We read these technical codes according to our shared cultural assumptions. Some common terms you will use when analysing print and digital media texts are as follows: LEXICAL CODES: The selection of vocabulary to create particular effects NON-VERBAL CODES: body language, facial expression, mode of address DRESS CODE: meanings signified by clothing, hair, make-up, jewellery COLOUR CODE: colours selected GRAPHICAL CODE: Use of space, organisation of the elements of design, hierarchies within the text of individual elements of design TYPOGRAPHIC CODE: font styles, sizes etc. and what they signify ANCHORAGE: captions, coverlines, headers etc. which contribute to or narrow the meaning of an image AUDIO-VISUAL CODES: MISE-EN-SCENE STRUCTURALISM Structuralism is the methodology that implies elements of human culture must be understood by way of their relationship to a broader, overarching system or structure. It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. A structuralist approach to linguistics was pioneered by linguistics specialists Saussure and Peirce in their work on semiotics, and by structural anthropologist Levi-Strauss. Strauss’s binary oppositions expose how power relationships work between groups in texts, allowing an ideological reading to be taken of the text as they may be normalising aspects of the real world power structures. This is also referred to as interpellation (Louis Althusser) When the audience are interpellated, this means that certain norms, values and ways of thinking are normalised to them and become part of their identity. Structuralists believed there was an intermediary point between ‘reality’ and abstract concepts of it, and sought to understand this through the deconstruction of texts. POST-STRUCTURALISM There is no clear line between the transition of structuralism into post- structuralism, but it’s usually considered to be both a progression of structuralist thinking and a rejection of some aspects of it as too rigid. Roland Barthes’ study of codes and narratology shows this progression of structuralism and he is usually considered a post-structuralist. Stuart Hall’s ideas span both types of thinking. Judith Butler and Jean Baudrillard have both been considered post- structuralists but reject the label and we’d more commonly see them as gender and post-modern theorists. The main feature of post-Structuralism is a rejection of binary oppositions as being too neat an explanation of how aspects of power structures and culture manifest, with one thing subservient to the other. We can see this in the postmodern rejection of ‘universal truth’ in favour of plurality and Judith Butler’s dismissal of the restrictive nature of binary views of gender. POSTMODERNISM Postmodernism in Media Studies means approaching texts as fragmented signs which are meaningless in that they constantly replicate each other. It means seeing cultural products as subjects of systems that attempt to create hierarchies – it treats popular and high culture as equal. Some ideas in postmodernism: Postmodernism suggests that there is no ‘original’ or ‘true’ meaning to an idea or image, since everything is represented and mediated and read by the audience in culturally, socially and historically specific ways There is no definite contextual reading to a text – no ‘truth’ or permanent relationship to a deeper ‘reality’ There is no single unified definition of a text that is understood by everyone in exactly the same way Postmodernism therefore has some things in common with poststructuralism, but pushes these to the extreme. POSTMODERN FORMS/STYLES PASTICHE: The making of a new media text from the meanings of another in a positive and respectful way – homage rather than parody. BRICOLAGE: A product either made from other media texts or signs (e.g. fan- made products are a good example which constitute Fiske’s textual productivity) IMPLOSION: The constant recycling of generic forms and tropes in the media to the point of meaninglessness – another dimension to bricolage. No new meanings are truly being created and forms appear, flourish and die. This can be seen in internet and social media trends. INTERTEXTUALITY: the referencing, either consciously or subconsciously, of another media text. This may be a deliberate attempt to repurpose the original sign, or more subtly draw on its meanings. An all-purpose term for any influence of one text on another. The subtle interaction of signs and symbols, the ‘space between’ texts where connotation occurs. POSTMODERNISM: JEAN BAUDRILLARD HYPERREALITY: Western culture, where we live in a simulation which has lost many of its connections with the ‘real’ world and instead inhabit a commodified version of it, saturated with media signs and consumption practices. A great example of this is augmented reality apps. SIMULACRUM: a state of semiotic production where a sign no longer refers to another meaning but simply to other signs. You can think of this process being like a hall of mirrors. SIMULATION: The world we inhabit, the end result of the precession of the simulacra. In this process, a basic copy is made of something that exists in the real world, a corrupted second text is made that obscures the ‘truth’ of the first, the third presents us with a sign which no longer has any connection with the original and did not exist to begin with. We no longer require an original and accept signs as part of the simulacra. A great example of this is the progression of the fly on the wall documentary into modern scripted reality TV shows. TERMS IN NARRATIVE STUDY (television) Backstory: Where a character comes from – their past Analepsis: use of flashback Omniscient narration: Narration style where the audience knows things the characters don’t (e.g. they see what the antagonist(s) are up to as well as the protagonist(s) Restricted narration: Information about plot development is with held from the audience as well as some characters Narrative perspective: we are often encouraged to share a particular character’s perspective, for example through increased use of screen time or the use of POV shots Narrative arc: The journey taken in a narrative by an individual character Narrative chronology: The order in which events occur in the fictional world NARRATIVE THEORY: TODOROV Todorov believed that the majority of narratives were organised in the following way: 1. A stable situation or equilibrium 2. A disruption to that equilibrium 3. Recognition that the disruption has occurred 4. Attempt to repair the disruption 5. A new stable situation or equilibrium Todorov’s theory is good for analyzing either fiction or factual media texts from some TV adverts to newspaper reports. It doesn’t work as well for simpler texts such as print advertisements. NARRATIVE THEORY: LEVI-STRAUSS Human culture is just a learned set of behaviours and ideas that reflect the underlying structures of the mind. To illustrate this, Levi-Strauss developed a theory of narrative which involved looking at what is opposite in narratives which drives them forward. Binary oppositions can be used to analyse any media text and are very flexible, since they are different in each text, and you do the identification yourself. Examples might be… hero v. villain / luxury v. simplicity / Knowledge v. ignorance / perseverance v. resignation / anxiety v. confidence a mytheme is a fundamental generic unit of narrative structure (typically involving a relationship between a character, an event, and a theme NARRATIVE THEORY: BARTHES Barthes identified ways in which narratives were organised using a combination of these five codes. You may not see all of these operating in a particular text, but most are applicable to any, making it a very useful theory. HERMENEUTIC CODES – used to describe any aspect of a narrative which raises questions/enigmas in the mind of the audience PROAIRETIC CODES – quickly-resolved units of action which keep a story moving forwards SEMANTIC CODES – almost equivalent to connotations in the story – ‘meaning’ beyond straightforward denotation SYMBOLIC CODES – deeper meanings, binary oppositions, ‘themes’ CULTURAL/REFERENTIAL CODES – any reference to a wider body of human knowledge – literary, pop-cultural, historical, generic etc. MASTERPLOTS Masterplots are overarching narratives that are meaningful to a particular culture. They provide a schematic world view upon which an individual’s experiences and perceptions may be ordered They can also be understood as recurrent skeletal stories, belonging to cultures and individuals that play a powerful role in questions of identity, values, and the understanding of life. Masterplots can also exert an influence on the way we take in new information, causing us to over-read or under-read narratives in an often unconscious effort to bring them into conformity with a masterplot. They may be comprised of particular character types, plot events or conflicts that are explored over and over again. Many masterplots have a universality to them – they are so well established that numerous writers have published ‘checklists’ of them and attempted to define them in different ways, e.g. Phil Parker’s story types include such the quest, the debt that must be repaid, the rites of passage, the romance, the unrecognised virtue Robert McKee described plots in terms of their qualities – the maturation plot, the redemption plot, the testing plot GENRE THEORY: STEVE NEALE 1 Neale views genre as a process - it evolves over time as new texts are added to the corpus Genres do often have an observable repertoire of elements which build over time. This may involve hybridisation between genres or the formulation of subgenres Some genres have historic specificity (meaning they are associated with certain time periods) They are subject to change because of tensions of all kinds which push and pull texts The main tensions are between repetition and sameness v variation and change Genres are cultural categories, a way of making porducts undertsadnable to audiences and saleable to producers GENRE THEORY: STEVE NEALE 2 Genre labels are familiar to the audience and carry a narrative image which is communicated and perpetuated by word of mouth (other audience members) and marketing materials The audience have various expectations and hypotheses based on their previous experience of the genre. In order to fully immerse themselves fully in the diegesis, the spectator must suspend disbelief (i.e. ‘buy into’ the narrative, characters etc.) Suspension of disbelief is associated with the two regimes of verisimilitude The generic regime of verisimilitude refers to what is probably or likely in a genre text The cultural regime of verisimilitude is connected with the spectator’s experience of the ‘real’ world. GENRES OF ORDER AND INTEGRATION Thomas Schatz proposed in 1981 that there are two types or modes of genre. His ideas foreground the social and cultural uses of genre and try to address some of its ideological dimensions. GENRES OF INTEGRATION Thought of as ‘female’. These genres offer exploration and resolution of emotional conflicts. GENRES OF ORDER Thought of as ‘male’ – order is threatened and a power struggle may take place to resolve it. Although developed for the study of cinematic genres, there are all sorts of interesting ways in which Schatz’s model can be applied to any media text, from magazine covers to conventional advertising strategies used for gender- targeted products. REPRESENTATIONS: STUART HALL 1 Hall’s ‘constructionist’ approach acknowledges that neither things in themselves nor producers of a text or their readers can wholly fix meanings. We construct meanings using representational systems – concepts and the signs that stand in for them. Since signs are produced by a culture, they are subject to change in meaning according to multiple factors and contexts. This happens through encoding and decoding rather than traditional ‘linear’ communication models known as SMCR (sender – message – channel – receiver) We should not confuse the material world, 'reality', where people and things exist, with the symbolic processes and practices through which representation takes place. REPRESENTATIONS: STUART HALL 2 All media texts are polysemic (have more than one potential reading) Meaning is encoded by the producers of a text and decoded by the audience. This follows the principles and processes of semiotics. When decoding, audiences subconsciously refer to their conceptual map – their own unique interpretation of the world All representation is an act of communication between the sign system used to encode meaning and the conceptual maps of those decoding them. Hall referred to this as two systems of representations. Audiences may take a preferred, negotiated or oppositional reading of a text depending on how they decode it (see audience, reception theory) Stereotyping is commonly used, and Hall referred to it as a form of cultural shorthand Sign systems can only ever offer us a version of reality. SELECTION / FOCUSING / COMBINING Selection means choosing to represent one thing over another Focusing means building a representation through techniques such as repetition or elimination of comparisons Combining is using elements of more than one aspect of media language and form to achieve a desired representation Selection, focusing and combination play a vital role in constructing a representation. Numerous techniques are used to influence how we read a text. The process does not happen in an ‘order’ and you don’t need to write about all three – they are just three ways of explaining how media producers retain our attention on particular representations and build them using media language. Selection of material is essential to the process of representation. Without selection and focusing, texts would be difficult to make sense of. STEREOTYPES Stereotypes are an ordering process, a way of rendering social groups and people both within and outside of our own social reality as understandable. Some stereotypes more persistent than others in both society and media histories. Since society and culture are constantly changing, the mass media is in a state of perpetual flux. New stereotypes and sub-categories emerge all the time while others remain surprisingly constant. The central problem of stereotypes and the media is the debate as to whether stereotypes exist to serve dominant ideologies in society in the interest of powerful groups, or whether they simply reflect the shared cultural ideas of the majority. Most theorists agree that stereotypes are based on a limited set of ideas and assumptions which stand in for a whole, rich and varied representation. COUNTERTYPES Counter-representations can work to increase suspense, promote awareness of an issue, or simply to serve a niche audience. They offer an alternative to stereotypes. Often far more consciously constructed than stereotypes, and structurally reinforce a stereotype by opposing it. Can have an educational role in the media, challenging prejudices and increasing awareness of issues relating to stereotypes. Like stereotypes, they may also appear more commonly in some genre texts than others. TESSA PERKINS (Rethinking Stereotypes) Perkins accepts that stereotypes do not come from nowhere, and that many hold ‘a kernel of truth’ She also sees the contradiction that stereotypes can be both true and false at the same time Suggests that some stereotypes are simple, whereas others are more complex and that they are attached to complex social meanings, both for those who both replicate and decode them. Stereotypes are always held by a particular social group and about another social group. They may be pejorative (negative) or laudatory (positive) TESSA PERKINS Stereotyped Groups Major Structural Groups – these are the largest categories we can think of – gender, age, class and race all fall into this category. Structurally significant/salient groups – smaller categories with a defining quality, such as being Welsh or a teacher. Isolated groups – transgender people might fall into this category or Aboriginal people in Australia. Pariah groups – groups about whom there is a sense of disapproval attached to their status in society – alcoholics, for example, or gay people. Pariah groups can also fall into any of the first three groups. Opponent groups – feminists, the Alt-right in the US. Socially/Ideologically insignificant groups – Apple users, Harry Potter fans. TRADITIONAL MASCULINITY The emphasis in critical studies has, in recent years, been on how women are represented. This is in keeping with wider cultural changes in attitudes to women and their roles which are a product of patriarchy and are historically pervasive. This means that there is no unified theoretical field called ‘masculinism’. However, increasingly theorists are taking a greater interest in male representations. Traditional masculinities are still very much in evidence in media texts and many do not offer challenge to traditional male roles. The breadwinner, the protector, the authoritarian familial patriarch, macho hero. Capable, practical, independent and fearless. Notice how so many male qualities in language to connote positive images whereas those used to describe women are seen as inferior or negative. Able to cope with anything without showing emotion. Physical strength and emotional endurance are key signifiers of traditional masculinity. Dismissive of alternative male identities and may find them threatening (homophobia is one manifestation of this). Traditional masculinity manifests in different ways visually across cultures and varies ethnically. Consider the stereotype of the English middle class ‘gentleman’ versus the black American hip-hop artist – both patriarchal and strong stereotypes with very different visual coding attached. Toughness, coolness, hardness – these qualities are rife in male representations. STAGES OF MASCULINITY Joseph Gelfer produced the following model in response to the cultural and academic idea that contemporary masculinity is in crisis in 2016. 1 UNCONSCIOUS MASCULINITY – the standard social construction of masculinity accepted widely by men and women. This includes hegemonic masculinity, homophobia and patriarchy. 2 CONSCIOUS MASCULINITY – an often conservative vision of masculinity that upholds the unconscious power dynamics of Stage 1. Prioritises men’s issues such as male suicide, homelessness, violence and incarceration. Belief in an authentic masculinity that can be ‘recovered’ Often anti-feminist but not always. 3 CRITICAL MASCULINITIES – broadly aligned with feminism – agreement that society operates via patriarchy and that this oppresses women and atypical men such as gay men and straight men who resist patriarchy on an individual or collective level. Masculinity is not natural but socially constructed and is plural rather than singular. 4 MULTIPLE MASCULINITIES – broadly aligned with queer theory. Masculinity can mean anything to anyone and has traditionally been defined by patriarchy and hegemony in order to assert power structures. WAVES IN FEMINISM: 1 & 2 The first wave of feminism originated with women and men who campaigned for women’s political rights and equality with men in law was most active during the second half of the 1800’s and the early part of the 1900’s. The concerns of women in this time period were mainly about political equality (e.g. suffragettes). The second wave was in part a response to the Second World War and the huge impact it had on gender roles in society. In the 1950’s women were also being freed up by developments in technology from drudgery of household maintenance and were beginning to look beyond the traditional values of home and family for fulfilment. The 1960’s and its explosion of counter-cultural values coincides then with women seeking more equal status with men in society. Another issue very important to women in this time period was reproductive rights, and it tended to exclude men. This wave is generally considered to last until the early 1990’s.  WAVES IN FEMINISM: 3 & 4 From the 1990’s to the present day is often referred to as third wave feminism. Having created a great deal of social change, feminists now began to develop more niche interests that reflect the concerns of more diverse groups of women. Feminism as a unified movement with similar values and aims finally broke down. Challenges all kinds of notions held by the second. Many reject the term ‘feminist’ altogether, and view feminism as more of a struggle for rights for all. Some theorists believe that a fourth wave of feminism is now underway, The fourth wave of feminism is considered by some to be an extension of the third, incorporating a highly visible online presence and use of social media for discussion of sexual politics and maintaining social activism about gender inequality. POST-FEMINISM / RAUNCH CULTURE Raunch culture is the sexualised performance of women in the media that can play into male stereotypes of women as highly sexually available, whereas its performers believe they are powerful owners of their own sexuality. In her book Female Chauvinist Pigs, writer Ariel Levy proposed that the sexual objectification of women in images, once confined to the private male sphere in areas such as erotic art, has become a dominant representation of women across the mass media. Raunch culture plays into the same dated objectification of women under patriarchy while positioning it critically as female empowerment. It began to emerge in the 1990’s, and was possibly a backlash (sometimes referred to as post-feminism) to the perception that earlier feminists were dismissive of female sexuality and saw sexual agency as being the province of men and part of the exploitative nature of patriarchy. Closely linked to the idea of raunch culture is lipstick feminism, which is also seen as a brand of third wave feminism that allows women to portray themselves as equal to men in terms of their sexuality by expressing it in any way they choose. This is seen as a counter- ideology which challenges notions of decency and purity demanded of most women and policed by other women in a patriarchal society. The validity of third wave feminism’s ownership of sexuality through control of their image as sexualised is one which still divides feminists and is an on-going debate surrounding raunch culture. JUDITH BUTLER 1 Butler’s book Gender Trouble challenges the notion that gender is a biological fact which places masculinity and femininity in binary categories. Her ideas had a huge impact not only on feminism but also queer theory. She is widely regarded as both a feminist and queer theorist. Butler’s work opens up arguments about how we perceive masculinity and femininity in society. She argues against biological determinism and in favour of free-floating gender characteristics. Sex is biologically defined, but gender is a performance which people express and exhibit in different ways according to their own construction of identity. Her ideas are valuable in understanding representations of gender in media texts as cultural constructs and are known as gender performativity JUDITH BUTLER 2 Many traditional approaches to gender and the way we understand it in society are governed by the notion that ‘heterosexuality’ can only be defined in a binary way by the existence of an ‘other’, ‘homosexual’ state Feminist strategies which identify men and patriarchal structures as oppressors mimic the divisions and creation of barriers in society they would like to see removed ‘Women’ are a huge array of people. Traditional feminism focuses on unity and tries to suggest that the sharing of biological sex is a trans-cultural phenomenon dictated by reductive qualities such as sexuality and child-bearing which excludes a whole range of other aspects that influence the formation of gender identity Most previous work on identity politics requires a known, categorised identity to be fully formed in order to be included in debate Exclusion and hierarchies are present in almost every debate about gender and identity Transformative approaches to identity politics can only emerge if we resist categorisation and open up debates about gender and politics which remove a preconceived notions of gender an accept less ‘stable’ manifestations of gender identity LIESBET VAN ZOONEN 1 Feminists struggle to agree on a definition of femininity because not all women are the same. Approaches to understanding how women are represented need to be aware of differences between women and their real world experiences who come from different social strata and ethnic backgrounds. Gender is not the defining quality alone for women, and intersects with race, sexuality and class. Gender is institutionalized by factors such as genre and the domination of the media industry by rich, white men. It is also evident in all the ways in which we interact with others in our daily lives. The mass media tends to reflect the real world issues women face, and either shows them in stereotypical roles or denigrates them. This however does not factor in the uses women make of the media – their understanding of it, and other complex factors such as narrative and generic contexts. LIESBET VAN ZOONEN 2 Most people would agree that the way in which the media usually represents women’s lives does not reflect the reality of many real women. There are plenty of women living complex and interesting lives who see no-one like themselves from day to day on television. Stereotypes however do reflect the reality of some people’s lives. This is known is distortion. For example, many women really are housewives whose main role is child-rearing and domestic duties. There is no universal agreed replacement for these stereotypes, so constructing countertypes which satisfy everyone who wants to see more progressive representations of women is difficult. The mass media can be open to the transgression of traditional notions of gender boundaries between male and female. If the mass media could begin to reflect this possibility and go beyond the socially constructed paradigm of how we see men’s and women’s roles in a binary way, distortion would no longer be a issue. There are examples of this, but change is slow. BELL HOOKS 1 hooks was preoccupied throughout her career by the intersectionality of race, social class and gender issues, which she believes work together in differing power structures to limit the opportunities available to black women Popular culture is hugely important as it is where the politics of difference manifest. Popular culture is a site of interplay between the various power relationships which exist in the real world. The individual, whatever their gender, social class or racial background, is responsible for thinking critically about the world they live in and the media they consume. There may not be a direct causal link between portrayals of sexual violence in the media and real world actions, but seeing these images can contribute to both men and women’s perceptions of what is acceptable behaviour in the real world BELL HOOKS 2 hooks believes in the conscious construction of representations, and that media producers should be held to account by all of us for lazy stereotyping. She believes that mass media representations and the raunch culture of the late ‘90’s reflected a conscious backlash against feminism, and deliberate attempt by a patriarchal business and power structures to put women back in their place. Hooks uses the term ‘white supremacist capitalist patriarchy’ to remind us of the links she sees between all these oppressive factors in society. The media industry is permeated at all levels by the prioritisation of the profit motive over fair representation of women or people from ethnic minorities. She believes that the profit motive gets the better even of those who begin with good intentions. IN-GROUPS AND OUT-GROUPS When looking at social groups, an important concept is in-groups (The dominant culture) and out-groups, who are usually in the minority. The idea is prevalent in postcolonial theory but has other applications too. This is not always about numbers of people in a society, but about who holds the power. Women have historically been considered an out-group within patriarchal systems of representation. In-groups often hold stereotypes about the out-groups as a way of understanding their presence in the context of their own group Stereotypes are often based on difference, a set of binary qualities which the in-group may use to compare the characteristics of the group with their own. Sometimes this process consciously defines the out-group as inferior. Out-groups can be instrumental in the formulation of alternative representations and counter-types. Sometimes these can begin to make their presence felt in mainstream media; more often they will be confined to alternative media. OTHERNESS Central to post-colonial studies is the notion of ‘otherness’. We interpret people and texts from other cultures through a veil of alienation, a sense of difference from rather than commonality. This in itself is neither innately positive or negative, but does help shape attitudes to race in media consumers. ‘Otherness’ can result in eroticisation of ethnic minorities and other demeaning stereotypes. It can be seen as an excuse for a voyeuristic fascination with other cultures, and also an excuse for lazy stereotyping. It can also be used negatively in cases where ethnicity is made to seem more important than other dimensions of a character, public figure, star or criminal. ‘Otherness’ can spark interest and cultural understanding by engaging a majority white audience with issues and insights relevant to other cultures, e.g. through comedy or by emphasising commonalities between races and cultures rather than difference, or educating about oppression and social problems POSTCOLONIAL THEORY / SAID The term for a collection of critical approaches which began with Edward Saïd, an American Palestinian in his book Orientalism (1978) Saïd pointed out that a lot of study of other cultures came from a Western Colonial approach which read other cultures purely in terms of Western values, ignoring the complexities and differences of those cultures and patronizing them in the process Colonial readings of other cultures attempted to impose an external value system onto these cultures and almost always assumed superiority to them. They also frequently romanticised aspects of the cultures they studied. Western attitudes to studying other cultures always held their own values to be a ‘norm’ from which other cultures deviated. Post-colonialism is an important field in critical theory and has enforced re- evaluation of all University level study of other cultures, societies and peoples. PAUL GILROY British theorist Gilroy has written extensively about both UK and US black representations. He writes a great deal about double consciousness, the experience of living in a predominantly white culture but having an aspect of identity rooted elsewhere - but also the experience of living in a white culture which represents black people from a white perspective. He argues that the black experience is transnational, a hybrid of multiple cultural influences and forms. Cultural production by black artists does not fit in with notions of pre-defined national or cultural boundaries. The term diaspora is used to describe the blend of different influences on black cultural production (a diaspora is a scattering of people) Rejects cultural absolutism which links a person’s heritage to a specific geographical place in favour of cultural syncretism, the blending of varied cultural influences to form new means of expression. IDENTITIES AND THE MEDIA: GAUNTLETT Argument 1: Identities offered by the media overall are varied and diverse. More than ever there are alternative identities with mass media proliferation. Argument 2: A set of dominant identities still pervade in the mass media which are narrow and can be seen as restrictive. Both can be argued to be true, depending on whether you use a hegemonic or pluralist approach. David Gauntlett has written extensively about the relationship between the mass media and our identities. His approach has been called pluralism within a hegemonic framework, so is influenced by both. He uses the following important terms when writing about identities and the way we interpret different aspects of them: Fluidity of identity: suggests that people do not have a permanent fixed identity, but one which is subject to change Constructed identity: the way in which we assimilate aspects of mass media representations into our own identities, whether consciously or otherwise Negotiated identity: the way we negotiate the various aspects of our identities, aspects of them, and our relationships with other people Collective identity: the sense of belonging to the audience for a media product NEW MASCULINITY It should be remembered that patriarchal systems limit the expression of more than a very limited range of ‘traditional’ male roles – as such, patriarchy can be viewed as oppressing men as well as women in that it limits the roles of both genders and gives artificial boundaries to gender expression as well as real world opportunities. In the mass media, patriarchal tradition helps form attitudes to men and male identities as well as reinforcing male power and dominance. The ‘new’ man. Able to express the full range of human emotions, respectful of women’s rights, more involved with nurturing offspring rather than simply disciplining them, sharing in domestic duties. Tolerant of homosexuality. The metrosexual – concerned with appearance (not just relating to strength) interested in fashion, urban life, diet, self-improvement. Sometimes negatively represented as narcissistic. May participate in cultural activities beyond men’s culture STAR THEORY (RICHARD DYER) Dyer developed an ‘anatomy’ of stardom, a way of understanding the appeal of celebrity persona/star image. A ‘star’ has global or very significant domestic appeal, ‘celebrities’ are usually less famous and may be only really known in their country of origin. ORDINARINESS: We like to think that stars and celebrities are really just a bit like us, despite their amazing lifestyles SUCCESS: WE don’t care whether it’s overnight or the result of hard work, but we enjoy hearing about how it happened THE DREAM TURNED SOUR: Audiences just love it when things go wrong for stars and celebrities CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION: We enjoy seeing how stars and celebrities spend their cash on clothes and image, partying, homes and material goods LOVE: We’re fascinated by the love-lives of the rich and famous HOW THE INDUSTRY CONSTRUCTS AUDIENCES Genre is an essential tool in targeting particular sectors Marketing of media products across platforms helps raise awareness of content Profiling techniques focusing on demographic information - region, age, gender, social class etc. Profiling techniques focusing on psychographic information – lifestyle, self- image, political persuasion etc. Use of data collection and market research to finely adjust these The use of high profile celebrities and stars familiar to an audience Selection and organisation of content to match interests of audience (e.g. news values) RECEPTION THEORY Reception theory was developed by cultural theorist Stuart Hall to try and explain why not everyone interprets representations and other aspects of media texts in the same way. Hall said that media texts are polysemic (have more than one possible meaning) depending on social and cultural background of the audience member, which could be affected by many different factors such as age, gender, race, level of education, lifestyle etc. The different readings he identified of texts are: PREFERRED READING: This is the one you will focus on the most. It’s the intended meaning encoded in the text by its producers. NEGOTIATED READING: Partial acceptance of the meanings of the text with some reservations. OPPOSITIONAL READING: When an audience member completely reject the messages encoded in the media text. This is a disaster for their producers! PSYCHOGRAPHICS: LIFESTYLE PROFILING Audiences can be categorised by their tastes, values and attitudes as well as their demographic. One such method, known as consumer categories, is shown below: EXPLORER – likes novelty and challenge, new products and experiences ASPIRER – materialistic, wants status, appearance is important SUCCEEDER – wants the best, high income, goal orientated REFORMER – socially-aware, unmaterialistic, tolerant, intellectual MAINSTREAMERS – buy big brands, live in the everyday, domestic STRUGGLER – live for today, instant gratification RESIGNED – unchanging values, socially conservative, safety and economy DEMOGRAPHICS: BOURDIEU’S ‘CAPITAL’ The idea of cultural capital comes from the work of Pierre Bourdieu, who theorized that social class could be understood not only in terms of economic capital (how much material wealth or property someone owns) but also their cultural capital (their level of knowledge of high culture). The BBC Social Class Survey of 2015 uses these terms to define the qualities of different social classes. CULTURAL CAPITAL: How much cultural knowledge you have of art, classical music, literature etc. can affect your social mobility. Higher social classes tend to have higher levels of cultural capital – people from other social groups may need to acquire this to enable social mobility. Associated with a higher level of education. Can be things like knowledge of restaurants/world cuisine, holiday destinations, arthouse cinema etc. in more modern definitions SOCIAL CAPITAL: Who you know and their status in society – your social connections and networks ECONOMIC CAPITAL: The income you have from your work, material goods and property you own DEMOGRAPHICS: SOCIAL CLASS New categories of social class derived from the BBC survey of 160,000 people in 2015 PRECARIAT: The poorest and most deprived: people who are just ‘getting by’ (all three forms of capital low) TRADITIONAL WORKING CLASS: More older members, people who often worked in skilled or unskilled labour, shop workers etc. (all three forms of capital low) EMERGENT SERVICE WORKERS: Young, urban, often ‘millennials’, (low economic capital but emerging social/cultural) TECHNICAL MIDDLE CLASS: IT/business/office workers (low social/cultural capital, high economic) NEW AFFLUENT WORKERS: Might be creative professionals or business people (economic capital medium, social and cultural high) ESTABLISHED MIDDLE CLASS: not quite elite but well-off (high levels of all three capitals) ELITE: The most privileged social class in Britain (highest level of economic capital, high social and cultural) CULTIVATION THEORY (GERBNER) This theory of media effects suggests that exposure in the long term to specific types of mass media (e.g. coverage of crime) can shape people’s perceptions of the world. George Gerbner’s studies focused on the consumption of television. He found that increased hours of consumption correlated with increased perception of the world as dangerous. Some key terms associated with his study: ENCULTURATION: The aligning of world view to match what is seen in the media – ‘socialisation’ MAINSTREAMING: Regular exposure to the same political viewpoints moulds people’s attitudes rather than their real world experience RESONANCE: where people find examples in their own lives which fit what they see in the media MEAN WORLD SYNDROME: Fearfulness induced by the perception of the world as a more dangerous place than it is in ‘reality’ USES AND GRATIFICATIONS (BLUMLER AND KATZ) This theory was invented in the 1970’s to explore the idea that TV wasn’t necessarily a negative influence in people’s lives. The theory suggested television could contribute in a positive way to people’s personal and social lives. It famously divided these positive contributions into four main groups: DIVERSION –a form of escapism from the stresses and strains of daily life. PERSONAL IDENTITY – the media was believed to supply people with role models, and ways of understanding their own place in society. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS –People discussed television shows with each other, meaning TV helped them to communicate with other people, and to find things they had in common with them. People showed an enthusiasm and liking for particular performers, regular characters, presenters or hosts and enjoyed the sense of familiarity they felt with them. SURVEILLANCE – TV contributed to people being informed about the world around them through the viewing of news and current affairs, and the consumption of documentary programmes, as well as enjoying keeping up to date with entertainments trends. POLITICS AND THE MASS MEDIA All media texts contain ideologies, messages about society and culture. Learning about politics and the mass media helps you to be able to identify and decode messages. Some media texts contain a political bias, meaning they promote either a left or right wing political stance. This may be subtle or obvious. Political bias is most evident in the news agendas of national newspapers – but fictional media texts can also engage with political ideas and be a powerful tool for promoting political thought and engagement. Some media texts engage with a single political agenda or issue (such as women’s rights, racial equality or climate change) Centre politicians such as the Liberal Democrats tend to adopt a middle way though these, selecting from them on an ‘issue-led’ basis. Conservative, right wing politics can be summed up broadly as ‘conserving’ traditional values/promoting traditional morals. Labour, left wing politics are more liberal and tend to be inclusive of difference/diversity in society. FOLK DEVILS AND MORAL PANICS Stanley Cohen’s influential 1972 book explored the way in which news media agendas, and particularly those of tabloid press, can influence public perception of real world issues and events. It can be linked to theories of media effects such as cultivation theory and also framing and agenda setting. You should also explore it in relation to news values. The updated model is as follows: 1 CONCERN – an issue is defined as being a problem for society 2 HOSTILITY – the issue is perceived as a threat to the fabric of society 3 CONSENSUS – the story is presented in a way that suggests everyone agrees that this issue is a threat 4 DISPROPORTIONALITY – the facts relating to the issue may be distorted, misrepresented or fail to be properly contextualised 5 VOLATILITY – the issue is seen as one which can flare up again at short notice A ‘folk devil’ is a person who has become high profile in the news who is represented negatively as a figurehead for moral decline or danger in society. AGENDA SETTING Agenda setting is the process by which a reader is steered by a text towards a hegemonic reading of the text. It can be linked to Gerbner’s ideas about enculturation and mainstreaming. The term was first used in describing the political uses of the news media during US election campaigns, which research suggested had an influence over people’s perceptions of a campaign. A high degree of correlation was found between what papers covered and what people stated the campaign was mainly about – unsurprising since this was a time period where news outlets were less numerous. This could be seen as more problematic today since news outlets have proliferated and may have more polarised ideologies which are easily shared among previously disparate/minority communities in the political spectrum (the ‘echo chamber’ effect). The media therefore actively shapes public opinion of issues by selecting these and reporting on them, since most people’s source of information about events is the news media To an extent, audiences today are able to partially set their own agenda when applying topic settings in news apps etc. FRAMING Framing as a concept relating to news media is linked with agenda setting Most people actively frame their own news consumption by using particular news outlets which already tend to reinforce their values and ideologies – they may or may not be conscious of the extent to which this is happening Whereas agenda setting is more to do with the selection and focusing of news stories, framing is more about the content and bias of stories and the conditions of their reception (can be linked to conceptual map – Hall) Audiences read news stories that they can relate to their own interests and situation, and stories will tend to be presented in a way that easily facilitates this. It also means we select, particularly with online news, the stories that interest us or corroborate our world view and match our life experience. This can create a false consensus where ideologies go through a process of naturalisation through repetition. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA) Albert Bandura’s theory of social learning is a simple effects model. It implies a straightforward cause and effect relationship between violence in the media and violent acts in the real world. Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment was very famous. In it, children watched violent media content and were then placed in a room with a large doll, which they then used to re-enact what they had seen. It’s problematic because: The children may have perceived hitting the doll as the object of the experiment The experiment does not simulate the real world, and a real person was not the object of violence The sample was very small and does not account for any other contextual factors other than media consumption CLAY SHIRKY / END OF AUDIENCE Influential contemporary thinker who specialises in exploring the ways digital technologies may be shaping our society. The old hierarchies of the audience/industry relationship no longer predominate in our society Issues raised by the blurring of lines between audiences and producers are not yet fully resolved Mass amateurisation is the term coined by Shirky to discuss aspects of this blurring such as fan producers, prosumers and citizen journalism. Crucially, Shirky does not see the term ‘amateur’ as negative. The media industry is longer as highly structured or regulated. Amateurs don’t need to follow rules as there is no or low cost involved in distributing their content. Another key idea associated with Shirky is cognitive surplus. This describes the ways in which people globally devote their free time to collaboratve online projects which demonstrate collective creativity. Fan wikis and online archives are good examples of this. END OF AUDIENCE 1 End of audience is a collection of ideas used to describe the radical changes we have experienced in the dynamics between media industries and audiences, particularly as a result of technological change. The approach highlights that we need to re-evaluate everything we assumed to be true about audiences because they don’t use the media the same way they did historically (e.g. the huge reduction in solus media use) End of audience theorists do not believe the audience to be ‘dead’, but that we have to find new ways of understanding them in an age of participatory culture and the prosumer. Part of the debate concerns the division in society between digital immigrants (those who did not grown up with technologies but have adopted them and consciously participate in internet culture) and digital natives who have grown up with the internet. END OF AUDIENCE 2 In the digital age, we still need to acknowledge the mutuality of text and reader – meanings still vary from person to person We are bombarded by media exposure at a point in time when polarization of issues ideologically and representational agendas are more visible than ever before Because content is spread across media platforms, there are no longer neat boundaries between media texts Audiences are situated between text and context, with the technology that supports a text and the text itself becoming increasingly blurred Consumers are now becoming ‘citizens’ of a digital culture, but the level of power this brings them is debateable WE THE MEDIA (DAN GILLMOR) The term ‘we the media’ comes from a 2004 book by Dan Gillmor, in which he discusses some of the changes happening in news media News media has been strongly impacted on by technological change, social media and participatory culture as well as mass amateurisation (the issue of ‘fake news’ is connected with this too). Gillmor welcomes the changes broadly and sees the de-professionalisation of journalism as giving opportunities for more grassroots journalism, therefore offering more perspectives and less heavy intervention by editors Journalism is evolving from a ‘lecture’ to a ‘conversation’ and is far less hierarchical Access to technology is democratised, leading to the rise of the citizen journalist The audience are no longer passive recipients of news but are contributing to it and distributing it (this could be a good thing or not!) PARTICIPATORY CULTURE In consumer culture, the audience ‘receive’ texts but don’t interact with them (these may still contribute to the construction of identities) The digital age has brought much more interaction to many media products, and this has lead to these being dubbed ‘participatory’ culture. Consumer culture is controlled by the industry but subject to the dynamics of trends and consumer tastes Participatory culture has more complexity and more subtle dynamics to the relationship between producer and audience. Traditional media has not been replaced by new media, but co-exists with it. (Participatory culture does not necessarily challenge mainstream consumer culture) Participatory media is not necessarily alternative media, but it can offer an alternative source of status and belonging to people who lack this in their personal or collective identity FAN PARTICIPATION/PRODUCTIVITY Fiske identified and categorised ways what he referred to as fan participation and productivity – behaviours and cultural practices by fans. There are: SEMIOTIC PRODUCTIVITY: The meanings made from source texts by fans ENUNCIATIVE PRODUCTIVITY: sharing these meanings and ways of talking about the text – ‘fan-speak’ and styling of hair, make-up or clothing inspired by the source texts and other fans TEXTUAL PRODUCTIVITY: fan-made texts and the sense of ownership of the source of the text – see Jenkins and textual poaching FAN CULTURE (FISKE) In 1992, John Fiske wrote The Cultural Economy of Fandom in which he uses Bourdieu’s ideas and adapts them to explore fan identity and behaviour. He found the following to be true of fans and fan culture: Fan culture exists alongside and in dialogue with mainstream cultural practices Fan culture often mimics the practices of ‘high’ culture and the acquisition of cultural capital and the space in which it exists is therefore known as the ‘shadow’ cultural economy. Fandoms produce a sense of esteem and social prestige Affiliation with fandoms is used by young people as a way of exploring their identity and setting themselves apart from societal expectations Fans define themselves strongly as a group and create their own canons (hierarchical organisation of pop cultural content) that legitimise the fandom and promote the aesthetic of the cultural product TEXTUAL POACHING 1 (JENKINS) Henry Jenkins is an important theorist in the field of fan culture. In 1992 he defined fans as ‘textual poachers’ to describe the uses they make of mainstream media products. Jenkins’ ideas also corroborate some of Fiske’s ideas about the Shadow Cultural Economy. Jenkins suggests that since fans cannot own the means of production of their text, they are culturally marginalised This creates a sense of dependence which is rejected by some fans, who then re-appropriate cultural products and use them for their own alternative purposes (e.g. fan art and fan fic) Textual poaching as a term suggests that fans may take multiple meanings from a text, which are not necessarily oppositional but may be alternative to the dominant ones. In a sense they are repurposing the dominant ideology to fit with their own world view. TEXTUAL POACHING 2 (JENKINS) Some further analysis of the relationship between fans and mainstream audiences… Fans are often stereotyped as mentally unbalanced in news media and as an ‘other’ in popular culture so that their tastes do not ‘pollute sanctioned culture’ Fan culture is seen as distasteful because it values pop cultural artifacts over traditional signifiers of cultural capital (Bourdieu) Fans are treated with condescension by mainstream audiences because they ‘violate dominant cultural hierarchies’ and transgress the accepted relationship between audience and text Fans do not have the aesthetic distance experienced by most consumers with high cultural capital and blur the boundaries between fact and fiction.  CHANGING FACE OF THE MASS MEDIA TRADITIONAL MEDIA PRESENT DAY / NEW VARIANTS Newspapers Print versions still in circulation but in decline. Digital subscriptions to online content and apps for reading on tablets, phones & e-readers. Free websites. Magazines Print versions still in circulation but in decline. Websites with free content. Digital subscriptions for tablet reading/e-readers of print version. Television Scheduled broadcasting still happens. Public service broadcasters (BBC and C4) and commercial still co-exist. Expanded to digital Freeview in UK. Post- broadcast era, cable and satellite services, VoD & subscription services, TV Players NEW RadioMEDIA CHARACTERISTICS Scheduled / CONTENT broadcasting on DAB & analogue, radio players, live streamed Social media / user- internet radio &reduction The prosumer, podcasting. in division between industries and audience, generated content display of personal identities platforms Websites Vary from static to ultra-dynamic. Interactivity and hypertextuality. Computer games Console, PC, games/apps on phones/tablets, online gaming WEB 2.0 / WEB 3.0 / THE SEMANTIC WEB Web 2.0: Social media Digital convergence, multi-media technologies and increased internet speeds Increased connectivity globally User-generated content, increase in content-sharing Increased interactivity Web 3.0 / The Semantic Web: Increased emphasis on the relationship between the individual and information The internet of things Increased personalisation of marketing messages Evident in recommendations of media content on services we use CULTURAL HEGEMONY Neo-Marxist critical approach pioneered by Antonio Gramsci which evaluates the role of the mass media in naturalising the existence of a ruling elite. Antonio Gramsci argued that the working classes are all too aware of the material inequalities in capitalist society. The ruling classes therefore need to employ tools to combat this; one of these is the mass media, which is owned by the wealthy and privileged. The mass media, both fictional and fact-based, has a hegemonic function since it tackles issues of power and inequality and resolves them in ways which are favourable ideologically to the preservation of the status quo. The net result is that most media texts will ideologically support the values of the elite by playing out, testing and resolving alternatives. Satirical media texts are allowed to persist because they provide an outlet for political and social unrest which is perceived as harmless in the context of comedy –a sort of pressure valve. LIBERAL PLURALISM A political theory which suggests that audiences are not subject to ‘control’ by the mass media, but rather it reflects their diverse interests not those of a ruling elite. Liberal pluralism is the dominant mode of thinking in any modern Capitalist society. Useful to counter neo-Marxist theories such as cultural hegemony. Suggests a range of ideologies are expressed in the media from which consumers actively select and reject. This is also consistent with the idea of a reception theory where consumers may experience a preferred, negotiated or oppositional reading of a text. Liberal pluralism suggests that we will tend to select to consume mass media products which are consistent with rather than challenge our ideologies. Suggests the media can play a positive role in democracy, since people are free to choose their politics, and the mass media can actively promote political diversity. Useful theory to use when discussing digital and e-Media and other increasingly participatory mass media forms NEWS VALUES (GALTUNG AND RUGE) News values affect how stories are selected and prioritized by news providers according to their news agenda (their ideologies, what they think will appeal to their audience). They are used to target audiences with appropriate content which matches their needs. Presentation of news (angle on story, bias) is also a consideration. Many headline/front page news stories carry more than one news value or high amounts of a particular one. NEGATIVITY – bad news / PROXIMITY – close to home / RECENCY – happened recently / CURRENCY – does it fit with other current events / CONTINUITY – will there be more to report on? / SIMPLICITY – how easy it is to understand / PERSONALITY – soft news / UNIQUENESS – freak event, unexpected? / EXPECTEDNESS – diary events / ELITE NATIONS & PEOPLE – the powerful in the world / EXCLUSIVITY – special access or first to break / THRESHOLD (size) – how many people it affects OWNERSHIP AND CONTROL Who owns the mass media matters because of the commercial and ideological interests of media owners may affect the content they produce Political affiliations and issues such as impartiality and bias are highly significant when considering the output of some media organisations Most commercial media organisations have to produce content which satisfies the companies who have a commercial stake in their output, particularly advertisers, whereas public service broadcasters have to fulfil a remit Alternative and independent media products may simply target a niche audience or seek to counter mainstream ideologies or promote an alternative political agenda Piracy is an enormous threat to many traditional media industries, with a huge range of content being wilfully copied, distributed and viewed of a whole range of media products MEDIA INDUSTRY BUSINESS TERMS CONGLOMERATES: Huge media organisations made up of several companies with the same ownership. HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION: the merging of media companies at a similar stage in their development VERTICAL INTEGRATION: acquisition of one company in a production chain that offers a different business. DIVERSIFICATION: the adding of other services to a media company’s core business. MASS MEDIA CONVERGENCE: The shift of emphasis many businesses have experienced in the digital age, from ‘products’ to ‘services’ across platforms. The merging of aspects of media businesses reflecting technological, commercial and cultural changes. INDEPENDENT MEDIA: Production companies outside the mainstream media industry ALTERNATIVE MEDIA: Independently produced content which may reflect alternative ideologies or perspectives from the mainstream; independently produced. NEO-LIBERALISM Political ideology originating in the Thatcher era which has gained traction under late Capitalism Neoliberalism involves the belief that greater economic freedom leads to greater economic and social progress for individuals It supports free enterprise, competition, deregulation, and the importance of individual responsibility Opposed to the expansion of government power, state welfare, inflation. NEGATIVES: thought to give corporations too much power, erode the rights of workers, and deepen inequalities in society MEDIA REGULATION (UK) Some media regulation in the UK is enshrined in law, other depends on adherence to voluntary codes. A range of pressure groups also exists to exert pressure on media organisations over specific content. The best known of these in the UK is Mediawatch-UK. Other organisations with special interests such as charities may also monitor or survey media content periodically for qualitative/quantitative representational issues Much online regulation happens within online organisations in-house though moderation, flagging, and community guidelines. Forbidding the broadcast or publication of certain material in the media is known as censorship. In most countries this is based on ideological or moral concerns about the potential harm of consumption of certain media products. MEDIA REGULATORY BODIES (UK) IPSO (Independent Press Standards Organisation) Regulates newspaper and magazine content through its Editor’s Code of Conduct OFCOM (Office of Communications) Regulates TV and radio and issues broadcasting licences. Issues guidelines for media such as music video and enforces the watershed through its Broadcast Code as well as handling/investigating complaints from the public about broadcast content ASA (Advertising Standards Authority) Supported by Ofcom, regulates print and broadcast advertising as well as banner/pop-up ads on UK-based websites GRA (Games Rating Authority) Part of the Video Standards Council, apply the PEGI (Pan European Gaming Information) ratings system. BBFC (British Board of Film Classification) Issues age certificates for films GLOBALISATION Globalisation is the process by which the world has become smaller – a ‘global village’. It’s a vital part of your discussions about new technologies and the internet. It is partly a result of innovation in technologies in the developed world, and partly to do with human migration POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECTS: + Beneficial to media producers who can produce massive global advertising campaigns and reach new audiences with their products + Increased sense of connectedness for people and new audiences which can allow niche media organisations able to thrive + More room for diversity and more voices heard - Makes way for an increase in cultural imperialism and take-overs lead by a few massive rich media companies - Global mainstream media genres may crush thriving domestic markets, damaging indigenous cultural variety - Homogenous (‘samey’) products which are less meaningful to those consuming them. LONG TAIL EFFECT Long tail effect as a term was first coined by Chris Anderson, the technology editor for Wired magazine in 2004 Media products are no longer here today and gone tomorrow, but remain in circulation potentially for a long time This contributes to fragmentation in popular culture and of media audiences as available content expands exponentially, but this is one of the defining emergent trends of the digital age Media producers are aware of the effect in terms of what they choose to commission, often feeling better able to take risks as products may accrue a profit more slowly as word of mouth and participatory culture all can contribute to the extended shelf life of a product Niche products are more likely to be made and become popularised On-demand services buy old media content and give it a new lease of life – retro games continue to be downloaded and played Linked to changes in media technology, and is part of debates about Web 2.0/The Semantic web POWER WITHOUT RESPONSIBILITY James Curran and Jean Seaton’s book Power Without Responsibility (1997) explored the power yielded by owners of large press groups. It is now in its seventh edition and continues to be updated. It’s considered an authoritative account of the relationship between the ownership of the mass media and its output. The mass media is driven by political agendas that are hard to separate from other economic influences (not just the press but other media too) Technology and digitalisation has impacted on the voices of experienced journalists and on the ethics of journalism - editors can now exert more control over the content of newspapers, pulling stories at the last minute and replacing them if the owner complains The deregulation (reduction of restrictions economically) of the media under New Labour was an issue because it resulted in concentrations of media ownership and domination of the market by a few big names Globalisation has allowed big companies to become bigger (see media industry business terms) The web is a contested space where dissenting voices can still be heard, but at the same time big business can operate in a less visible and less accountable way DAVID HESMONDHALGH 1 Hesmondhalgh believes that cultural industries matter because they: Make and circulate texts Manage creativity and knowledge Are agents of economic, social and cultural change He refers to today’s cultural climate as the complex professional era of cultural production The cultural industries and the way production is organised within them are significant to society because who controls the industry affects what it produces. Culture has a clear relationship with issues relating to power, inequality and social justice. The communication technologies used to distribute texts have an important role in the effect they might have. The countries and regions that dominate cultural production are worth evaluating for their effect on the experience of cultural consumption and associated issues such as cultural imperialism and globalisation. The cultural industries (defined by Hesmondhalgh as broadcasting, film, music, print and electronic publishing, advertising, computer games and web) interact and interconnect with each other in complex ways. DAVID HESMONDHALGH 2 Hesmondhalgh REJECTS the notion of straightforward cultural imperialism because it ignores thec complex uses some consumers may make of texts from other cultures and the way they subsume them into their own identity. He challenges the assumption that globalisation of the mass media is a negative force in consumers’ lives. He prefers the term internationalisation. He comments on the following aspects of transnational media consumption: Internationalisation of cultural businesses- lots of companies invest in many countries and may produce in many- but the money usually goes back to the ‘base’ country Internationalisation of cultural texts – texts that originate in one place are seen in others – this flow of cultural products means more cultural influences to draw on and more diverse interpretations of the text The local is affected by the global – cultural identities are becoming more complex as a result of increased movement of texts –texts are moving away from reflecting the interests, concerns and culture of nations to reflecting the interests of diasporic groups or fans of forms of cultural expression. LUNT AND LIVINGSTONE 1 In Media Regulation (2011), Peter Lunt and Sonia Livingstone examine the challenges of regulation in the global media industry. The following summarises their approach and some of the issues they explore in the book: Media regulation has always been controversial since it assumes state intervention, which limits freedom of expression and the right to communication. Globalisation, technological convergence, and other structural changes such as privatisation, commercialisation, industry consolidation, have had an impact that affects media policymaking and regulation. They examine the socio-cultural, political, economic and legal/regulatory issues that are used to regulate the media industry in contemporary society. LUNT AND LIVINGSTONE 2 They look at the broader context of academic theories of regulation and then discuss the debates leading up to the establishment of Office of Communication (Ofcom) as a new powerful and converged UK media and communications regulator, focusing on the arguments over whether regulation should serve the interests of consumers or citizens. Citizens and consumers are typically considered as opposite and contradictory identities (the traditional distinction is that citizens are involved with politics and consumers are attached to popular culture), though they are inevitably entwined in modern society. Citizens want regulation – they believe it protects from harm and they look to regulators to provide it Consumers want free choice – they want the right to make their own decisions about their consumption