A Contrastive Analysis of English and Arabic Morphology for Translation Students PDF

A Contrastive Analysis of English and Arabic Morphology for Translation Students Course Material Prof. Reima Al-Jarf 1994  Table of Contents Introduction...................................................................

A Contrastive Analysis of English and Arabic Morphology for Translation Students Course Material Prof. Reima Al-Jarf 1994  Table of Contents Introduction.............................................................................................................. 7 Aims of the Present Chapter............................................................................... 7 Definition of Morphemes..................................................................................... 9 Definition of Grammar...................................................................................... 10 Definition of Morphology.................................................................................. 10 Inflection................................................................................................................. 12 Introduction:...................................................................................................... 12 1. Number....................................................................................................... 12 1.1 English Number Morphemes................................................................ 12 1.2 Arabic Number Morphology................................................................. 17 1.3 Implications for Translation................................................................. 30 1.3.1 Translation of English Singular and Plural Forms:............................ 30 1.3.2 Translation from Arabic to English...................................................... 41 2. Gender......................................................................................................... 46 2.1 English Gender Morphology................................................................. 46 2.1 Arabic Gender Morphology.................................................................. 47 2.2 Translation from English....................................................................... 53 2.3 Translation from Arabic........................................................................ 54 3. Person Morphology.................................................................................... 57 3.1 English Person Morphology.................................................................. 57 3.2 Arabic Person Morphology................................................................... 58 3.3 Translation.............................................................................................. 58 4. Case Morphology....................................................................................... 60 4.1 English Case Morphology...................................................................... 60 4.2 Arabic Case Morphology....................................................................... 61 4.3 Implications for Translation................................................................. 62 5. Tense and Aspect........................................................................................ 67 5.1 English Tense and Aspect...................................................................... 67 5.2 Arabic Tense and Aspect....................................................................... 70 5.3 Translation from English....................................................................... 72 5.4 Translation from Arabic........................................................................ 87 6. Mood............................................................................................................ 90 6.1 English Mood.......................................................................................... 90 6.2 Arabic Mood........................................................................................... 91 6.3 Translation from English....................................................................... 94 6.4 Translation from Arabic:...................................................................... 96 7. Transitivity................................................................................................. 99  7.1 Transitivity in English........................................................................... 99 7.2 Transitivity in Arabic............................................................................ 99 7.3 Transaltion from English..................................................................... 100 7.4 Translation from Arabic...................................................................... 100 8. Voice.......................................................................................................... 101 8.1 English Voice........................................................................................ 102 8.2 Arabic Voice......................................................................................... 103 8.3 Translation from English..................................................................... 103 8.4 Translation from Arabic............................................................................ 105 9. Comparison............................................................................................... 107 9.1 English Comparison............................................................................. 107 9.2 Arabic Comparison.............................................................................. 108 9.3 Translation from English..................................................................... 109 9.4 Transaltion from Arabic...................................................................... 110 Derivation............................................................................................................. 111 1. English Derivation.................................................................................... 112 1.1 Prefixation............................................................................................. 112 1.2 Suffixation............................................................................................. 113 2. Arabic Derivation..................................................................................... 114 2.2 metathesis.............................................................................................. 115 2.3 Simple Derivation ( ‫ ) اﻻشتقاق الصغير‬................................................. 115 3. Comparison.................................................................................................. 119 4. Transaltion from English............................................................................ 120 Compounding................................................................................................... 127 1. English Compounds................................................................................... 128 2. Arabic Compounds................................................................................... 133 2.1 Primary Copmounds.......................................................................... 133 2.2 Secondary Compounds...................................................................... 133 3. Comparison................................................................................................ 135 4. Translation from English......................................................................... 135 Word-Formation Processes................................................................................. 142 1. Acronyms.................................................................................................. 142 2. Abbreviations........................................................................................... 142 3. Word Coinage=neologisms=word manufacture................................... 143 4. Blends........................................................................................................ 143 5. Back-formations....................................................................................... 144 6. Shortening (clipping)............................................................................... 144 7. Extention................................................................................................... 145 8. Conversion................................................................................................ 146 9. Onomotopoeia.............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. 10. Borrowings............................................................................................ 147  PREFACE In 1990, I was asked to teach a course in Contrastive Analysis to undergraduate students majoring in translation. The course aimed at developing a contrastive analysis of Arabic and English for use by prospective English-Arabic and Arabic-English translators. The aim of the contrastive study was to produce a systematic comparison of salient aspects of the sound systems, grammars, lexicons, and writing systems of Arabic and English. Psycholinguistic implications of structural similarities and differences between the two languages for Arab learners of English were indicated. The result of the contrastive analysis was used to provide a basis for more sophisticated and effective translation of Arabic and/or English texts and to illustrate these applications by the translation of a set of specimen of Arabic and English texts. The course started in 1990. The Arabic-English contrastive analysis course assumed the following structure: theoretical and methodological issues; comparing and contrasting Arabic and English phonetics; comparing and contrasting Arabic and English morphology (inflection, derivation and compounding); comparing and contrasting Arabic and English word formation; comparing and contrasting Arabic and English semantics; comparing and contrasting Arabic and English culture; comparing and contrasting Arabic and English writing systems; interference problems; and how to translate differences. To obtain a description of a topic in the Arabic and English system, all standard works, references, available articles related to a particular problem were consulted. Analyses were written on the basis of specialized literature available and on the analyzer’s experience and intuition, consulting with experts in a particular area. The same was done for each topic in both systems. Then, the topic was examined contrastively and we got the first report on the CA of a grammatical or phonological unit. I began to assemble my own corpus of English and semantically corresponding Arabic sentences on punch cards. The sentences were v taken from novels, magazines, newspapers and scientific works. The corpus consisted of 10,000 English sentences and the same number of Arabic sentences. The corpus was considered as an aid to my research. This book has been prepared with three objectives in view: first, it is designed particularly to meet the needs of translation students. So, for example, the morphological systems of both languages are dealt with in considerable detail; many examples are given. Secondly, it is intended to be really comprehensive, in that it will, as far as possible, provide an answer to any problem the student is likely to encounter in their translation career. Lastly, it is meant to be a practical contrastive grammar, one that is suitable both for work in class and for students working on their own. As I complete this book, I would like to thank Dr Mahasen Abu-Mansour of Um Al-Qura University and Dr Mushira Eid of the University of Utah, Dr Wasmiyya Al-Mansour, Dr Ibrahim Al- Shamsan and Dr Othman Al-Fraih of King Saud University for valuable discussions. Thanks are also due to my students who gave an opportunity to explore aspects of Arabic linguistics that were new to me. Any shortcomings in this work are my sole responsibility. vi  Introduction Aims of the Present Chapter (Lehmann, Gleason, Lado, The aim of this chapter is to describe the Arabic and English morphological systems in order to identify the similarities and differences between them. The process of comparing both systems will involve the following: First, the analysis and description of the elements of morphology: inflection, derivation and compounding. Both descriptions will cover the form, the meaning and the distribution of morphemes. The distribution of morphemes is the sum of all the contexts in which they can occur. A full understanding of any morpheme involves understanding its distribution as well as its meaning. The various kinds of restrictions on the combinations of morphemes, the order in which morphemes can be arranged, sets of morphemes which can never occur together in the same word, classes of morphemes required to occur in certain circumstances will be given. Complex patterns of selection of allomorphs will be given. The type of meaning implied In the absence of any morpheme of a given order will be pointed out. All allomorphs will be listed and rules for the correct selection will be given. General morphophonemic statements which apply quite universally in the system will be made. In describing the inflectional morphemes of Arabic and English the inflectional categories number, gender, person, case, tense, voice, mood, aspect, transitivity and comparison will be defined, and under each inflectional category, the parts of speech inflected for that particular category will be listed. For each part of speech, the underlying portion, or the base or root, and the modified items or affixes will be determined. The allomorphs will be identified and their distribution will be determined. The arrangement of inflected elements and any modifications involved will be determined. The meaning of lexical items containing each morpheme or set of morphemes will be given in the other language. 7  In describing Arabic and English derivational morphemes, one must deal with formal characteristics and with meaning relationships. Stem formation will be described on the basis of the affixes used. For each affix the class or classes of stems (including roots) with which it is used and any pertinent restrictions within the class or classes; the class of stems produced; and any morphophonemic changes in either the affix itself or the stem will be described. (Gleason) In describing Arabic and English compounds, the simple or naked words will be determined. Various compounds will be identified and the complex forms will be noted. Sequences will be accounted for. Compounds will be related to sentence patterns. They will be analyzed in accordance with the larger syntactic sequences of the language, and compounds will in turn illuminate these sequences. Classes of compounds will be set up, the patterning of the items themselves and their relationships with other comparable items in the language. Secondly, all inflectional, derivational and compositional morphemes in each language will be summarized in compact outline form. Thirdly, comparison of Arabic and English morphological systems will not be made, since Arabic and English are not cognate languages, i.e. genetically related. They are considerably different in the classes that are characterized by inflectional affixes. There is no way to compare the forms within the classes. The inflectional morphemes and derivational and compounding processes do not match in any of the word classes. Morphemic analysis of each language is hardly practical without close attention to the meanings of forms in the other language. This will be manipulated in the form of translations. Translation can obscure some features of meaning and falsify others. Meaning is a variable which is not subject to any precise control. Meaning will be used in combination with some facts of distribution. Meaning is also needed to assess the pertinence of the distributional features. Troublesome morphemes for Arabic-speaking students will be described. An English morpheme will be taken and how that morpheme may be translated will be given. 8 Definition of Morphemes (Lehman, Gleason, Stageberg) In grammar, words are divided into morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form which is grammatically pertinent. A morpheme is not identical with a syllable. It may consist of a single phoneme such as ‘a’ and may consist of one or more syllables as in ‘the’ and ‘between’. A morpheme may be free or bound. A free morpheme is one that can stand alone as a word or enter in the structure of other words as ‘boy, play, an’. A bound morpheme cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It always combines with one or more morphemes to form a word as (dis-, -ing, -ment). Morphemes stand in a particular relationship to each other. In any word there is a central morpheme that has the principal meaning called a root or a base; and one or more subsidiary morphemes called an affix. A root is an allomorph of a morpheme which has another allomorph that is a free form deep (depth). It is a borrowing from another language in which it is a free form or a base as in geology, pediatrics, microfilm. A word may contain one base and several affixes. A base may be free or bound. Any base may have more than one form. An affix may be directly added to a root or to a stem. A stem consists of a morpheme or a combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. Some stems or words contain two or more roots. These are called compound stems. An affix is a bound morpheme that occurs before or behind a base. Roots are longer than affixes and much more numerous in the vocabulary. For example, in 'unemployed', 'employ' is central and 'un-' and '-ed' are peripheral. If an affix precedes the root it is called a prefix, if it follows the root, it is called a suffix, and if it is placed inside the root with which it is associated, it is called an infix. A word may contain up to three or four suffixes, but prefixes a single prefix, except for the negative prefix un- before another prefix. When suffixes multiply, there is a fixed order in which they occur. A morpheme is a group of one or more allomorphs which vary widely in shape, in accordance with their environment. Many morphemes in English have only one allomorph. Few morphemes are used throughout all forms without more than one allomorph. English /ing/ is a morpheme that has only one shape. When allomorphs are determined by phonological criteria, they are phonologically conditioned. The modifications of bases and affixes in morphological processes are known as morphophonemic changes, and their 9 study is morphophonemics. Morphophonemics is the process by which morphemes vary in their pronunciation, e.g.: the plural morpheme /-s/ has three individual forms: /-s/, /-z/, /-iz/ and they constitute three allomorphs of the plural morpheme. Bound morphemes are usually written with a hyphen on the side in which they are bound. So dis is written dis- and ment is written -ment. Free morphemes are written without hyphens. Braces / / are used for morphemes and slants // for allomorphs; a tilda ~ means 'in alteration with', e.g.: /-d1/ = /-id/ ~ /-t/ ~ /-d/. Definition of Grammar Grammar is the study of morphemes and their combinations. It comprehends two subdivisions: morphology and syntax. Morphology is the description of the combinations of morphemes in words. Syntax is the description of larger combinations of words. It is the arrangement of words as elements in a sentence, to show their relationship. Definition of Morphology (Dictionary of Reading, Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and of the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two main branches: inflectional morphology and word-formation (lexical morphology). (Bauer). Inflectional morphology deals with the various forms of lexemes, while word-formation deals with the formation of new lexemes from given bases. Word-formation can in turn be divided into derivation and compounding (or composition). Derivation is concerned with the formation of new lexemes by affixation, compounding with the formation of new lxemes from two (or more) potential stems. Derivation is sometimes subdivided into class- maintaining derivationa and class-changing derivation. Class-maintaining derivation is the derivation of new lexemes which are of the same form class (part of speech) as the base from which they are formed, whereas class- changing derivation produces lexemes which belong to different form classes from their bases. Compounding is usually subdivided according to the form class of the resultant compound: that is, into compound nouns, compound adjectives, etc. It may also be subdivided according to the semantic criteria exocentric, endocentric, appositional and dvanda compounds. (Bauer). 10  Morphology consists of two layers: an outer one involving inflectionally bound forms and an inner one the layer of derivation. Hall. 11  Inflection Introduction: (def. Lehmann, Covell) Inflection is a change in the form of words by which some words indicate certain grammatical relationships as number, gender, case, tense, voice, mood, aspect, transitivity and comparison. Inflectional Morphology is the body of rules that describe the manner in which a lexical item has a grammatical morpheme joined to its beginning or end. This grammatical morpheme shows a grammatical category of gender, number, person, tense, voice, mood, aspect, case, transitivity, or comparison. Inflectional categories may not be consistently indicated by the same inflectional morpheme. Some inflectional categories may have homonymous inflections. Inflectional morphemes may duplicate other syntactic information in the sentence. For nouns, pronouns, and adjectives classes of inflection are called declensions; for verbs they are called conjugation; and for adjectives they are called comparison. Parts of speech such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives may be identified by the inflection they undergo. Inflectional morphemes are those prefixes and suffixes that perform a grammatical function. Number Number is the inflection of nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives and determiners to show singular, dual, or plural forms. English Number Morphemes (Stockwell, Stageberg, Gleason, Quirk & Greenbaum, Eckersley & Eckersley, Frank, Jackson, Covell, Webster Unabridged Dictionary) English has two forms of number: singular and plural. Singular denotes only one and plural denotes two or more. Nouns, pronouns, verbs, the indefinite article and demonstratives are marked for number. Adjectives and the definite article are not marked for number. English subjects (head nouns, and pronouns) and verbs show number agreement. Singular subjects (head nouns or pronouns) take singular verbs and plural subjects take plural verbs. English demonstratives and the indefinite article also show number agreement with the noun they modify. 12 Nouns: In English, the class NOUN is associated with an inflectional category NUMBER. The plural suffix /-s/ may be added to the base form which is singular to convert it to plural. This plural suffix has a large number of allomorphs. The following is a detailed description of the form, distribution, and meaning of the plural suffix.  The regular plural suffix -s is added to singular nouns e.g.: cats, bats, boys, dogs; nouns describing the people of a country (nouns of nationality) Americans, Germans, Iraquis, Greeks, Turks, Finns, Spaniards and to compound noun. Some compound nouns, take the plural suffix -s in the first element as in passers-by, mothers-in-law; some take the plural suffix in both the first and the last elements as in women doctors; and others take the plural suffix in the last element as in assistant professors.  The suffix -es is added to singular nouns ending in /s, z, sh, ch, j/, e.g.: buses, dishes, churches, bridges, roses. It is added to singular nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant as in sky, skies; spy, spies; story, stories. Nouns ending with -y preceded by a vowel take the plural suffix /-s/ as in boys, days, bays, storeys. It is also added to singular nouns ending in /-o/ preceded by a consonant as in echo-es, potato-es, hero-es, embargo-es, tomato-es, veto-es, torpedo-es. Nouns ending with /-o/ preceded by a vowel take the plural suffix /-s/, e.g.: studio-s, radio-s, piano-s. Some take the suffix /-os/ or /-oes/ as archipelago, buffalo, cargo, flamingo, halo, tornado, volcano, commando.  Nouns of unusual form, letters, numbers, signs, some words take the plural suffix /-'s/, when thought of as things, e.g.: 1980's, TA's, A's, B's, 5's, when's, do's and don’t’s  The plural suffix -s is pronounced [s] after a voiceless consonant as in cats; it is pronounced [z] after a voiced consonant as in dogs; and it is pronounced [iz] after [s, z, sh, ch, dj] as in buses, roses, bridges, churches, dishes. 13  The suffix /-s/ is not added to singular invariable nouns ending in -s. Although such nouns are plural in form, yet they are construed as singular, e.g.:  News  Some diseases: measles, German measles, mumps, rickets, shingles.  Subject names ending in -ics: classics, linguistics, mathematics, phonetics, pediatrics, statistics, politics, economics, graphics, and astronautics. Nouns ending in -ics are singular when they denote scientific subjects, and plural when they denote activities and qualities such as acrobatics, acoustics.  Some games: cards, billiards, bowls, dominoes, checkers.  Some proper nouns: Algiers, Athens, Brussels, the United Nations.  The suffix /-s/ occurs in some plural invariable nouns. These nouns have no singular form, e.g.:  Tools and articles of dress consisting of two equal parts which are joined: tongs, binoculars, pincers, pliers, scales, scissors, tweezers, glasses, spectacles, pyjamas, pants, shorts, tights, trousers.  Other nouns that only occur in the plural are: the Middle Ages, annals, archives, arms, ashes, brains, clothes, the Commons, customs, earrings, fireworks, funds, goods, greens, guts, heads, lodgings, looks, manners, means, oats, outskirts, premises, remains, riches, savings, stairs, surroundings, troops, tropics, valuables.  A suffix zero, symbolized - un/valuable ==> value/able.  The inflectional morpheme /-er1/ has two homophones. The first is the deriationa suffix /-er2/ which is attached to verbs to form nouns (teacher, writer) It is called the agent -er and conveys the meaning of "that which performs the action of the verb stem". The second derivational -er suffix appears at the end of words like flicker, glitter, chatter, utter, suffer. This /- er3/ conveys the meaning of repetition.  The inflectiona suffix /-ing1/ has two homophones. The first one is the derivational suffix /-ing2/ which is found in words like writings, readings, meetings findings, meanings. This morpheme is derivational since it permits the addition of an inflectional suffix -s. When the sord occurs alone without the inflectional suffix, as in writing, reaning, meeting, the -ing is ambiguous, for it could be either /-ing1/ as in he is writing, or /-ing2/ as in his writings. The second homophone of /-ing1/ is the adjectival morpheme /-ing3/ as in interesting book. There are several tests by which the verbal /-ing1/ can be distinguished from the adjectival /-ing3/. The verbal/-ing1/ can usually occur before as well as after the noun it modifies: I read an interesting book. The book is interesting. The adjectival /-ing3/ can be preceded by a qualifier like very, rather, quite or by the comparative and superlative 120  words more and most as in: I read a very interesting book.  The verbal /-d/ has a homophone in the adjectival /-d3/ as in: she is interested in math. The adjectival /-d3/ is characterized by its capacity for modification by qualifiers like very, rather, quite and by more and most. The verbal /-d2/ does not accept such modifiers.  The inflectional suffix /-ly1/ partakes of the characteristics of both derivational and inflectional. This /-ly1/ is added to most adjectives to form adverbs as in quickly, sharply.The adverbial /-ly1/ has a homophone the derivational suffix /-ly2/, an adjectival morpheme that is distributed as follows:  it is added to monosyllabic nouns to form adjectives that are inflected with -er, -est (timely, manly, costly).  it is added to plurisyllabic nouns to form adjectives that are not inflected with -er, -est cowardly, brothrly, fatherly, scholarly, heavenly).  it is added to a few adjectives, giving alternate adjectival forms that are also inflected with -er, -est (lively, kindly).  it is added to short list of time nouns to form adjectives (daily, hourly, monthly, weekly). Westerly winds negation prefixes:  This prefix a- is also added to adjectival bases, eg: amoral, apolitical, atypical,  un- : the opposite of, not, eg: unsuccessful  non- : not, eg: non-stop  in- : the opposite of, not, eg: inaccurate  dis- : the opposite of, not, eg: disconnect  de-: to reverse action, eg: decompose, deaestheticize, deboost, decapacitate, deescalate, desensitize. Reversative prefixes:  un- : to reverse action, eg: unfasten ; to deprive of unhorse.  de- : to reverse action, eg: decompose  dis- : the opposite of, not, eg: discomfort 121 pejorative prefixes:  mis-: wrongly, eg: mismanage, misunderstand; astray, eg: misleading  mal-: bad(ly), eg: malnutrition , malfunction, maladjustment.  pseudo- : false, imitation, eg: pseudonym prefixes of degree/size  arch- : highest, worst, eg: arch-bishop, arch-enemy  super- : above, eg: supernatural ; more than, eg: super ; better, eg: superexcellent,  out- : to do something faster,eg: outperform; longer outlive  sur- : over and above, eg: surcharge  sub- : lower than, less than, eg: subterranean, subway  over- : too much, eg: overexercise  under- : too little , eg: underestimate  hyper- : extremely, eg: hyperactive  hypo- : hypotension  ultra- : extremely, beyond, eg: ultra-sound  mini-: little, eg: minibus, minicomputer, minidress, minikilt, minipill, miniwar. prefixes of attitude:  co- : with, joint, eg: co-worker  counter-: in apposition to, eg: counter-balance , counter-act,  anti- : against, eg: anti-aircraft, antibiotic, anti-Semitic  pro- : on the side of, eg: pro-Arab, pro-consul. locative adjectives:  sub- : beneath, lesser in rank, eg: subterranean  super- : over, eg: superimpose  inter- : between, among, eg: intermixm, intercellular.  trans- : across, from one place to another, eg: trans-world, trans-Atlantic, trans-continental, prefixes of time and order:  fore- : before, eg: forecast 122  pre-: before, eg: pre-historic, pre-natal, pre-registration, pre- conference.  post- : after, eg: post-graduate  ex- : former, eg: ex-wife, ex-president.  re- : again, back, eg: re-unite, return number prefixes:  uni- : one, eg: uni-cellular  mono- : one, eg: monosyllabic  bi- : two, eg: binocular  di- : two, eg: disyllabic  tri- : three, eg: tripod  multi- : many, eg: multicultural  poly- : many, eg: polyglot other prefixes:  auto- : self, eg: autonomy, auto-focus.  neo- : new, revived, eg: neo-classical  pan- : all, world-wide, eg: *pan-pacific  proto- : first, original, eg: proto-type,  semi- : half, eg: semi-circular  vice- : deputy, eg: vice-president.  a- : This prefix mainly forms adjectives. The adjectives formed by this process are restricted to predicative position: the baby is asleep. eg: ablaze, *aclutter, *astir,*awash,*asquish, *aswivel, *awhir. (*Bauer)  en-: this prefix forms transitive verbs, mainly from nouns, eg: *entomb, *ensnare, *enslave.(Bauer), occupational suffixes:  -ster : person engaged in, eg, *gangster.  -eer : an occupation or activity, e.g: mountaineer,  -er : inhabitant, e.g: New Yorker. diminutive or feminine:  -let : small, eg: booklet, leaflet, anklet; unimportant, eg: piglet.  -ess: female, eg: tigress 123   -ette: small, compact, eg: *kitchentte; compact, eg: N, *cigarette; imitation (material), N, *flannette; female, N, *usherette; Status, domain suffixes:  -hood : neighborhood; manhood, parenthood  -ship: status, conditione.g: scholarship, friendship; courtship; hardship  -ocracy :system of government, eg: democracy ‫ديموقراطي‬, beuracracy ‫ بيروقراطية‬autocracy‫ اﺳتبدادية‬، ‫ اوتوقراطية‬, theocracy, aristocracy;  -dom : domain, condition, eg: kingdom, freedom, boredom,  -(e)ry : abstract nouns, behavior, eg: rivalry, chivalry, bravery; concrete nouns, place of activity or abode, eg: confectionery, *refinery; non-count nouns, collectively, eg: machinery verb-forming suffixes: o -fy, -ize, -en are causeative beautify, ‫ ;يج ّمل‬industrialize ‫يﺻنّع‬ harden ً ‫قاﺳيا‬/ً‫يجعله ﺻلبا‬. o -ate : make. fabric +ate =fabricate ‫ ; يﺻنع‬initiate; facility+ate = facilitate; o -en :become X, eg: strength + -en = strengthen.ً‫يجعله قويا‬/‫يﻘوي‬ wide + -en = widen noun-forming derivational affixes: o -er, -or, -ant: agentive and instrumental, eg: teacher, inhabitant, informant, New Yorker, actor, donnator, o -ee: passive, eg: trainee, testee, employee, examinee, deportee, refugee, o -ation: state, action, eg: determination, industrialization ‫تﺻنيع‬ institution, eg: organization, o -ment: state, action, eg: employment , ‫توظيف‬advancement ‫تﻘدم‬ , government , ‫ حكومة‬enjoyment ,‫اﺳتمتاع‬ o -ics: statistics; linguistics ;politics; astronautics. o -ing : the substance of which N is composed N, *panelling, padding, 124  o -ful : the amount which N contains, eg: N, spoonful, handful, o -al: action, eg: *refusal , ‫رفض‬dismissal , ‫ﺻرف‬rental ,‫تأجير‬ arrival , ‫وﺻول‬denial ,‫انكار‬ o -ing: activity, result of activity, eg: reading, *building o -age: activity, result of activity, eg: breakage, carriage, drainage, o -ion: impression, compression, depression, suppression, possession. o -ance: entrance, tolerance, correspondence ,concordance, o -ure: pressure, -ness : state, quality, eg: dizziness ,‫دوار‬ hapiness , ‫ﺳعادة‬sadness ‫ حزن‬fitness , ‫ لياقة‬loudness ,‫ﻋلو‬ ّ ، ‫ارتفاع‬ madness ‫جنون‬ o -ity: state, quality, eg: humanity ,‫ انﺳانية‬,productivity ‫انتاجية‬ ;sensitivity ;‫ حﺳاﺳية‬relativity ;‫نﺳبية‬ o -ism: political movement, attitude, eg: criticism ,‫ نﻘد‬socialism ,‫ اشتراكية‬communism ,‫ شيوﻋية‬secularism ,‫ ﻋلمانية‬Zionism ‫ﺻهيونية‬idealism ‫مثالية‬ o -th: width ,‫ ﻋرض‬length ,‫ طول‬breadth. ‫اتﺳاع‬ o -(i)an: pertaining to, eg: politician, Shakespearian, Shakespearean, technician; nationality, eg: European, o -ite: member of community, faction/type eg: *socialite, Shiite, maronite; o -ese : nationality, eg: Lebanese‫ ; لبناني‬Siamese; o -ist: member of a party, eg: socialist‫ ; اشتراكي‬communist; zionist; adjective-forming suffixes: -al, -ical, -ial, -ic, -an, -ern : pertaining to, eg: logical ‫منطﻘي‬, economical ‫اقتﺻادي‬, partial ‫جزئي‬, synthetic ‫تركيبي‬, European ‫أوروبي‬ western‫ﻏربي‬ -ive, -ative, -itive : possessive, comparative, additive, -ary, -ory : binary‫ ثنائي‬, customary ‫اﻋتيادي‬, introductory -ly : manly daily -ous, -eous -ious, -y, -ful : joyous ‫جذل‬, envious ‫حﺳود‬, courteous ، ‫ دمث‬gloomy ‫كئيب‬, beautiful ‫جميل‬ -able, -ible: able, worthy to, eg: comprehensible, edible, breakable, combustible, flammable; 125  -(i)an: pertaining to, eg: politician, Shakespearian, Shakespearean, technician; nationality, eg: European, -ite: member of community, faction/type eg: *socialite, maronite; shiite -ese : nationality, eg: Lebanese‫ ; لبناني‬Siamese ‫;ﺳيامي‬ -ist: member of a party, eg: socialist‫ ; اشتراكي‬communist; zionist; -ish: somewhat, eg: yellowish ‫مﺻفر‬/ ّ ‫ضارب الﻰ الﺻفرة‬/‫مائل‬, brownish ‫ مائل الﻰ اللون البني‬. belonging to, eg: Irish , ‫ ايرلندي‬Swedish ‫ﺳويدي‬. having the character of, eg: childish. ‫طفولي‬ -ed : having, eg: curved; granulated; pleted; isolated; -ist : member of a party, eg: socialist, communist ; occupation, eg: dentist, geologist, cardiologist, economist. -ory : mandatory, obligatory, explanatory. -ary : pulmonary, voluntary, -ate : *affectionate, passionate, compassionate. adverb-forming derivational affixes: -ly: in a... manner, eg: quickly -ward(s): manner, direction, eg: backwards, forward, downward -wise: as far as is... concerned, eg: moneywise; in the manner of, eg: *crabwise 126  Compounding Compounds are groups of two or more elements treated as a unit. They consist of two or more bases joined together without the use of derivational affixes. Compounds are either primary or secondary. In a primary compound or base-compound, two bases (derivationally bound forms) are joined together. In a secondary compound or stem-compound, both or all of the constituents of the compound are stems (free forms). Many derived forms are very complex, involving two or more layers of derivation. (Hall). The formation of larger compounds is generally based on those of two- element compounds as lighthousekeeper is constructed from housekeeper and light (house). Adjectives may be embedded in nominal constructions with no special marker (black coffee). For analyzing embedded constructions, the term head is used to refer to the center of the construction, the term attribute for the modifier. (Lehmann). An endocentric construction is one in which the primary constituent or constituents are comprable to the complete construction. An exocentric construction is one in which the primary constituent or constituents do not function like the complete construction (Lehmann). The contrast between endocentric and exocentrc is present in compounds as well as in derivatives. If the function of the compound is the same as that of one of its elements, it is to be classed as endocentric. if the compound belongs to a form-class or subdivision of one different from that of its elements, then it is exocentric. (Hall). The description of English and Arabic compounds will entail listing both types of primary and secondary compounds, and the elements comprised in each. The list of compounds will incude the presentce of full stress on the first element, internal disjuncture /+/ and intermediate stress on the second element. 127 1. English Compounds English primary and secondary compounds can be formed in a variety of ways: two nouns, a verb followed by a noun, a noun followed by a verb, a verb and a preposition, an adective and a noun. In English, compound nouns are the most common, verb compounds are not quite so common. Compounds will be described in terms of the word class to which the source items belong. (Burlin). Sequences that we have to recognize as compounds may be written as a single word (agglutinated), may be hyphenated or separated by a space. No rules for that. Primary Compounds (Neo-classical Compounds) In a primary compound or a base compound, no derivational affix is involved and two bases (derivationally bound forms) are joined together (with or without some meaningless connecting element). Most examples occur in the English learned Graeco-Latin vocabulary (Hall). These elements, usually Greek or Latin in origin, and are termed combining forms by OED. Theses combining forms are treated as affixes because they are sometimes added to lexemes just like any other affix. English primary compounds are formed from a large number of Greek and Latin bases. Some Greek and Latin prefixes are: ambi-, ante-, anti-, arch-, bi-, circum-, counter-, de-, dis-, ex-, extra-, hyper-, hypo-, in-, inter-, intra-, intro-, mal-, mis-, mono-, multi-, non-, peri-, post-, pre-, pro-, quad-, re-, retro-, semi-, sub-, super-, syn-, trans-, tri-, ultra-, uni-, vice-. Some Greek bases (roots) are: anthropo-, auto-, bibli-, chrom- , chrono-, demo-, derma-, dynamo-, geo-, glot-, gram-, graph-, heli-, hetero-, homo-, hydro-, hypno-, -itis, cosmo-, crypto-, litho-, cyclo-, logo-, mania, mega-, micro-, morpho-, nauti-, neo-, neuro-, ortho-, philo-, philo-, phono-, photo-, -polis, poly-, proto-, pseudo-, psych-, - scope, tele-, therm-, zoo-. some Latin roots are: equ-, annus-, aqua, aud, brevis, cid-, carnis, celer, cent-, civi-, claudere, corpus, dentis, dexter, domus, donatus, duo, duplicare, fortis, genus, gratus, liber, lingua, luminis, magnus, 128 mille, marinus, medius, nomen, pedis, plenus, populus, proximus, rectus, regula, sciens, sensus, solus, similis, tempor, vacuus, videre, vivere.  appendicitis, sinusitis, bronchitis, tonsilitis.  automatic, autonomous, automobile,  autobiography  subway, subterranean, submarine, subclass.  television, telephoto, telegraph, telescope.  photograph, photocopy, photosynthesis.  cardiogram, cardioscope, cardiovascular,  electrocardiogram.  pathology, psychology, geology, biology, zoology. The meaning of a primary compound can be generally understood from the meaning of its parts. Secondary Compounds In a secondary compound or stem-compound, no derivtational affix is involved, and the constituents of a derived stem are simply juxtaposed and both or all of the constituents of the compound are stems. English has at least one fairly widespread type of stem compound, in our combinations of noun plus verb such as baby-sit. many derived forms are very complex, involving two or more layers of derivation. (Hall). English secondary compounds are formed in a variety of ways: two nouns, a verb followed by a noun, a noun followed by a verb, a verb and a preposition, an adective and a noun. Compound nouns are the most common, whereas verb compounds are not quite so common. (Burlin). English compounds will be classified (describrd) on the basis of the function they play in a sentence as nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs. The subclassification of compounds will be done by the form of the items that make up the compound (the word class to which the source items belong), because this type of classification will help focus on the semantic relationships within each of the categories provided. Compounds will be classified into compound nouns, compound verbs, compound adjectives and compound adverbs. Each kind of compound consists of a variety of components. (Bauer) the meaning of a secondary compound cannot be generally understood from the meaning of its parts. 129 Compound nouns may consist of: Frank pp. 7-  Noun + Noun: post office, spaceship, high school,woman teacher, he-goat, dining-room, parking lot, student teacher, paper basket, self-expression, sunshine, bedroom, *department store, physics book.  *possessive noun _ noun: lady's maid, traveler's checks, womens college, a citizens bank.  Verb + Noun: jump rope, pickpocket, flashlight.  *Noun + Verb: handshake, lifeguard.  *gerund + noun: living room, swimming pool.  *noun + gerund: fortune telling, housekeeping, ice skating  Adjective + Noun: gold coin, well-wisher, off-white, high school, smallpox, *blackbird, *common sense, *blue print.  Particle + Noun: off-year, by-product, overdose  Verb + prep/Adverb: makeup, breakdown, grown-up.  *Noun + pp: brother-in-law, commander-in-chief. Compound verbs *Frank p. 51 The majority of compound verbs are not formed by putting two lexemes together to form a new verb, but by back-formations which have been coined by dropping an -er agent-denoting suffix such as *sleep-walk (from the original sleep-walker), *baby-sit (from the original baby-sitter); or by conversion from compound nouns such as ill-treat (from the original ill-treatment) (Adams + Frank), compounds formed of particles and verbs seem to be general verbal formations.  Noun + Verb: student teach, babysit, water skie, sleep-walk, sun-bathe,  Verb + Adjective: double-check.  Particle + Verb: overdo, outreach, overlook, upgrade.  *Adverb + Verb: ill-treat, dry-clean, cold-shoulder. Compound adjectives may consist of: *Frank p. 110-111.  Noun+ Adjective:water proof, sky blue, air-borne, nationwide,  Adjective + Adjective: icy cold, easygoing, good-hearted, 130   Noun + Noun: coffee-table,  Adjective + Noun:  Prticle + Noun:  Noun + Verb:  adjective/adverb+noun  verb + particle:  *noun + participle: French-speaking, good-looking.  *adjective + past participle: absent-minded, blue-eyed, near- sighted, short-tempered.  *pp : a wall-to-wall carpet.  *infinitive: a hard-to-please employer.  *coordinated elements: a life-and-death struggle.  set phrases or especially coined phrases: a get-rich-quick scheme *noun compounds may function as adjective compounds. Such compounds usually require hyphen as in: -a high school girl, twentieth century literature. Compound adverbs such as: in-sight, overnight, Rhyme-motivated compounds (Reduplicatives) (Quirk) Some compounds have two or more elements which are either identical or only slightly different, as in goody-goody. The differece between the two elements may be in the initial consonats, as in walkie-talkie, or in the medial vowels.eg: criss-cross. Most of the reduplicatives are highly informal or familiar, and many derive from the nursery, eg: din-din (dinner). Most common use of reduplicatives are:  to imitate sound, eg: tick-tock.  to suggest altenating movments, eg: seesaw.  to disparage by suggesting instability, nonesense, insincerity, vacillation, eg: higgledy-piggledy, wishy- washy.  to intensify, eg: tip-top.  The majority of this class are noun compounds made up of two nouns. In these compounds, the rhyme between the 131  two elements is the major motivating factor in the formation, eg: hickety-pickety, stun-gun, flower-power, gang-bang, nitty-gritty, brain-drain, Stress patterns of English compounds plural formation of compounds. PHRASAL (SYNTACTIC) endocentric c. adj + adj: bitter + sweet: bitter-sweet d. adj (verb participal head + adverb (attribute): cast-off exocentric  N = adj (attribute) + N (head): red-cap  N = adj + adj: bitter-sweet  N = N (possessive, attribute) + N (head): bull's-eye  N = V (head) + N (object): lick-spittle  N = V (head) + Pro (object): dreadnought  N = V (head) + Adv (attribute): run about  N = Adj (verb participle, head) + Adv (attribute): cast- away NONPHRASAL (ASYNTACTIC) endocentric  N = N (attribute) + N (head): bus-ticket  N = V (in Ing form, attribute) + N : swimming-pool.  N = Adv (attribute) + N (head) : by-law  Adj = n (attribute) + N (head): fire-proof  Adj = N (attribute) +Vparticiple (head): fly-blown  V = n (object) + Verb (head): baby-sit  V = Adj (attribute) + V (head): dry-clean  Adv = Indefinite Adj (attribute) + Adv (head): somewhere Exocentric a. N = Adj (attribute) + n (head): long-legs b. N = N (object0 + V (head): boot-black c. N = Adv (attribute) _V (head): out-crop d. Pro = Indefinite (attribute) + n (head): some-body 132  e. Pro = indefinite (attribute) + nymeral (head): some-one 2 Arabic Compounds 192-092 ‫شاهين ص‬ Most Arabic compounds consist of lexical items separated by a blank such as: ‫ الحمﻰ الشوكية‬، ‫ مكة المكرمة‬،‫ ابو بكر‬. Very few compounds are agglutinated (spelled together) such a ‫ بعلبك‬، ‫حضرموت‬ ‫ لئﻼ‬، ‫ بينما‬، ‫ لكنما‬، ‫ انما‬، ‫ معديكرب‬، ‫ طولكرم‬، ‫ بختنﺻر‬، these are often referred to as mixed compounds ‫التركيب المزجي‬. No compounds in Arabic are hyphenated. Arabic compound nouns may be classified into the following classes: a. Primary Copmounds Primary compounds similar to English compounds consisting of Greek and Latin bases do not exist in Arabic. b. Secondary Compounds A compound refers to a group of words usually two – but sometimes more-joined together into one vocabulary unit that functions as a single part of speech. Arabic compounds consist of the following composite forms (Frank p. 7). c. COMPOUND NOUNS:  Noun + apposited noun: This group of compounds cover the following: - personal proper nouns: ‫ امرؤ‬، ‫ ام كلثوم‬، ‫ ام هاني‬، ‫ ذي يزن‬، ‫ محي الدين‬، ‫ ﻋبد ﷲ‬، ‫ابو بكر‬ ، ‫ شجرة الدر‬، ‫الﻘيس‬  Geographical names: ‫ ﻋين‬، ‫ بيت لحم‬، ‫ مكة المكرمة‬، ‫ خميس مشيط‬، ‫ كفر الشيخ‬، ‫دير ياﺳين‬ ‫ جزر‬، ‫ بحيرة طبريا‬، ‫ رأس تنورة‬، ‫ ﻋين الحلوة‬، ‫ شرم الشيخ‬، ‫جالوت‬ ‫ مدار الﺳرطان‬، ‫ تل الزﻋتر‬، ‫ خط اﻻﺳتواء‬، ‫الفلبين‬  Titles and ، ‫ رئيس الوزراء‬، ‫ رئيس الجمهورية‬، ‫ امير المؤمنين‬، ‫امين العاﺻمة‬ ‫ قاضي الﻘضاة‬، ‫ النائب العام‬، ‫ مديرالجامعة‬، ‫ وزير الخارجية‬، ‫اركان حرب‬ ·‫ وكيل النيابة‬، ‫ وكيل الوزارة‬، ‫ نائب الرئيس‬، 133 ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Others‬‬ ‫حفيظة نفوس ‪ ،‬ناطحة ﺳحاب ‪ ،‬مجلس النواب ‪ ،‬ﺳفينة فضاء ‪ ،‬ابن اوى ‪،‬‬ ‫رب اﻻﺳرة ‪ ،‬جراد البحر ‪ ،‬بﺳاط الريح ‪ ،‬ﻋباد الشمس ‪ ،‬مركب نﻘص ‪،‬‬ ‫تطبيع العﻼقات ‪ ،‬اﺳطول جوي ‪ ،‬شركة طيران ‪ ،‬حملة انتخابية ‪ ،‬ناطق‬ ‫رﺳمي‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Compounds numarals‬‬ ‫ثﻼث ﻋشر ‪ ،‬اثنان وﻋشرون‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Noun + adjective‬‬ ‫‪These are very productive in Arabic ,as in the following:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Geographical names‬‬ ‫اﻻتحاد الﺳوفياتي‪ ،‬بريطانيا العظمﻰ‪ ،‬الوﻻيات المتحدة اﻻمريكية ‪ ،‬المحيط‬ ‫الهادي البحراﻻحمر‪ ،‬الشرق اﻻقﺻﻰ‪ ،‬الجزرالبريطانية الﻘطب الجنوبي ‪،‬‬ ‫التحول الديموقراطي‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Subject names:‬‬ ‫الفيزياء النووية ‪ ،‬ﻋﻼج طبيعي ‪ ،‬طب شعبي ‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Other technical terms‬‬ ‫اﻻمعاء الدقيﻘة‪ ،‬الشعيرات الدموية‪ ،‬نزلة شعبية‪ ،‬نزلة ﺻدرية‪ ،‬انزﻻق‬ ‫ﻏضروفي‪ ،‬حديث قدﺳي‪ ،‬الهجرة النبوية‪ ،‬طائرة نفاثة‪ ،‬ﺳلم متحرك‪،‬‬ ‫ميناءجوي‪ ،‬ادوات ﺻحية‪ ،‬طبق طائر‪ ،‬ميناء جوي‪ ،‬حكم ذاتي‪ ،‬رد فعل‪،‬‬ ‫شبه جزيرة‪ ،‬ﺳلم متحرك‪ ،‬اﻻدب الجاهلي‪ ،‬العﺻورالوﺳطﻰ‪ ،‬العﺻرالوﺳيط‪،‬‬ ‫المجلس النيابي‪ ،‬اﻻمم المتحدة‪ ،‬النيابة العامة المجلس النيابي‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Noun + apposited noun + adjective‬‬ ‫جمهورية مﺻر العربية‪ ،‬اتحاد الجمهوريات الﺳوفياتية اﻻشتراكية‪ ،‬بطاقة‬ ‫الﺻرف اﻻلكتروني ‪ ،‬وﺳائل اﻻتﺻال الجماهيرية‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Noun + apposited N. + apposited N:‬‬ ‫قوة حفظ الﺳﻼم ‪ ،‬رئيس مجلس الوزراء ‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Particle + noun‬‬ ‫‪ is used as a prefix, making possible‬ﻻ ‪The negative particle‬‬ ‫‪the creation of words like:‬‬ ‫‪134‬‬  ،‫ ﻻﺳلكي‬،‫ ﻻﺳامية‬،‫ الﻼوجود‬،‫ ﻻمﺳؤولية‬،‫ ﻻشعور‬،‫ ﻻزهري‬،‫ﻻفلزات‬ ،‫ ﻻأخﻼقي‬،‫ ﻻتناظري‬،‫ الﻼﻏد‬،‫ ﻻادرية‬،‫ ﻻجنﺳي‬،‫ ﻻمحدود‬،‫ ﻻنهائي‬،‫ﻻنظام‬ ، ‫ الﻼﺳياﺳية‬،‫ ﻻمباﻻه‬،‫ ﻻوﻋي‬،‫ ﻻﺻفي‬،‫ ﻻمنهجي‬،‫ ﻻشيء‬،‫ﻻمائي‬.‫ الماﺻدق‬، ‫ الماجريات‬،‫ ﻻجفن‬،‫ ﻻمعكوﺳية‬،‫ ﻻمتزامن‬،‫ ﻻتزامل‬،‫ﻻتزاوجي‬  Particle + pronoun ‫ماهية‬ VERBAL COMPOUNDS These are very few verb compounds in Arabic. The following examples : ‫ ﺳر من رأى‬،ً‫ تأبط شرا‬،‫ رام ﷲ‬،‫ جاد المولﻰ‬،‫جاد الرب‬ COMPOUND ADVERBS: Adverb + particle: ‫ وقتئذ‬،‫ حينئذ‬،‫ اينما‬،‫حيثما‬ Compound Particles:.‫ لئن‬،‫ كلما‬،‫ ريثما‬،‫ حينما‬،‫ ايما‬،ّ‫ أﻻ‬،‫ طالما‬،‫ ﻋما‬،‫ ﻋمن‬،‫ فيمن‬،‫ ممن‬،‫ لئﻼ‬،‫ لكنما‬،‫مما‬ Rhyme-Motivated Compounds ‫التركيب اﻻتباعي‬ ،‫ حيص بيص‬،‫ ثَ ْعد َم ْعد‬،‫ هرج ومرج‬،‫ بثير بذير‬،‫ كثير بثير‬،‫ كل من هب ودب‬،ً‫اهﻼً وﺳهﻼ‬.(‫ خراب يباب )شاهين‬،‫ ﺳاﻏب ﻻﻏب‬،‫حﺳن بﺳن‬ Arabic compounds have a gender assignment. The plural formation of compound nouns. compounds can often be identified whenever their inflectional characte‫ه‬ristics differ from those of the elements of which they are formed. sress assignment 1. Comparison English makes extensive use of compounding; Arabic very limited use.Arabic compounds are phrases with normal word-order, compressed into two or three lexical items. Those patterns of compounds that exist in Arabic are not particualrly productive in making new formations. These patterns are outside the ordinary derivational structure of Arabic. 2. Translation from English  Before translating primary compounds into Arabic, the student can break up each compound into its component parts, i.e., the 135  roots, prefixes and suffixes; determine the meaning of each component and then determine the meaning of the whole term by adding up the meanings of all the components starting from the end backwards. The following are examples:  appendicitis = appendi + c + itis = ‫ زائدة = التهاب الزائدة‬+‫التهاب‬  photosynthesis = photo + synthesis = ‫ ضوء = تركيب ضوئي‬+ ‫تركيب‬  cardiovascular = cardi + o + vascul + ar ‫ قلب‬+ ‫ اوﻋية‬+ ِ‫متعلق بـ‬  pathology = patho + logy = ‫ مرض= ﻋلم اﻻمراض‬+ ‫ﻋلم‬  geology = geo + logy ‫ ارض = ﻋلم اﻻرض‬+ ‫ﻋلم‬  autobiography = auto + bio + graphy ‫ ذات = كتابة الﺳيرة الذاتية‬+ ‫ حياة‬+ ‫كتابة‬  Although compounds are made up of two or more parts each of which may be used as a separate word, but they are used as single terms. English compound verbs whether they consist of N+V, V+Adj, Particle +V, Adv+ V should be translated by a verb: student teach ‫ يتدرب ﻋلﻰ التدريس‬، babysit ، ‫يرﻋﻰ طفل‬ water ski‫ ﻋلﻰ الماء‬، ‫ يتزلج‬sleep-walk‫ ينام اثناء النوم‬،sunbathe ‫يتشمس‬ ‫يﺳتلﻘي في الشمس‬/double-check ‫ يتأكد‬، overdo ‫ يبالغ في ﻋمل‬، outreach ‫ يمد يده لـ‬overlook ‫ يﺳهو ﻋن‬، upgrade ‫ يرفع الدرجة‬، ill- treat ‫ يﺳيء المعاملة‬dry-clean ‫ ينظف ﻋلﻰ الناشف‬.The morphemes - s, -ing, -ed, -er are added to the second element of the verb compounds. The majority of compound verbs are not formed by putting two lexemes together to form a new verb, but by back-formations or conversion from compound nouns (Adams), compounds formed of particles and verbs seem to be general verbal formations.  English compound adverbs are translated into prepositional phrases: overnight; in-sight· ‫في مدى الرؤية‬ 136  English rhyme-motivated compounds are not translated word for word; their connotative meaning is translated, eg: hickety- pickety; stun-gun; flower-power; gang-bang; nitty-gritty; brain-drain.  English compound nouns and compound adjectives should be translated as a unit regardless of the class of the components of the compound. The Arabic equivalent to English compound nouns should be a noun and to compound adjective should be a modifier. Sometimes the equivalent is a compound noun or a compound modifier and sometimes it is a single word. o In some compounds one element modifies the other. The modifying element may precede or it may follow t. In most English compounds the first element modifies the second. Differing classes may occupy either position in the compound, a noun as in woman teacher; an adjectives as in greenhouse; a pronoun as in she-goat; a verb as in racehorse. When translating a compound, begin by translating the second element. The first word is the qualifier and the second is the head.: flower garden ‫حديﻘة زهور‬ garden flower ‫زهرة حديﻘة‬ race horse ‫حﺻان ﺳباق‬ horse race ‫ﺳباق خيل‬ woman teacher ‫مدرﺳة‬ greenhouse ‫بيت محمي‬ village green ‫خضرة الريف‬ green village ‫قرية خضراء‬ Grammar school ‫نوع من المدارس في بريطانيا‬ school grammar ‫الﻘواﻋد )كمادة( التي تدرس في المدرﺳة‬ (*Eckersley p. 21-22) 137  The meaning of some compounds cannot be determined from either component but lies outside the center of the compound. An external element must be added to interpret the compound. For example, a greenback is not ‘a back that is green’ but rather ‘an object that possesses a green back’, usually a dollar bill; similarly blockhead, tenderfoot, whiteface. In English such compounds reflect lack of compassion, as do redneck, baldhead, bigmouth. blue-eyed, good-hearted, and absent- minded  Compounds may be usefully interpreted in relationship to other syntactic patterns of the language.  The meanings compounds convey to us come more from the experience of hearing them together than from our ability to anlyze them into separate parts.  The compound may precede the noun it refers to (a ten-year- old boy) or follow the noun (a boy ten years old).  The first problem in dealing with compounds is how to distinguish phrasal compounds from simple phrases. Recourse must be had to additional non-syntactic features such as prosodic characteristics of stress, pitch or juncture, the use of special forms of the constituent elements, or the possibility of either interrupting the construction or expanding it by the addition of further modifiers. In languages that have stress systems, there are often special patterns of modulation signaling compounds as such. The presence of the juncture- phenomena (internal disjuncture) assists in identifying compounds.  It is single stress that differentiates compound nouns from word groups. In word groups both elements take stress, eg 'gold 'chain, 'Oxford 'University, 'woman 'doctor, if the group consists of more than two words, each word receives primary stress: 'Tottenham 'Court 'Road. Eckersley p. 21. 138  Context helps in the translation of compounds: inflection, concord or of government, word orders are important in determining the meaning of a compound. 5. Translation From Arabic Arabic compound nouns that consist of a noun and an apposited noun cannot be translated into English. Such nouns are only transliterated. In Most proper names, both elements of the compound are capitalized:‫ أبو بكر‬Abu Bakr; ‫ ﻋبد ﷲ‬Abdulla; ‫ محي الدين‬Muhyiddin; ‫ ذي يزن‬Thee Yazan; ‫ ام هاني‬Om Hani; ‫ام‬ ‫ كلثوم‬Om Kulthoom; ‫ امرؤ الﻘيس‬Mru'ul-kays; ‫ شجرة الدر‬Shajaratu -DDurr. Arabic compound geographical names are translated into their English equivalent: ‫ جزر الفلبين‬The Philippine, ‫ خط اﻻﺳتواء‬the Equator, ‫ مدار الﺳرطان‬the Tropic of Cancer, ‫بحيرة طبريا‬ Tabariyya Lake, ‫ دير ياﺳين‬Dair yaseen, ‫ كفر الشيخ‬Kafr Al-Shaikh , ‫ خميس مشيط‬Khamis Mushait, ‫ مكة المكرمة‬Holy Makkah, ‫بيت‬ ‫ لحم‬Bethlehem, ‫ ﻋين جالوت‬Ein Jaloot, ‫ شرم الشيخ‬Sharm El- Shaikh. An atlas or a gazeteer may be consulted to find out the English equvalent. Geographical name are usually capitalized. Both elements of the compound should be capitalized. Arabic compounds that refer to titles and rankes are translated into their English equivalent titles and ranks. Literary translation should not be used here. ‫ امين العاﺻمة‬mayor, ‫ رئيس الجمهورية‬president, ‫رئيس الوزراء‬ prime minister, ‫ اركان حرب‬general staff, ‫ وزير الخارجية‬foreign minister, ‫ مدير الجامعة‬president of the university, ‫النائب العام‬ public prosecutor, ‫ قاضي الﻘضاة‬chief judge, ‫ نائب الرئيس‬vice- president, ‫ وكيل وزارة‬under-secretary, ‫وكيل النيابة‬ Other Arabic compounds that consist of a noun + an apposited noun may have a single word equivalent or a compound: ‫ حفيظة نفوس‬identity card ‫ ناطحة ﺳحاب‬skyscraper ‫مجلس النواب‬House of Representatives ‫ ﺳفينة فضاء‬spaceship ‫ابن‬ ‫آوى‬jackal ‫ رب اﻻﺳرة‬head of the family ‫ ﻋباد الشمس‬sunflower 139  ‫مركب نﻘص‬inferiority complex ‫تطبيع العﻼقات‬ naturalize relationships ‫ جرادالبحر‬crayfish ‫ بﺳاط الريح‬flying carpet. Arabic geographical names that consist of a noun + an adjective or a noun + apposited noun + adjective are translated into their English equivalent geographical name: ‫ اﻻتحاد الﺳوفياتي‬The Soviet Union ‫ بريطانيا العظمﻰ‬Great Britain ‫ الوﻻيات المتحدة اﻻمريكية‬The United States of America ‫المحيط الهادي‬ The Pacific Ocean ‫ البحر اﻻحمر‬The Red Sea ‫ الشرق اﻻقﺻﻰ‬The Far East ‫ الجزر البريطانية‬The British Isle ‫ الﻘطب الشمالي‬The South Pole. Arabic compounds consisting of a noun+an apposited noun+ adjective are translated into their English equivalent geographical names or technical terms: ‫جمهورية مﺻر العربية‬ Arab Republic of Egypt ‫ جمهوريات اﻻتحاد الﺳوفياتي اﻻشتراكية‬Union of the Soviet socialist Republics ‫ بطاقة الﺻرف اﻻلكتروني‬instant access card ‫ وﺳائل اﻻتﺻال الجماهيرية‬mass media. Arabic nouns consisting of N + apposited N + Apposited N are translated as follows: ‫ قوة حفظ الﺳﻼم‬peace-keeping force ‫رئيس‬ ‫ مجلس الوزراء‬prime minister. Arabic compounds consisting of the particle ‫ ﻻ‬+ N are translated by different negative prefixes as follows: ‫الﻼفلزات‬ non-metals; ‫ الﻼمﺳؤولية‬irresponsibility; ‫ الﻼﺳامية‬anti-semitism; ‫ الﻼﺳلكي‬wireless; indefinite; endless; ‫ ﻻجنﺳي‬asexual, ‫الﻼادرية‬ agnosticism; ‫ ﻻمتناظر‬asymmetrical; ‫ الﻼأخﻼقية‬immorality; ‫ ﻻمتزامن‬asynchronic; ‫ ﻻﺻفي ﻻمنهجي‬extra-curricular; ‫الﻼشعور‬ subconscious. Arabic compounds consisting of a particle + N are not translated into the equivalent particle and the equivalent pronoun, but the equivalent meaning. Thus, ‫ ماهية‬is translated into essence. Arabic verbal compounds (predicative compounds) that represent proper names cannot be translated into English, they 140 are trnsliterated only: ‫ جاد الرب‬Jadar-rabbu; ‫ جاد المولﻰ‬Jadal- mawla; ‫ رام ﷲ‬Ramallah; ً‫ تأبط شرا‬Ta'abbata Sharran; ‫ﺳر من رأى‬ Surra Man Ra'aa. Arabic compounds adverbs have no equivalent compound adverbs, but what is translated is their meaning: ‫حيثما اينما‬ wherever; ، ‫ وقتئذ حينئذ‬then, at that time. Arabic compound particles are not translated into English compound particles, but what is translated is the meaning of the particle. ‫ مما‬of which; ‫ لكنما‬but; ‫ لئﻼ‬lest should; ‫ ممن‬of which; ‫ ﻋمن‬whoever; ‫ ﻋما‬، ‫ فيمن‬of what, about; ‫ طالما‬as long as; ّ‫ أﻻ‬that, not to; ‫ ايما‬whoever; ‫ حينما‬whenever; ‫ ريثما‬until; ‫ كلما‬whenver, the more ‫ لئن‬if. The context helps in determining the meaning of each compound particle. Any Arabic dictionary of particles should be consulted for the meaning of each particle. Some partices are translated by relative pronoun some by a conditional conjunction, and others by Arabic rhyme-motivated compounds are not translated word for word. The connotative meaning of the compound is translated into English. To find out the meaning of such rhyme-motivated compounds, Arabic dictionaries xxxxx of should be consulted. Thus ‫ ﺳاﻏب ﻻﻏب‬، ‫ حﺳن بﺳن‬، ‫حيص بيص‬ ،‫ خراب يباب‬in a dilemma; ‫ حركاتي وﺳكناتي‬my whereabouts. Sine compounds may be written as two separate words, as hyphenated, or spelled as two separate words, a good dictionary should be consulted if there is doubt about how a compound is spelled (Frank p. 8). In speech many noun compounds are stressed on the first part of the compound (arm'chair), other noun compounds receive a double stress on both elements ('woman 'teacher). 141  Word-Formation Processes 1. Acronyms Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words in a phrase. new acronyms are freely produced, particularly for names of organizations. Acronyms pronounced as sequences of letters are called alphabetisms. The letters may represent full words : U.S.A. => United States of America; or they represent elements in a compound or just parts of a word, eg: T.V. ==> television, GHQ General Headquarters. Many acronyms are pronouns as words, eg: NASA, laser. (Quirk, English Examples : NASA, UNESCO, Radar, Laser, USA, UN, USSR, RBC, T.B., Arabic examples: In Arabic some acronyms are found in the Koran such as:‫ طه كهيعص‬، ‫ يس‬، ‫ طس‬، ‫ حم‬. Other acronyms that exist in Modern Standard Arabic like ،‫ الناتو‬، ‫ اليونيﺳيف‬، ‫ اﻻوابك‬، ‫ ارامكو‬، ‫اﻻوبك اليونﺳكو‬ are borrowed from English. 2. Abbreviations An abbreviation is created when a single term is not written in its full form, but a certain part (a letter or letters) of the term is omitted. English Examples : k.m. (kilometer); c.m. (centimeter ;(Eng. (English); bldg. (building); P.O. Box (Post Office Box); temp. (temperature); p. (page); rdg. (reading); comp. (comprehension). English Examples : not very productive 142 ‫ م‬، (‫ ص )ﺻفحة‬، (‫ ش )شارع‬، (‫ﺳا )كيلومتر في الﺳاﻋة‬/‫ كم‬، (‫ث )متر في الثانية‬/‫م‬ ‫ ح‬، (‫ يد )هيدروجين‬،(‫ أ·د· )اﻻﺳتاذ الدكتور‬، (‫ د· )دكتور‬، (‫ أ· )اﺳتاذة‬، (‫)مهندس‬ ، (‫ نق )نﺻف قطر‬، (‫ ن )نتروجين‬، (‫ فو )فوﺳفور‬، (‫ أ )اكﺳجين‬، (‫ نح )نحاس‬، (‫)حديد‬ ‫ كم‬، (‫ ﺳم )ﺳنتيمتر‬، (‫ دﺳم )ديﺳمتر‬، (‫ كﻐم )كيلوﻏرام‬، (‫ م )متر‬، (‫ط )النﺳبة التﻘريبية‬ ‫ ج·م·ع· )جمهورية‬، (‫ ش·م·ك· )شركة مﺳاهمة كويتية‬، (‫ ق·م· )قبل الميﻼد‬، (‫)كيلومتر‬ ‫ واس )وكالة اﻻنباء‬،(‫ د· ك· )دينار كويتي‬، (‫ ر·س· )﷼ ﺳعودي‬، (‫مﺻر العربية‬ ‫ نجل‬111 ، (‫ ﻋرب )اللﻐة العربية‬101 ، (‫ وفا )وكالة اﻻنباء الفلﺳطينية‬، (‫الﺳعودية‬ (‫ كيم )الكيمياء‬202 ، (‫)اللﻐة اﻻنجليزية‬ 3. Word Coinage=neologisms=word manufacture a neologism is a new word or a new meaning for established words (Webster). English A new word can be coined (created) out right (with no morphological, phonological, or orthographic motivation whatsoever) to fit some purpose. Specific brand names are now often used as the general name for many brands of the actual product. Kodak, nylon, Dacron, xerox, Vaseline, Frigidaire, kleenex, Jell-o, thermos, teflon. Computer programs have been used to provide new names which do not have etymologies. (Bauer). Arabic : neologisms existing in arabic are borrowed. ‫ كلينكس‬، ‫ نيدو‬، ‫بامبرز‬ 4. Blends Blends are compounds created by clipping and blending elements of a complex term. Many blends have only a short life and are very informal, but some have become more or less fully accepted in the language. (Quirk) English Calitech (California Technical Institute), brunch (brekfast + lunch), smog (smoke + fog), motel (motor + hotel), transistor (transfer + resistor), Eurasia (Europe and Asia), 143 Arabic ‫شاهين‬ ‫ اوراﺳيا )اوروبا‬، (‫ افرواﺳيوي )افريﻘي واﺳيوي‬، ( ‫كهروطيﺳي )كهربائي ومﻐناطيﺳي‬ ، (‫ متشاجه )تشابه جهة‬، (‫ ﺳرمن )ﺳار اثناء النوم‬، (‫ ضبخن )ضباب ودخان‬، (‫وآﺳيا‬ (‫ فذلك )فذلك كذا‬، (‫ بﺳمل )بﺳم ﷲ‬، ( ‫ حوقل )ﻻ حول وﻻ قوة اﻻ با‬، (‫حﺳبل )حﺳبي ﷲ‬ ‫ ﻋبدري )ﻋبد‬، (‫ حيعل )حي ﻋلﻰ الﺻﻼة‬، (‫ ﺳبحل )ﺳبحان ﷲ‬، ( ‫ حمدل )الحمد‬، ‫ ضبطر )ضبط‬، (‫ ﻋبﻘﺳي )ﻋبد الﻘيس‬، ‫ تعبﻘس‬، (‫ ﻋبشمﺳي )ﻋبد شمس‬، ‫ تعبشم‬، (‫الدار‬ ‫ برقش‬، (‫ خرمش )خرم وشرم‬، (‫ ﺻلدم )ﺻلد و ﺻدم‬، (‫ ﺻهلق )ﺻهل وﺻلق‬، (‫وضبر‬. (‫ برقع )برق ورقع‬، (‫)برق ونﻘش‬ The adverbs ‫ ﻏب‬، ‫ قبل‬، ‫ تحت‬، ‫ بين‬، ‫ فوق‬are used as a prefix and gives terms like ، ‫ قببلوغ‬، ‫ قبمنطﻘي‬، ‫ قبتاريخ‬، ‫ ﻏبمدرﺳي‬، ‫ ﻏببلوغ‬، ‫ﻏبجليدي‬: ‫ فوبنفﺳجي‬، ‫ بيﻘاري‬، ‫ بيجبلي‬، ‫ بيخلوي‬، ‫ تحبحري‬، ‫قبمهنية‬ 5. Back-formations Back-formations are the creation of derived word forms by analogy, either by dropping an affix, or by creating a new base form: English peddler, peddle; editor, edit; hawker, hawk; New York, New Yorker; author, auth; enthusiasm, enthused; pease, pea; television, televise; donation, donate; Arabic Very productive ‫ )قانون( تﻘنين‬، ‫فوج‬ ّ (‫ )فوج‬، ‫ )تلفزيون( تلفز‬، ‫ فهرس فهرس‬، ‫بوب‬ ّ (‫)باب‬ ‫ )بﺳتان( بﺳتن‬، ‫ برمج‬، ‫ برمجة‬، ‫ )برنامج( مبرمج‬، ‫ كهرب‬، ‫مكهرب‬، ‫ كهرباء‬، ‫مﻘنن قنن‬ ، ‫تﺳوق‬ ّ (‫ )ﺳوق‬،‫ )شجرة( ش ّجر‬، 6. Shortening (clipping) Clipping denotes the subtraction of one or more syllables from a word. The clipped form tends to be used in informal style. English shortening may occur at the beginning of the word as in phone==> telephone, airplane, plane ; at the end of the word as in photo ==> photograph mathematics, math; gymnasium, 144  gym; pianoforte, piano; saxephone, sax; facsimile, fax; ; or at both ends as in flu ==> influenza. Arabic Shortening is not very common in Arabic. Syllables cannot be subtracted from arabic words except in the following cases: ‫قاض‬ ‫قاضي‬ ‫كتابا الولد‬ ‫كتابان‬ ‫معلمو المدرﺳة‬ ‫معلمون‬ ‫لم يدرﺳوا‬ ‫يدرﺳون‬ ‫لم يكتبا‬ ‫يكتبان‬ ‫حليم‬ ‫ﻋبد الحليم‬ ‫منعم‬ ‫ﻋبد المنعم‬ ‫مكة‬ ‫مكة المكرمة‬ Phrases can be shortened into single words. This is most common in informal speech. ‫العويس >== ﺳوق العويس‬ ‫اﻵداب >== كلية اﻻداب‬ ‫التخﺻﺻي >== المﺳتشفﻰ التخﺻﺻي‬ ‫المملكة العربية الﺳعودية ==< الﺳعودية‬ ‫مكة المكرمة ==< مكة‬ 7. Extension New words may be formed from already existing words, which appear to be analyzable, i.e., composed of more than one morpheme. English television: televise; general: generalize, generalization, generalizable, generalizability; grammar: grammatical, grammaticality, grammaticalization; Arabic.‫ مﺻنع تجميع‬، ‫ مجمع‬، ‫ جامعة‬، ‫ جمعية‬:‫جمع‬ ‫ محاﺳبي‬،‫ محاﺳبية‬، ‫ محاﺳبة‬، ‫ محاﺳب‬، ‫ آلة حاﺳبة‬، ‫ حاﺳب‬، ‫ كشف حﺳاب‬:‫حﺳي‬.‫ حاﺳب الي‬، ‫ حاﺳوب‬:‫حﺳب‬. ‫ﺳد‬ َ ‫مؤك‬ ، ‫د‬ ‫ﺳ‬ ِ ‫مؤك‬ ، ‫د‬ ‫ﺳ‬ ُ ‫تأك‬ ، ‫اكﺳدة‬ ، ‫اكاﺳيد‬ ، ‫ اكﺳيدات‬، ‫ اكﺳيد‬:‫اكﺳجين‬ 145 8. Conversion Quirk Conversion is the derivational process by which an item changes its word-class without the addition of an affix. verb => Noun *doubt, *love, *laugh, *walk, *catch, *cheat, *wrap, *throw, *walk, *retreat, *turn. adjective => Noun *daily, *comic, *young, new-borns, Noun => Verb *bottle, price, *corner, *mask, *peel, *brake, *knife, *nurse, *referee, *cash, *mail, *ship, *motor, wrap. Adjective => verb *calm, *dirty, *empty. non-count N => count N two coffees, a difficulty proper => common a mercedes, a Shakespeare, a Freudian, It is Greek to me. intransitive =>transitive run, walk. transitive to intransitive wash, open, 6. in some cases, conversion is approximate rather than complete, i.e. a word, in the course of changing its grammatical function, may undergo a slight change of pronunciation or spelling. The most important kinds of alteration are voicing of final consonants as in advice => advise, thief=> thieve, => sheath=> sheathe, house=> house and shift of stressas in conduct, conflict, contrast, convert, convict, export, extract, import, insult, permit, present, 146  produce, rebel, record. When verbs or two syllables are converted into nouns, the stress is sometimes shifted from the second to the first syllable. Arabic While conversion is an extremely productive way of producing new words in English, Arabic makes no use of conversion. It is outside the ordinary derivational structure of Arabic. 9. Onomatopoeia It is a modified type of coining in which a word is formed as an imitation of some natural sound associated with the object or action involved. It involves a model that serves as the basis for the new word, but unlike those of other processes, the onomatopoeic model is extra-linguistic - it lies outside of language itself. Words that represent animal noises were originally attempts to imitate natural sounds. English tinkle, buzz, pop, moo, bow-wow, mew, chickadee Arabic ‫ زئير اﻻﺳد‬، ‫ ﻋواء الذئب‬، ‫ نباح الكلب‬، ‫ ازيز الطائرات‬، ‫ خرير الماء‬، ‫مواء الﻘط‬ ،‫ شرشر‬، ‫ خرخر‬،‫ جرجر‬،‫ ثرثر‬، ‫ي المدافع بربر‬ ّ ‫ دو‬، ‫ خشخشة الحلي‬، ‫خوار البﻘر‬، ، ‫ ﺻلﺻل‬، ‫ ﺳلﺳل‬، ‫ زلزل‬،‫ جلجل خلخل‬، ‫ دلدل‬، ‫ قهﻘه‬،‫ كركر‬،‫ فرفر‬،‫ﺻرﺻر‬ ، ‫ دﻏدغ‬، ‫ لعلع‬، ‫ كمكم ململ‬، ‫ ﻋمعم‬، ‫ شمشم‬، ‫ زمزم‬، ‫ دمدم‬، ‫ فلفل‬، ‫ قلﻘل‬، ‫ﻏلﻐل‬ 10. Borrowings Borrowings (transferred terms) are linguistic units introduced into a language from another language.This happens when for the new concept no term is available or can be easily formed. Borrowed terms can be borrowed from the same language or from another language. Borrowings from foreign languages can be : a. a direct transfer of a term as it is b. a loan translation c. a loan word. 147 English 1 Borrowings from common language: bed, envelope, cell, nut, crane, wing, conjunction, current, 2 borrowings from foreign languages: Ar: algebra , alkali , arsenal,almanac. L: bacteria , strata , data , axis , focus. Fr: machine , technique , attache. It: pizza , spaghetti , balcony , corridor. Rus: tsar , rouble , tundra , sputnik. Per: coffee, fez , kiosk , tulip , caravan. Ger: dock , monsoon , reef , yacht. Arabic  Borrowings from common language: ، ‫ وارد‬، ‫ تﺻفية‬، ‫ جناح‬، ‫ خلية‬، ‫ يعالج‬، ‫ دﻋاية‬، ‫ مجمع‬، ‫ جامعة‬، ‫مجتمع‬ ‫ تيار‬، ‫ اتجاهات‬، ‫ قومية‬، ‫ طيران‬، ‫ ﺳياﺳة‬، ‫ تطورات‬،‫ﺻادر‬  Borrowings from foreign languages ،‫ فيروس‬،‫ بكتيريا‬،‫ تلفون‬،‫ انزيم‬،‫ هرمون‬،‫ باص‬،‫ تلفزيون‬،‫ كمبيوتر‬،‫هليوكبتر‬ ،‫ كاﺳيت‬،‫ فيديو‬،‫ كاميرا‬،‫ فيلم‬،‫ تكنولوجيا‬،‫ اكﺳجين‬،‫ انﺳولين‬،‫هيموجلوبين‬ ، ‫ بوليس‬،‫ تراخوما‬،‫ انيميا‬،‫ لوكيميا‬،‫ بﻼزما‬،‫ ﺳيتوبﻼزم‬،‫الكترون‬  Loan Words ‫ ورشة‬،‫ برلمان‬،‫ بركان‬،‫ برنامج‬، ‫ بﺳترة‬،‫اﺳتراتيجية‬  loan translation It is a way of creating new vocabulary items by translating the morphemes of foreign words into native morphemes. ، ‫ ﻏببلوغ‬،‫ قبتاريخي‬،‫ بيخلوي‬،‫ ﻻمعﻘول‬،‫ ﻻنظام‬،‫ قهوين‬،‫ شايين‬،‫ ﺻوتيم‬،‫حرفيم‬ ،‫ حديديك‬،‫حديدوز‬،‫ فوﺳفوريك‬،‫ كربونيك‬،‫ نتريك‬،‫ كبريتيك‬،‫ كبريتوز‬،‫تحبحري‬ ‫ نحاﺳيك‬،‫نحاﺳوز‬ 11. periphrasis ‫ التحول‬،‫ وﺳائل اﻻﻋﻼم واﻻتﺻال الجماهيرية‬،‫بطاقة الﺻرف اﻻلكتروني‬.‫ اﻋادة انتشار الﻘوات‬،‫ قوة حفظ الﺳﻼم‬،‫ تطبيع العﻼقات‬،‫الديموقراطي‬ a stem= when inflectional elements have been taken away from a form, what is left is a stem. 148 morphology consists of two layers: an outer oneinvolving inflectionally bound forms and an inner one the layer of derivation. a stem consisting of more than one morpheme is termed a derived stem. These, in their turn, break down into primary and secondary derived stems. In both of these types we distinguish between derivatives, which are formed by the use of affixes of one type or another, and compounds, in which two or more elements are joined together without the use of derivational affixes. PRIMARY DERIVATIVES PRIMARY COMPOUNDS receive telegraph SECONDARY DERIVATIVES SECONDARY COMPIOUNDS manly baby-sit primary means not involving a stem, i.e., involving forms which are bound on the derivational level; secondary means involving one or more stems,i.e., forms which are themselves susceptible of use in inflection. In a primary derivative, none of its constituent element is a stem, but one is a derivational affix, and the other is a derivationally bound form termed a base. Primary derivatives are widespread in our learned vocabulary of Greek and Latin origin as in recive, deceive, conceive. In a secondary derivation, one of its immediate constituents is a stem, and the other is a derivational affix of some derivational foramtions as in manly, attractive. If no derivtational affix is involved, and the constituents of a derived stem are simply juxtaposed-with or without some meaningless connecting element-the formation is a compound. If two bases (derivationally bound forms) are joined together in this way, we have a primary compound or base-compound. Most of our examples of this kind occur in our learned Graeco-latin vocabulary, as in telegraph. If both or all of the constituents of the compound are stems, we have a secondary compound or stem-compound. English has has at least one fairly widespread type of stem compound, in our combinations of noun plus veb such as baby-sit. 149  many derived forms are very complex, involving two or more layers of derivation. (Hall). Before translating an English compound into Arabic, it would be helpful if the student identifies the type of compound.There are four types of compounds: coordinate, subordinate, possessive, and synthetic. Coordinate compounds consist of two parallel elements in which one element is repeated, eg: pitter-patter, flim-flam. Some coordinate compounds are additive as in thirteen 'three' and 'ten'.The Arabic equivalent to English coordinate compounds would be: pitter-patter: flim-flam: thirteen: ‫ثﻼث ﻋشرة‬ In subordinade compounds one element modifies the other. The modifying element may precede or it may follow. Differing classes may occupy either position in the compound, a noun as in woman teacher; an adjectives as in greenhouse; a pronoun as in shegoat; a verb as in racehorse. Most English compounds are subordinate with the first element modifying the second. The Arabic equivalent to English subordiante compounds would be a noun +a modifier: high school ‫مدرﺳة ثانوية‬ In possessive compounds, an external element must be added to interpret the compound. For example, a greenback is not a back of a given color but rather an object that possesses a green back, usually a dollar bill; similarly blockhead, tenderfoot, whiteface. In English such compounds reflect lack of compassion, as do redneck, baldhead, bigmouth. The meaning of possessive compounds cannot be determined from either component but lies outside the center of the compound. blue-eyed, good-hearted, absent-minded, Compounds may be usefully interpreted in relationship to other syntactic patterns of the language. Synthetic compounds are compact expressions. But they are commonly shortened in some way, eg: pickpocket reflects a sentence like 'he picks pockets'. compounds may reflect syntactic structures of 150 various types: typical sentence patterns, sentence patterns with the 'have' relationship, sentence patterns with attributive relationships. (Lehmann) adjectives may be embedded in nominal constructions with no special marker (black coffee). For analyzing embedded constructions, the term head is used to refer to the center of the construction, the term attribute for the modifier. (Lehmann) an endocentric construction is one in which the primary constituent or constituents are comprable to the complete construction. An exocentric construction is one in which the primary constituent or constituents do not function like the complete construction. (Lehmann) Through substitution replacements or substitutes, often called pro-forms, may stand for the central entities of basic patterns. Substitutes may be used in basic patterns or when basic patterns are added to one another. Occasionally the replacement for an entity may be zero, as in I like this tie better than that one. As substitutes for nouns, pronouns are used in many languages. Substitutes may also be used for verbs. (Lehmann) Constructions may also exhibit indications of interrelationships through inflection or other patterns involving selection; these indications are the result of concord or of government phenomena. Government is the determination of one form by another.Verbs and prepositions govern specific forms in English. (Lehmann) The first problem in dealing with compounds is how to distinguish phrasal compounds from simple phrases. Recourse must be had to additional non-syntactic features such as prosodic characteristics of stress, pitch or juncture, the use of special forms of the constituent elements, or the possibility of either interrupting the construction or expanding it by the addition of further modifiers. 151 In languages that have stress systems, there are often special patterns of modulation signalling compounds as such. The presence of the juncture-phenomena (internal disjuncture) assists in identifying compounds. Compounds are normally unsplittable and cannot be fully expanded. 'beware' and 'be very aware'. In languages with extensive inflectional systems and use of stem-vowels, compounds are frequently distinguished by use of special connecting vowels. In languages with extensive inflectional systems, compounds can often be identified whenever their inflectional characteristics differ from those of the elements of which they are formed. No matter what the gender or plural formation of the noun comprising the second element of such a compound, the compound as a whole is always masculine and invariable, thus setting it apart morphologically from its component forms. The contrast between endocentric and exocentric is present in compounds as well as in derivatives. If the function of the compound is the same as that of one of its elements, it is to be classed as endocentric. if the compound belongs to a form-class or subdivision of one different from that of its elements, then it is exocentric. (Hall). The compound may precede the noun it refers to (a ten-year- old boy) or follow the noun (a boy ten years old). the meanings they convey to us come more from the experi 152  Exercises Transliterate the following English words, then give changes that took place in pronouncing and transliterating those words. microfilm o manganese o Pasteur o Czechoslovakia Translate the following singular and plural nouns: o parentheses o a flock of geese o economics o crew o lady doctor o stimuli o ‫دجاجات‬ o ‫دجاج‬ o ‫ﻋجوز‬ o ‫الكشاف‬ Translate the following proper nouns: o ‫الرئيس لنكولن‬ o ‫نهر التايمز‬ o ‫ كوكب ﻋطارد‬. o the Midland Bank o Christianity o The Geneva Convention Translate the following Arabic compounds , then give a rule for translating this type of compounds. o ‫ﺳكرتير ﻋام‬ o ‫ مدير ﻋام‬. o ‫ طبيب ﻋام‬. o ‫ مفتش ﻋام‬. o ‫تعليم ﻋام‬ 153  Translate the following neologisms, blends, abbreviations, back- formations, and borrowings· o B.A. o corp. o lb. o POW o xerox o ‫نق‬ o ‫حيوي‬ o ‫ط‬ o ‫برمائيات‬ o ‫تيار كهربائي‬ Give 5 Arabic titles used for kings , presidents, ministers, princes, administrators...etc. and their English equivalents. Translate the following Arabic names of instruments. Examine them and their English equivalents and give a rule that explains when such Arabic terms are coined. o ‫آلة تﺳجيل‬ o ‫آلة تﺻوير‬ o ‫آلة حاﺳبة‬ o ‫آلة كاتبة‬ o ‫آلة تﺻوير المﺳتندات‬ o ‫آلة الجر‬ Translate the following derived words, then give rules that help in translating words containing the affix {en}. o enrich o enclose o oxen o brethren o sadden o darken o wooden o Silken Translate the underlined English idioms in standard Arabic: o He is every inch a gentleman. 154  o Yes, that goes without saying. o It was so dark. I couldn't tell who was who. o In my mind's eye. o She was a teacher that was liked by one and all. Translate the following Arabic idioms and cliches: ‫رأيته بأم ﻋيني‬ ‫بين المطرقة والﺳندان‬ ‫الﻘشة التي قﺻمت ظهر البعير‬ ‫طبﻘت شهرته اﻵفاق‬ ‫اخذ بيد فﻼن‬ Give 2 Arabic meanings for each ambiguous sentence below : 1. John finally decided on the boat. 2. The governor is a dirty street fighter. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to verb tense, mood, aspect...etc. o Don't ever open that door. o He wouldn't have anyone think badly of him. o I didn't use to get tired when I played tennis. o Could he have missed the train. o That he had failed once was no indication that he would fail again. Translate the underlined social formulas: o Goodness! I've just remembered. I've promised to meet friend in five minutes. I'm afraid I really must to go. I'm sorry. "Bye. o Why don't you come with us? there'll be tea and cookies. Oh! what a shame -- I am going to be somewhere else. Give the Arabic equivalent for each of the following cultural points: o Coffee drinking is very casual, often served without a saucer. 155  o Social security is a branch of the federal Department of Health , Education and Welfare. The following English adjectives have no comparative and superlative forms. Do their Arabic equivalents have comparative forms. When ? Why?(7 marks) o perfect o unique o monthly o square o Wooden There are a number of idiomatic constructions with the comparative. Give their Arabic equivalent. o Every day you are getting better and better. o he ran faster and faster. o his voice got weaker and weaker. Comparatives are used in clauses of proportion that express a proportionality or equivalence of tendency or degree between two circumstances. Translate the following clauses of proportion and give rules that would help in translating such clauses. o The harder you work , the more you will be paid.