Classical Conditioning PDF

‭Classical conditioning‬ ‭-‬ ‭Definition: a type of learning where a neural stimulus becomes associated with an‬ ‭unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response‬ ‭-‬ ‭Unconditioned Response (UR): a natural unlearned reaction to an unconditioned‬...

‭Classical conditioning‬ ‭-‬ ‭Definition: a type of learning where a neural stimulus becomes associated with an‬ ‭unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response‬ ‭-‬ ‭Unconditioned Response (UR): a natural unlearned reaction to an unconditioned‬ ‭stimulus → e.g. salivating when hearing food is in your mouth‬ ‭-‬ ‭Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that naturally triggers an unconditioned‬ ‭response without any prior learning. → e.g. the food that makes the dog salivate‬ ‭-‬ ‭Conditioned response (CR): a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus, which‬ ‭has become a conditioned stimulus → e.g. salivating when hearing a bell‬ ‭-‬ ‭Conditioned stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an‬ ‭unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response → e.g. the bell‬ ‭-‬ ‭Acquisition: the initial phase where the conditioned stimulus is paired with the‬ ‭unconditioned stimulus to establish a conditioned response‬ ‭-‬ ‭Latent inhibition: the phenomenon where a familiar stimulus takes longer to acquire‬ ‭meaning as a conditioned stimulus than a new stimulus‬ ‭-‬ ‭Renewal: the return of a conditioned response when an organism is placed back into the‬ ‭environment where the conditioning originally occurred, after extinction.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Stimulus generalisation‬ ‭-‬ ‭When a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli similar to the original‬ ‭conditioned stimulus‬ ‭-‬ ‭A dog that salivates to a bell may also salivate to a doorbell, even though its‬ ‭slightly different‬ ‭-‬ ‭Stimulus discrimination‬ ‭-‬ ‭The learned ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and other‬ ‭stimuli that do not predict the unconditioned stimulus‬ ‭-‬ ‭The dog only salivates to a specific bell and not similar sounds‬ ‭-‬ ‭The little albert experiment‬ ‭-‬ ‭CS: baby albert was conditioned to fear a white rat‬ ‭-‬ ‭US: by pairing it with a loud sound‬ ‭-‬ ‭CR: causing Albert to show fear‬ ‭-‬ ‭Albert generalised this fear to other similar stimuli‬ ‭-‬ ‭Shows how emotions like fear can be conditioned‬ ‭-‬ ‭Demonstrates stimulus generalisation‬ ‭Self-prioritisation effect‬ ‭-‬ ‭Definition: refers to the phenomenon where individuals show a preference for processing‬ ‭information related to themselves over information related to others‬ ‭-‬ ‭Evidence: research demonstrates that individuals respond faster and more accurately to‬ ‭stimuli associated with themselves compared to those associated with friends or‬ ‭strangers‬ ‭-‬ ‭Implications: for understanding social cognition and how individuals navigate their social‬ ‭environments. Suggests that self relevance can significantly influence cognitive‬ ‭processing and decision making‬ ‭Self-recognition‬  ‭-‬ ‭ efinition: refers to the ability of an individual to identify themselves as distinct from‬ D ‭others, often assessed through tasks like the mirror test where individuals recognise‬ ‭their reflections as themselves‬ ‭-‬ ‭Importance: considered an indicator of self-awareness and is linked to various cognitive‬ ‭and social abilities. Significant milestone in cognitive development‬ ‭-‬ ‭Debate: some argue that recognising oneself in the mirror does not equate to a deeper‬ ‭understanding of ones identity or existence‬ ‭Decision making and judgement‬ ‭-‬ ‭System 1 based judgement‬ ‭-‬ ‭Fast, automatic and intuitive way of thinking. Operates quickly and with little‬ ‭effort, relying on heuristics‬ ‭-‬ ‭Instinctive‬ ‭-‬ ‭Quick decisions based on limited information‬ ‭-‬ ‭Prone to biases and errors‬ ‭-‬ ‭System 2 based judgment‬ ‭-‬ ‭Reasoning and critical thinking‬ ‭-‬ ‭Difficult or unfamiliar tasks‬ ‭-‬ ‭More accurate, requires cognitive resources‬ ‭-‬ ‭Slower, more deliberate, and analytical way of thinking. Requires conscious effort‬ ‭and used for complex decision making‬ ‭-‬ ‭Prospect theory‬ ‭-‬ ‭Describes how people make decisions under risk and uncertainty‬ ‭-‬ ‭Loss aversion: people tend to prefer avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent‬ ‭gains‬ ‭-‬ ‭Value function: is concave for gains and convex for losses, indicating diminishing‬ ‭sensitivity to changes in wealth‬ ‭-‬ ‭Framing effects: the way choices are presented can significantly influence‬ ‭decision making‬ ‭-‬ ‭Heuristics and Fallacies‬ ‭-‬ ‭Heuristics are mental shortcuts where people judge the likelihood of events‬ ‭based on how easily examples come to mind‬ ‭-‬ ‭Conjunction fallacy: when people assume that specific conditions are more‬ ‭probable than a single general one. E.g. linda example‬ ‭-‬ ‭Availability heuristic: a mental shortcut where people judge the likelihood of‬ ‭events based on how easily examples come to mind. E.g. if someone frequently‬ ‭hears about plane accidents they may overestimate the danger of flying‬ ‭-‬ ‭Adjustments and anchoring‬ ‭-‬ ‭The cognitive bias where individuals rely too heavily on the first piece of‬ ‭information encountered (“the anchor”) when making decisions‬ ‭-‬ ‭Expected utility theory‬ ‭-‬ ‭A normative model that suggests individuals make decisions by considering the‬ ‭expected outcomes and their associated utilities‬ ‭Language‬ ‭-‬ ‭Aphasia‬  ‭-‬ ‭ isorder that affects a person's ability to communicate, typically resulting from‬ D ‭brain damage‬ ‭-‬ ‭Broacas‬ ‭-‬ ‭Difficulty in speech production while comprehension remains intact‬ ‭-‬ ‭Difficulty in speech production‬ ‭-‬ ‭Results from damage to the frontal lobe‬ ‭-‬ ‭Slow, effortful production‬ ‭-‬ ‭Weniche‬ ‭-‬ ‭Fluent but nonsensical speech, significant difficulties in language‬ ‭comprehension‬ ‭-‬ ‭Whorfian hypothesis‬ ‭-‬ ‭The structure and vocabulary of language influence how its speakers perceive‬ ‭and think about the world‬ ‭-‬ ‭Strong: language determines thought‬ ‭-‬ ‭Weak: language influences thought‬ ‭-‬ ‭Associations between language and space‬ ‭-‬ ‭People often associate concrete words with specific spatial locations. E.g. “Attic”‬ ‭may be considered higher, and “basement” linked to lower‬ ‭-‬ ‭Associations between language and colour‬ ‭-‬ ‭Different languages may have varying associations with colours, influencing how‬ ‭speakers perceive and categorise colours.‬ ‭Heyes & Catmur‬ ‭-‬ ‭Mirror neurons‬ ‭-‬ ‭Definition: a class of neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action‬ ‭and when they observe the same action performed by another‬ ‭-‬ ‭Function: they are implicated in low level processing of observed actions‬ ‭-‬ ‭Example: yawning‬ ‭-‬ ‭Action understanding‬ ‭-‬ ‭Role: contribute to understanding others’ actions by providing a direct neural‬ ‭mechanism for recognising and interpreting actions‬ ‭-‬ ‭Limitations: while mirror neurons play a role in basic action understanding, they‬ ‭do not support complex social cognition or abstract reasoning‬ ‭-‬ ‭Autism‬ ‭-‬ ‭Implications: mirror neurons do not play a role in autism. This challenges the‬ ‭notion that deficits in empathy or social understanding in individuals with autism‬ ‭are primarily due to mirror neuron dysfunction‬ ‭-‬ ‭Empathy‬ ‭-‬ ‭Mirror neurons are associated with affective empathy, where observing someone‬ ‭in distress can evoke similar feelings in the observer‬ ‭Operant conditioning‬ ‭-‬ ‭A learning process where behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow it‬ ‭strengthening behaviours through reinforcement and weakening them through‬ ‭punishment‬ ‭-‬ ‭Positive and negative reinforcement and punishment‬  -‭ ‬ ‭ rimary and secondary reinforcers‬ P ‭-‬ ‭Reinforcement schedules‬ ‭-‬ ‭Partial reinforcement: reinforcing behaviour only some of the time‬ ‭-‬ ‭Effect: slower learning but more resistant to extinction‬ ‭-‬ ‭Fixed ratio: reinforcement after a set number of responses. Example: a coffee‬ ‭shop rewards you with a free coffee after 10 purchases‬ ‭-‬ ‭Fixed interval: reinforcement after a set period, regardless of the number of‬ ‭responses. Example: receiving a paycheck every 2 weeks‬ ‭-‬ ‭Variable ratio: reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.‬ ‭Example: slot machines at a casino pay out after a random number of lever pulls‬ ‭-‬ ‭Variable interval: reinforcement after varying time intervals, regardless of the‬ ‭number of responses. Example: checking email, where responses may be‬ ‭rewarded unpredictably with messages.‬ ‭Social condition‬ ‭-‬ ‭The director paradigm‬ ‭-‬ ‭Purpose: assesses ability to recognise and account for another persons‬ ‭viewpoint‬ ‭-‬ ‭Used to:‬ ‭-‬ ‭Study perspective taking and cognitive empathy‬ ‭-‬ ‭Method‬ ‭-‬ ‭“Director” gives instructions about how to arrange objects in a scene but‬ ‭has a different point of view of the scene. Participants must understand‬ ‭the director's perspective to follow instructions correctly.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Affective Empathy‬ ‭-‬ ‭Refers to the ability to respond with an appropriate emotion to others emotional‬ ‭state. Involves sharing the feelings of others‬ ‭-‬ ‭Characteristics‬ ‭-‬ ‭emotional resonance‬ ‭-‬ ‭Compassion or distress in response to others emotions‬ ‭-‬ ‭Development‬ ‭-‬ ‭Appears earlier in development compared to cognitive empathy‬ ‭-‬ ‭Cognitive empathy‬ ‭-‬ ‭Measurement: self-report questionnaires‬ ‭-‬ ‭Definition: the ability to understand another persons perspective or mental state.‬ ‭Involves recognising and interpreting others’ thoughts and feelings‬ ‭-‬ ‭Characteristics‬ ‭-‬ ‭Mental processes and reasoning‬ ‭-‬ ‭Empathic concern‬ ‭-‬ ‭A motivational dimension that involves caring for the wellbeing of others and the‬ ‭desire to help‬ ‭-‬ ‭Measurement‬ ‭-‬ ‭Self report measures. E.g. interpersonal reactivity index (IRI)‬ ‭Motivation‬ ‭-‬ ‭Intrinsic motivation‬  ‭-‬ ‭ efinition: refers to engaging in a behaviour because it is inherently interesting or‬ D ‭enjoyable. The activity itself is the reward‬ ‭-‬ ‭Impact on behaviour‬ ‭-‬ ‭Generally leads to higher levels of engagement‬ ‭-‬ ‭Characteristics‬ ‭-‬ ‭Driven by personal satisfaction‬ ‭-‬ ‭Autonomy‬ ‭-‬ ‭E.g. hobbies‬ ‭-‬ ‭Extrinsic motivation‬ ‭-‬ ‭Definition: involves performing a behaviour to achieve a separate outcome, such‬ ‭as rewards or recognition‬ ‭-‬ ‭Impact on behaviour‬ ‭-‬ ‭May undermine intrinsic motivation‬ ‭-‬ ‭Characteristics‬ ‭-‬ ‭Driven by external factors, e.g. money, grades, praise‬ ‭-‬ ‭Can be effective for tasks not inherently enjoyable‬ ‭-‬ ‭Key studies‬ ‭-‬ ‭Lepper and Greene (1973)‬ ‭-‬ ‭Expected rewards reduce amount of time children spend on activities they‬ ‭initially enjoy‬ ‭-‬ ‭Ailey et al. (2009)‬ ‭-‬ ‭Participants performed worse when expecting a reward‬ ‭Flashbulb memories‬ ‭-‬ ‭Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally charged, surprising events‬ ‭-‬ ‭E.g. liam payne's death, 9/11‬ ‭-‬ ‭Capture the context (who, what were you doing, where) when you learned of the event‬ ‭-‬ ‭Talarico & Rubin (2003): feel more vivid than everyday memories but fade and change‬ ‭similarly‬ ‭Photographic memories‬ ‭-‬ ‭Often refers to an ability to recall images with near perfect detail, like a mental photo‬ ‭-‬ ‭Considered a myth‬ ‭Eidetic memories‬ ‭-‬ ‭The ability to vividly “see” an image in the mind for a short time after its no longer in view‬ ‭-‬ ‭Image remains in mind for several seconds to minutes‬ ‭-‬ ‭More common in children‬ ‭The working memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭Stroop effect‬ ‭-‬ ‭Participants asked to name the colour of the ink‬ ‭-‬ ‭Result: people usually experience slower reaction times and make more errors‬ ‭-‬ ‭Why?:‬ ‭-‬ ‭automaticity of reading‬ ‭-‬ ‭Cognitive interference: the brain has to suppress the automatic response‬ ‭(reading the word) to focus on a less automatic response (naming the ink‬ ‭colour)‬  ‭-‬ ‭ entral executive: manages attention, coordinates information from different‬ C ‭sources, and different focus‬ ‭-‬ ‭Phonological loop‬ ‭-‬ ‭Responsible for the temporary storage and rehearsal of speech based‬ ‭and auditory information. It helps individuals remember and work with‬ ‭verbal and auditory material - words/numbers/sounds‬ ‭-‬ ‭Silently rehearsing key information‬ ‭-‬ ‭Visuospatial sketchpad‬ ‭-‬ ‭Responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating visual and spatial‬ ‭information. Allows individuals to mentally visualise and work with images,‬ ‭shapes and spatial relationships.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Visualising the problem‬ ‭Autobiographical memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭False memories: can be influenced by suggestive questioning, showing that participants‬ ‭often recalled incorrect details about an event due to changes in wording‬ ‭-‬ ‭Reconstructive nature: autobiographical memories are prone to false memories because‬ ‭it is reconstructive. Each time a memory is recalled, external information can influence‬ ‭the recollection.‬ ‭-‬ ‭What: memory for life events or things that have happened to us.‬ ‭DRM‬ ‭-‬ ‭Presenting participants with a list of related words and then testing their ability to recall‬ ‭and recognise a non-presented word, “critical lure”‬ ‭-‬ ‭Can endure false memories‬ ‭-‬ ‭Based on semantic relatedness‬ ‭Visual memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭Visual short term memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭A memory system that stores a limited amount of visual information for a few‬ ‭seconds. Smaller capacity than ionic but lasts longer‬ ‭-‬ ‭Function: holds onto visual information actively, making it accessible for‬ ‭immediate tasks, like comparing objects or remembering where something is‬ ‭placed‬ ‭-‬ ‭Example: when comparing two similar side-by-side, VSTM holds one image in‬ ‭mind while you look at the other spot the difference.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Relationship between ionic and VSTM‬ ‭-‬ ‭Retains more important visual details for ongoing cognitive tasks, allowing you to‬ ‭work with the information before it fades‬ ‭-‬ ‭Ionic memory serves as a fleeting “buffer” for incoming visual information, which‬ ‭is then either discarded or passed along to VSTM if its relevant‬ ‭-‬ ‭Ionic memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭A brief, high-capacity memory store that holds an exact image of visual‬ ‭information for a fraction of a second‬ ‭-‬ ‭Function: acts as a temporary “snapshot” of visual input, allowing the brain to‬ ‭capture scenes and objects before dismissal or transfer to STM.‬  ‭-‬ ‭ xample: if you glance at a crowded room and then close your eyes, the brief‬ E ‭visual impression of the room remains in your mind an instant before it fades.‬ ‭Erroneous learning‬ ‭-‬ ‭Definition: learning approach using intentional errors for critical thinking and retention‬ ‭-‬ ‭purpose:‬ ‭-‬ ‭Enhances engagement and critical thinking‬ ‭-‬ ‭Promotes active learning and improving retention‬ ‭-‬ ‭Example‬ ‭-‬ ‭Maths: solved problem with intentional errors‬ ‭Visual statistical learning‬ ‭-‬ ‭Visual statistical learning is the ability to unconsciously detect patterns and regularities in‬ ‭visual stimuli. It helps us make sense of out visual environment without deliberate effort‬ ‭-‬ ‭Ensemble perception‬ ‭-‬ ‭Global over local processing: prioritises the overall appearance rather than‬ ‭individual specifics‬ ‭-‬ ‭Summary stats: brian quickly computes a statistical summary (average‬ ‭size/colour) of a group of objects‬ ‭-‬ ‭Efficiency in cognitive processing‬ ‭-‬ ‭Rapid and efficient: occurs almost instantly, allowing us to make quick‬ ‭judgements in dynamic environments‬ ‭-‬ ‭This process supports our ability to focus on the broader context and‬ ‭ignore irrelevant details‬ ‭Memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭Declarative memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭Semantic memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭Facts and general knowledge‬ ‭-‬ ‭E.g. knowing the capital of a city‬ ‭-‬ ‭Episodic memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭Personal experiences and events‬ ‭-‬ ‭E.g. remembering your last party‬ ‭-‬ ‭Stages of memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭Encoding‬ ‭-‬ ‭The initial processing of information to store it in memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭E.g. studying a fact to remember later‬ ‭-‬ ‭Maintenance‬ ‭-‬ ‭Keeping information active in memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭E.g. rehearsing a phone number‬ ‭-‬ ‭Retrieval‬ ‭-‬ ‭Accessing stored information when needed‬ ‭-‬ ‭E.g. recalling information during an exam‬ ‭-‬ ‭Non-declarative memory‬ ‭-‬ ‭Habituation and sensitization‬ ‭-‬ ‭Changes in response due to repeated exposure‬  ‭-‬ ‭.g. becoming accustomed to a noise (habituation) or heightened‬ E ‭sensitivity after a stimulus (sensitisation)‬ ‭-‬ ‭Associative learning‬ ‭-‬ ‭E.g. classical and operant conditioning‬ ‭-‬ ‭Learning associations between stimuli‬ ‭-‬ ‭Procedural learning‬ ‭-‬ ‭Memory for skills and habits‬ ‭-‬ ‭E.g. riding a bike‬