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EUROPEAN INTEGRATION AND DEMOCRACY EUROPEAN INTEGRATION AND DEMOCRACY Lecture 1: The European Commission: -​ A supranational institution, above the member states, promotes the best interest of the EU. -​ Proposes legislation to the Parliament and Council -​ Manages and implement...

EUROPEAN INTEGRATION AND DEMOCRACY EUROPEAN INTEGRATION AND DEMOCRACY Lecture 1: The European Commission: -​ A supranational institution, above the member states, promotes the best interest of the EU. -​ Proposes legislation to the Parliament and Council -​ Manages and implements EU policies and budget -​ Enforce European Law (with the Court of Justice) -​ Represents the EU on the international stage The president of the European Commission is the political leader of the commission and has a permanent secretariat: the Secretariat-General. ​ Power to reject ​ Commissioner nominees ​ Power to re-allocate ​ portfolios & reshuffle ​ Primus supra pares (?)​ The European Council: -​ the biggest counterpart of the European Commission -​ Promotes the best interest of individual member states -​ Defines the general political direction and priorities; no legislation -​ Meets around 4 times a year -​ Heads of state or government The two current presidents of these two (Michel and von der Leyen) have disagreements. 1 Josep Borrel is the highest representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (a relatively new role that strengthens the geopolitical domain). Visible international legal personality -​ blurs boundaries between the Council and Commission -​ boosts EU as a credible global actor -​ High-level diplomacy through the European External Action Service European Council appoints HR for a 5-year term Kaya Kallas will succeed Borrel. The European Parliament represents the voice of the people and is located in Strasbourg (plenary sessions), Luxembourg (secretary-general), and Brussels (plenary and committee sessions; most offices). Roberta Metsola has been in office since 2022; she is the youngest president, the third woman and the first Maltese representative. Member of the European People’s Party; her presence is controversial, as she supports the pro-life movement. The most far-right parliament we’ve had in a while. EP has elections every 5 years: ​ First elections in 1979 ​ Last elections 2024 ​ Regional or national lists ​ Proposal for transnational lists ​ A steady decrease in turnout until 201​ Power and influence in three key areas: -​ EU budget -​ commission: right to scrutinise, dismiss, and appoint -​ law-making: right to amend and reject the commission proposals Difference between the Council of Europe, the Council of the EU, and the European Council. -​ Council of Europe: Strasbourg, established in 1949, a product of a failed attempt to establish ?, not directly related to the EU (includes 42 member states) -​ Council of the EU: decision-making body, 1951. -​ European Council: the heads of government, 1974. The European Union was established in 1993, resulting in a treaty among the states members. -​ European Coal and Steel Community: 1957 -​ European Economic Community: 1957 -​ Euratom: 1957 Plans for European Integration before 1945: 2  -​ aimed to create a common “European” market (European and overseas territories) without internal trade restrictions to increase prosperity and protect the European economy against cheap imports from the extra-European market. -​ Examples: -​ 1923: Coudenhove-Kalergi’s Pan-Europa Plan [never realised] -​ 1930: Briand Plan [never realised] -​ 1940: Nazi Funk Plan [never fully realised] -​ Democracy was of secondary importance in the plans of Coudenhove-Kalergi and Briand. -​ The Nazis were opponents of parliamentary democracy After WW2, there was a decline in Europe and a fear of Western Europe (because of the incoming Russian Revolution). Economic crisis: 1929. It led to economic nationalism: “beggar thy neighbour” and "dumping” policies, and, in response, the building up of tariff walls. Resistance: In the course of WW2, people started to think that European integration was necessary. German resistance: Carl Goerdeler, Kreisauer Kreis. Italian anti-fascist resistance: Altiero Spineli’s Ventotene Manifesto. They had in mind a Europe consisting of smaller regions (Bavaria, Friesland, etc.) united under one European Federation because the resistance thought that nationalism was the cause of the war and it had to be broken. After the end of WW2, the fear was that Germany was going to aim for another war, so it had to be broken up into smaller provinces. After 1944, it was clear that Germany was going to lose the war; it had a split between the East and the West as it sat in the middle of the seesaw between the two: Rapallo Fear. Tehran conference in 1943: -​ second front against Nazi Germany in Western Europe -​ no compromise peace between SU or Western Allied forces with Nazi Germany Morgenthau Plan in 1944: -​ de-industrialisation and re-agrarianization of Germany -​ partition of Germany Severe negative economic consequences for postwar Western Europe. West German chancellor Adenauer: no flirt with "Moscow," but West integration via European Communities and NATO (established in 1949). The British Secretary General of NATO, Lord Ismay, decided to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down (1950). Establishment of European Institutions after the end of WW2: -​ 1947-1952: Marshall Aid, OEEC/OECD -​ 1949: Council of Europe -​ 1950-1952: European Coal and Steel Community 3  -​ 1950-1954: European Defence Community/European Political Community.. -​ 1955-1958 The idea was that the currencies of the participating countries had fixed rates of the Western European countries to the US Dollar. Marshall Aid European Recovery Program: 1947 to make a plan for the distribution of the American plan to support Europe. Politicians at that time had different views on democracy and poverty as a consequence of the crisis of the 1930s. This required a solution to the “German question.” According to many politicians, internal territorial barriers should have been removed so that trade wars would not have been possible. “European Cooperation means prosperity.” There are different types of European integration: -​ intergovernmentalism: different countries cooperate but keep their own sovereignty -​ Federalism: European federal state with a supranational government and parliament -​ Functionalism: the pooling of sovereignty in a relatively undisputed field (economics and agriculture), which would lead to more political cooperation (Monnet Method) Zurich Speech W. Churchill, 1946 The Hague Congress, 1948 Council of Europe in Strasbourg, 1949 Struggle between who aimed for an intergovernmental Europe and who aimed for a Federal Group. 9-05-1950: Schuman Declaration -​ “Europe will not be made all at once, or according to one plan. It will be built through concrete achievements, which first create de facto solidarity.” -​ supranational cooperation in a “sectoral community” that would lead to a closer union among the European people -​ limited -​ unpolitical -​ crucial area -​ Different actors advocated European integration for different reasons. 4 Federalism and Neofunctionalism in European Integration Federalism in the context of the European Union argues for a stronger, centralised structure where member states cede more sovereignty to a federal European government. Key proponents envisioned Europe with centralised political and economic powers to prevent conflicts and promote unity. Federalism gained traction post-World War II with figures like Jean Monnet, who saw political union as essential for peace. Neofunctionalism: Developed primarily by Ernst Haas, neofunctionalism posits that integration occurs incrementally, starting in practical, technical areas (like coal and steel) and then “spilling over” into other sectors. As sectors integrate, it becomes rational for member states to deepen cooperation in more areas, such as economic policies, eventually leading toward political integration. This theory suggests that integration will evolve organically rather than through a predetermined political blueprint. The section likely contrasts Western integration theories with Eastern European scepticism, as Eastern states were often more resistant to federalist ideas due to fears of lost sovereignty, reflecting varied integration approaches shaped by unique national contexts. Lecture 2: The Hague Congress and Early European Integration Attempts 1948 -​ The Hague Congress in 1948, where politicians and journalists debated the concept of a federal Europe. The Congress resulted in the establishment of the Council of Europe, initially with 10 states, including the UK. -​ The British government opposed transferring power to federal organisations, leading to the failure of the plan for a European federal superstate. Formation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 1951 -​ The Schuman Declaration in 1950 proposed a high authority for coal and steel in Europe, leading to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951. -​ ECSC was established by six countries: the Netherlands, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, and Luxembourg. -​ The ECSC consisted of four institutions: a high authority, a common assembly, a special council, and a court of justice. -​ The high authority, chaired by Jean Monet, was a precursor to the European Commission. Schuman's Declaration 1950 -​ The Schuman Declaration of May 9, 1950, is seen as a call for peace in Europe, but it also had other objectives. -​ Schuman's declaration included the development of the African continent, reflecting the spirit of European colonialism. 5  -​ The Dutch participated in the ECSC to reorient their economy after losing their most important colony, Indonesia. -​ The French aimed to maintain their colonial empire through European integration (note), while the Dutch prioritised their colonial position over engaging in a common market. This describes the connection between decolonisation and European integration; the French aimed to maintain their colonies by Europeanising them. For example, they tried to fit their African colonies into their economic space by adding tariff walls into their economies (tariff walls that made incorporation into the EU easier). The Suez Crisis 1956 and Its Impact on European Integration -​ The Suez Crisis of 1956 involved Israel, the United Kingdom, and France invading Egypt to regain control of the Suez Canal. -​ The crisis highlighted the decline of France and Britain as global powers and the animosity between Western military allies. -​ European politicians concluded that cooperation was necessary to defend against similar violations of international justice. Thus the Atomic Energy Community was established to provide an alternative to Middle Eastern oil, which was no longer controlled by Western powers. Formation of the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) -​ The EAEC was established to develop nuclear energy as a cheap source of energy, influenced by the Suez Crisis. -​ The EAEC aimed to create a customs union with a single tariff for imports, a common agricultural policy, and nuclear energy development. -​ The EAEC, like the ECSC, was a hybrid between a federal and intergovernmental community. -​ The European Commission, formed in the EEC, worked with the Council of Ministers, which was the main body for determining laws and regulations. French and Belgian Plan for a Euro-African Space -​ During the negotiations on the EEC treaty, the French and Belgians proposed to include French and Belgian Africa in the EU common market. -​ The French argued that this would be a condition for their entry into the EEC. -​ The other European countries were not enthusiastic about paying for the French colonial policy; however, the Suez Crisis increased the willingness of other participants, especially West Germany, to compromise with the French. Failed Attempts at a European Federal Superstate -​ After the success of the ECSC, there were attempts to create a European federal superstate, including a European defence community. -​ The French Prime Minister proposed a plan for a supranational European military army in 1950. 6  -​ The American support for the European defence community and the French refusal to ratify the EDC treaty led to its failure because the French feared the rearmament of West Germany and the potential withdrawal of American troops from Europe if they signed the treaty (if the Americans retreated, they would have to fund their defence themselves, and they did not have the funding.) Formation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) 1958 -​ The failed attempts at a European federal superstate led to new plans for European integration. -​ The ECSC was the first organisation based on supranational principles and served as a blueprint for future European institutions. -​ The Treaty of Rome was signed in March 1957, establishing the European Common Market. -​ The European Atomic Energy Community and the European Economic Community were established in 1958. -​ The aim was to create conditions for an ever-closer union among European peoples, eventually leading to a federal Europe, with emphasis on the importance of prosperity and political stability in early European integration plans. -​ The EEC aimed to align national regulations for trade with countries outside the European Economic Community. -​ The Common Agricultural Policy was developed to protect West European farmers from cheap imports. -​ Negotiators from different member states had to harmonise import duties, with France having high protectionist duties and the Netherlands having low ones. Role of the European Commission and Council of Ministers -​ The European Commission, consisting of nine members, coordinated the execution of legislation determined by the Council of Ministers. -​ The European Parliament, initially with 142 members, had a double mandate and monitored the work of the Commission. -​ Decisions in the EEC were initially taken unanimously, but the treaty provided for qualified majority voting in subsequent years. -​ The qualified majority voting system included weighted votes for the six member states, ensuring larger states had more influence. Driving Forces Behind European Integration -​ Peace between France and Germany was a major driving force for European integration after World War II. -​ The Europeanization of the economy was seen as a way to prevent the spread of communism by providing welfare and growth. -​ The Marshall Aid program was interpreted as an American plan to profit from the European economy. 7  -​ The Schuman Plan and the European Coal and Steel Community were seen as plans for French economic development and peace in Europe. National Welfare States and European Integration -​ The early phases of European integration were driven by national politicians' responses to the demand for social security. -​ The Europeanised economy provided the means to establish national welfare states, ensuring national loyalty and allegiance. -​ The modernisation of the agricultural sector was expected to lead to mass unemployment, necessitating new employment opportunities. -​ The creation of national welfare states was seen as a way to provide social security and prevent economic crises. Supranational vs. Intergovernmental Decision Making -​ Politicians chose a supranational organisation to avoid the collapse of an intergovernmental free trade area during economic crises. -​ The memory of the economic crisis of the 1930s and the failure of treaties about internal trade relations influenced this decision. -​ The European Commission, led by Robert Schuman, advocated for majority voting and the transfer of political power to the Council of Ministers. -​ French President Charles de Gaulle opposed supranational decision-making and the European Commission's imperialistic attitude. The Empty Chair Crisis in July 1965 and the Luxembourg Compromise in January 1966 -​ France boycotted Council of Ministers meetings from July 1965 due to objections against qualified majority voting. -​ The French farmers' support for the European agricultural policy forced France to return to negotiations. -​ The Luxembourg Compromise in January 1966 restored the veto power for important interests, weakening the European Commission's legislative ability. -​ The compromise was seen as a consensus-based decision, both a weakness and a strength of the European Communities. European Integration and Economic Communities -​ The replacement of Charles de Gaulle by Georges Pompidou in 1969 led to a more positive attitude towards European integration. -​ The approval of the UK's application to the European Communities was seen as a way to show commitment to the West. -​ The European Economic Community (EEC) is notable because of its broad scope, as it includes agriculture and the economy. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) is contrasted with the EEC, noting its limited focus on coal and steel. 8  -​ The success of the EEC is acknowledged, but issues like agricultural overproduction in the 1960s and 1970s are mentioned. Challenges and Evolution of European Democracy and Democracy as a Condition for Membership -​ The Treaty of Rome lacks a commitment to democracy as a prerequisite for membership. -​ The possibility of dictatorships joining the European Economic Community is possible, with Spain and Portugal's association procedure in the 1960s. -​ The first formal identification of the European Communities with the rule of law and parliamentary democracy is erected. -​ In 1967, there was a Greek military coup with the European Parliament's response to suspend the Association Agreement. Due to this, the 1970s dictatorships collapse and their subsequent membership applications. -​ The European Communities now have a role as a ‘guarantor of democracy’, with the political identity as a protector of democracy emerging from the Southern enlargement process. Rule of Law: draughted from a member of the EP’s report: -​ a form of democratic state should be a condition for accession. It defined this democratic state as: -​ a state in which governments enjoy democratic legislation and -​ in which the people take part in decision-making, either directly or through directly elected representatives. -​ It also stated that the applicant states should be required to recognise the principles indicated by the Council of Europe and the other European organisations as a condition for membership, especially the principles with regards to law and human rights. The first formal identification of the European Communities with the rule of law and with parliamentary democracy because it hadn't been mentioned in the Treaty of Rome. 9 Establishment and Development of the European Economic Community (EEC) The EEC was established by the Treaty of Rome (1957), aiming to create a common market among member states. This goal was rooted in eliminating trade barriers, promoting economic cooperation, and encouraging cross-border investment. The EEC’s formation marked a crucial step toward economic unity in Europe. Key institutions included the European Commission, which was tasked with proposing and enforcing EEC policies; the Council of Ministers, which represented member states; the European Parliament, which was initially consultative; and the European Court of Justice, which upheld EEC law. This institutional framework was innovative, as it combined elements of intergovernmental and supranational governance. Member states faced ongoing tension between national interests and the goals of the EEC. Countries like France initially resisted a strong supranational body but eventually compromised. National sovereignty concerns often clashed with the drive for deeper economic integration, especially around issues such as agricultural policy, labour movement, and trade. Lecture 3: Historians Political science is about the repetition of patterns, and theories describe the likely outcome of a process. Theories define the relevancy of details, and the world is seen through their glasses. Neofunctionalism (Ernst B. Haas, 1957): Supranational centre in Brussels. National states are not capable of stopping the integration process once it starts. Spill-over: the integration of a particular economic sector will lead to related economic sectors and then to political integration. Liberal Intergovernmentalism (Andrew Moravcsik, 1998): Governments of the member states. European Communities and the EU are the product of a series of negotiations between nations and states with conflicting economic interests. There are no internal dynamics, and there is no spillover. This theory assumes that each national government “first formulates national preferences, then engages in interstate bargaining, and finally decides whether to delegate or pool sovereignty in international institutions.” 10 Brexlit: a new genre of literature that emerged in the wake of the Brexit Referendum in 2016.​ European Court of Justice (ECJ) and Legal Integration Landmark cases, such as Van Gend en Loos (1963) and Costa v. ENEL (1964), played pivotal roles in defining EU law’s supremacy and direct effect on member states. These rulings established that EU law could override national law, affirming the ECJ’s authority to interpret and enforce European treaties. The Van Gend en Loos case introduced the principle of “direct effect,” meaning individuals could invoke EU law in national courts. This strengthened the ECJ’s role and expanded EU influence beyond just governments, giving EU law direct applicability to citizens, thus reinforcing its supranational nature. Some member states resisted these rulings, viewing them as intrusions into domestic legal systems. Nonetheless, the ECJ’s assertiveness was critical in transforming the EEC into a body with robust legal authority, helping to entrench EU law as binding and directly effective across diverse legal systems. Lecture 4: Differentiated Integration and Flexible EU Structures Differentiated Integration: This concept allows EU countries to integrate at different levels and speeds, which can accommodate national preferences while maintaining overall cohesion. Key examples include the Schengen Area and the Eurozone, where only some EU countries participate in border-free travel or share currency. There’s an inherent tension between expanding the EU to include new members (widening) and deepening integration among existing members. Widening brings diverse economies and political landscapes, potentially complicating decision-making and slowing integration. Conversely, deepening allows existing members to pursue tighter integration, though it may exclude new or less economically aligned states. Differentiated integration provides flexibility but risks fragmenting the EU if member states diverge too much in their commitments. It reflects a pragmatic approach to integration, balancing the EU’s aspirations for unity with the political realities of member states’ varying levels of commitment. 11 Lecture 5: EU expansion on Eastern Europe and Copenhagen Criteria; -​ The end of the Cold War led to Austria, Finland, and Sweden joining the European Union. -​ The Copenhagen criteria were established in 1997 to evaluate candidate countries' readiness for EU membership, with a focus on political, economic, and monetary criteria. -​ The criteria were applied in the eastern enlargement round of 2004, with Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joining the EU, while Romania and Bulgaria were deemed not ready due to insufficient democratic standards. -​ In 2004 and 2007, Eastern European countries joined the EU, including Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic. -​ Western European countries were concerned about economic risks and political strategy, while Eastern European countries saw it as a symbolic and economic benefit. Copenhagen criteria: established in 1997 as a set of standards for countries aspiring to join the European Union. They include three main requirements: -​ Political criteria: stable institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights, and respect for minorities. -​ Economic criteria: a functioning market economy and the capacity to cope with the competitive pressure within the EU. -​ Monetary criteria: The ability to adopt and enforce EU laws and obligations, including adherence to the aims of political, economic, and monetary union. “Membership requires that the candidate country has achieved stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights, respect for and protection of minorities, the existence of a functioning market economy, as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union. Membership presupposes the candidate's ability to take on the obligations of membership, including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union.” EU Member states' struggles with corruption and democratic rule; -​ The EU has struggled to enforce democratic standards on member states. -​ Ukraine and 9 other countries may join the EU by 2030, per the ambitious plan. -​ Turkey's EU membership has been delayed due to political changes and public opinion shifts. 12 EU treaty reforms involve changes to EU foundational treaties to adapt to the Union's evolving challenges, including expanding membership, streamlining decision-making, and addressing democratic concerns. Treaty reform has been necessary due to the increasing number of member states and the complexity of negotiations, leading to reforms such as the Single European Act (1986), the Maastricht Treaty (1992), the Treaty of Nice (2001), and the Treaty of Lisbon (2007). Three stages of membership possession in the EU: 1.​ Candidate, 2.​ Professional candidate, and 3.​ Former accession negotiations. -​ The Treaty of Hampstead introduces so-called opt-outs for member states. -​ Informal arrangements, such as the European Stability Mechanism, have been used to circumvent treaty reforms and referendums. The EU Constitutional Treaty-2004 -​ The Constitutional Treaty, formally known as the Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe, was an ambitious proposal designed to replace existing EU treaties with a single, unified constitution. It was signed in 2004 but ultimately failed due to its rejection in referendums in France and the Netherlands in 2005; French and Dutch voters rejected the EU's Constitutional Treaty, with 55% of French voters and 61% of Dutch voters rejecting it. -​ The rejection was a surprise to EU policymakers, who thought they were giving citizens what they wanted, but the public had different opinions on the treaty's content. -​ The Constitutional Treaty aimed to simplify existing treaties and address democratic deficits. Brexit referendum -​ In 2005, the EU introduced Article 50, allowing member states to leave the union (Brexit). -​ Ireland held two referendums on the issue, with the second approving the decision. -​ Individual citizens can influence EU politics through voting, referendums, and legal challenges. -​ The age divide in the Brexit vote is highlighted, with older generations voting to leave and younger generations voting to remain. -​ The Guardian suggested that if the vote had happened a couple of years later, the outcome might differ due to the ageing population and increased youth voter turnout. -​ Older generations made the Brexit decisions that affect younger ones more. -​ UK newspapers played a significant role in the campaign, focusing on integration and healthcare funding. 13  -​ Brexit was framed as an economic issue, but emotional appeals were stronger -​ Crises like Brexit, COVID-19, and Russia's war in Ukraine have changed European politics Article 50: Article 50 is a clause in the Treaty on European Union (Lisbon Treaty) that outlines the process for a member state to withdraw from the EU. The process includes: 1.​ A formal notification to the European Council. 2.​ A two-year negotiation period to agree on withdrawal terms. It became significant during the Brexit referendum (2016) when the UK invoked Article 50 on March 29, 2017, starting its formal withdrawal process from the EU. The UK officially left the EU on January 31, 2020. Treaty of Lisbon -​ The Lisbon Treaty introduced more qualified majority voting to make EU decisions faster and more efficient, while also addressing the democratic deficit by giving more powers to the European Parliament and national parliaments. -​ The double majority rule was introduced to ensure that decisions are taken democratically, taking into account the size of member states and their population. -​ The Treaty of Lisbon introduced citizen initiatives and the Charter of Fundamental Rights, boosting democracy in the EU. -​ The EU has seen a shift towards reforms without grand treaties, instead using quick patches and mechanisms to address crises. Euroscepticism -​ Euroscepticism refers to criticism of, or opposition to, the European Union (EU) and the process of European integration. It can range from questioning specific EU policies to outright rejection of EU membership or its existence as a supranational entity. -​ Euro-scepticism and politicisation of the EU have increased since the Maastricht Treaty 30 years ago, with public opinion becoming more critical of EU membership. -​ Euroscepticism has evolved from party-based to public-based. -​ Public opinion on the EU has always been critical, but now parties reflect that scepticism. -​ The EU has become more salient in public discourse and political campaigns. 14 Lecture 6: European politics and Euroscepticism in Dutch elections ○​ The European dimension in the Dutch elections has not been a big part of the campaigns, despite the next prime minister and government having an important role in European politics. ○​ The parties' EU positions are not clearly left or right, with some parties like D66 and GroenLinks being more pro-European, according to expert ratings. ○​ Socialists want a more social Europe, while the Freedom Party (PVV) criticizes EU spending. ○​ Leading parties have different reasons for being Eurosceptic, including nationalism and social issues. Supranationalism vs. Intergovernmentalism: ○​ Supranationalism: represents the overall EU community interest; relies on qualified majority voting. ○​ Intergovernmentalism: Focuses on member states' interests; relies on unanimity and veto powers. European Commission: ​ Supranational Role: ○​ Represents the general interest of the EU, not individual member states. ○​ Referred to as the guardian of treaties (e.g., EU Treaty, Lisbon Treaty). ○​ Anchored in EU treaties to act independently from national governments or other bodies. ​ Responsibilities: ○​ Agenda-setting: Proposes legislation to the European Parliament and Council. ○​ Implementation: Ensures EU legislation and policies are carried out. ○​ Budget and Law Enforcement: Enforces European law with the Court of Justice. ○​ International Representation: represents the EU on the global stage. ​ Structure: ○​ Executive Wing: includes the President (currently Ursula von der Leyen), Commissioners, and staff; highly visible and politicised. ○​ Administrative Wing: Large bureaucratic body responsible for the majority of the Commission's work. Historical Background: ​ Evolved from the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community, designed as a functionalist bureaucracy to focus on efficiency over politics. Treaty Provisions (e.g., Maastricht Treaty): 15  ​ The Commission must act independently of member states, prioritising the EU's general interest. ​ Commissioners are assigned portfolios (e.g., Climate Commissioner) and must address issues in the EU's interest, not their home country's. Role of the President of the Commission: ​ Oversees the Commission and has the power to: ○​ Reject Commission nominees. ○​ Reallocate portfolios. ○​ Reshuffle the Commission European Commission structure, roles, and challenges -​ The European Commission's administrative level is led by director generals and services, each responsible for specific areas (e.g., DG Home Affairs). -​ The commission has 30,000 officials, including 500 ad officials who are involved in policymaking and management, and a written test is used to fill these positions. -​ Victor Hogan, German Commissioner, proposed reducing carbon emissions in 2008. -​ Commissioners' backgrounds influence budget allocations to member states. -​ External relations are complicated, with the High Representative situated between the Commission and Council. EU institutions, specifically the European Commission and Council -​ It should highlight supranational elements of the European Commission, such as independent decision-making and representing the EU on the international stage. -​ Intergovernmental aspects, including one member state, one commissioner per member state, and delegation of power from national governments, still play a role in the Commission's functioning. -​ It should be explained that the European Council and Council of the EU, their roles, and differences. -​ The European Council is important in setting the EU's general political direction and priorities. European Council meetings and leaders -​ The lecturer discusses European Council meetings, highlighting their importance in breaking deadlocks and addressing controversial issues like the Coronavirus Fund. -​ The meetings often feature famous family photos, with heads of state and council ministers present, though women are under-represented. -​ Charles Michel, current President of the European Council, and Pedro Sanchez, former Prime Minister of Spain, as potential candidates for the position. -​ The presidency of the European Council rotates every 6 months among member states, allowing smaller countries to set the agenda. 16 EU institutions' roles and conflicts, with a focus on the Council of the European Union -​ Von der Leyen used a diplomatic incident to highlight gender equality, causing tension with Michel. -​ The conflict between Council and Commission highlights the competition for leadership in European politics. -​ Speaker 1 explains that meetings of national ministers (such as EcoFin and Foreign Affairs Council) are where legislation is made, with different formats and agendas for each meeting. -​ Consensus is the preferred approach in these meetings, with qualified majority voting used when necessary, leading to a cumbersome process with many steps and taking one and a half years for a proposal to go through the council. Role of Coreper players in EU decision-making -​ The Coreper committee plays an important role in EU decision-making, linking national ministers and permanent representatives. -​ Permanent representatives meet weekly, allowing member states to share perspectives and work towards common European solutions. -​ The EU's institutions work together to set the agenda and roadmap for integration, with the Commission and Council having different roles and the Parliament gaining power. -​ The EU's institutions (Commission, Council, Parliament) have unequal power, with Parliament gaining influence at the Council's expense. 17 Seminar: Lecture 7: European Parliament: -​ Strasbourg, Luxembourg, Brussels -​ Common Assembly of ECSC (1951) -​ added democratic legitimacy -​ 78 members appointed from national legislatures -​ Powers limited to dismissal of High Authority -​ Treaty of Rome (1957) -​ coverage extending to three Communities -​ Increased right of consultation but Council not be obliged to take account of the Assembly’s position -​ Right to propose elections by direct suffrage -​ Double mandate of MEPs (-1979) -​ national parliamentarians that were sent to EP -​ Part-time parliament -​ Limited power and influence -​ First direct elections to EP (1979): -​ EP used the direct elections to ask for more power -​ today it has equal legislative and budgetary partners to the Council -​ scrutinise and hold the Commission to account Budget treaties of 1970 and 1975: -​ right to amend/reject and sign off books 18  -​ consulted re. appointments in the Court of Auditors -​ Power re. non-compulsory spend only (20%) -​ Persistent conflict between the Council and EP -​ Resolution via multi-annual financial perspective -​ Lisbon removes the non-/compulsory distinction -​ EP and Council as bicameral budgetary authority EU budget: -​ central tool: priorities, direction and how money is spent -​ multi-annual framework (MMF) result of a long political process -​ 2021-2027 MFF and NextGenerationEU (€1.8 trillion): -​ The first proposal by the Commission in May 2018, was revised in 2020 due to Corona; in July 2020, it was agreed by member states -​ December 2020, it was agreed by EP EP and the Commission: 1.​ dismissal a.​ EP enjoys the right to dismiss the whole Commission b.​ never happened, but Santer’s commission resigned (1999) 2.​ Appointment a.​ 1992 Maastricht and 1997 Amsterdam: formal right to veto president-designate and whole Commission b.​ 2007 Lisbon: direct role appointing President c.​ EP interviews and approves individual COM candidates 3.​ Scrutiny a.​ limited to invitations to explain and justify decisions b.​ The commission submits the annual work programme to EP The EP’s increasing legislation -​ Consultation procedure (1979) -​ Cooperation procedure (introduced by SEA in 1986) -​ second reading and conditional veto -​ closer collaboration with the Commission -​ Co-decision (renamed Ordinary Legislative Procedure AFTER Lisbon Treaty) -​ introduced in 1992 by the Maastricht Treaty -​ Third reading, unconditional veto, conciliation process -​ From 15 Articles, today it covers 85 policy areas -​ EP and Council as co-legislators -​ Shaped legislation via the OLP -​ e.g. increasing environmental standards, promoting civil liberties, improving consumer rights -​ Changing inter-institutional relations -​ Small negotiating teams from EP and Council -​ Trilogues (EP, Council, COM) -​ Legislation concluded on the first reading -​ implications for transparency 19  -​ Efficiency versus legitimacy Internal politics of the EP: -​ strong committees and weak parties -​ political groups -​ link between Brussels and national-level parties -​ need 23 MEPs to create a group -​ 7 cross-national groups: -​ European People’s Party (EPP): centre-right -​ Social & Democratic Alliance (S&D): centre-left President of EP: currently Roberta Metsola, since 2022 (EPP) -​ chairs Plenary and represents it -​ Allocation decided by party elites Vice-Presidents: -​ Support the President and help run the Parliament Committee chairs: -​ Set calendar and agenda of meetings -​ Participate in OLP inter-institutional negotiations -​ over 20 standing committees -​ divided functionally into policy areas -​ repository for policy expertise -​ legislation mainly discussed in committees -​ appoint teams for intra-/inter-institutional negotiations Rapporteurs and “shadow” rapporteurs -​ Draft Committee reports (subject to amendment) -​ Shape positions adopted by their political groups -​ Central to negotiation team for talks under OLP Parliament at Work: Plenary -​ multilingualism: 24 languages, aka 552 combinations of direct translations -​ effects on debates and the public -​ public position taking; specifics already discussed with committees -​ keeping a check on committees -​ final say about legislative reports Role of EP: legislating + budget + scrutiny; increasing powers over time. Voting in the EP elections: -​ 1st elections: 1979 -​ last elections: 2019, next ones: 2024 -​ regional or national lists, therefore a proposal for transnational lists -​ decrease in turnout until 2019: -​ voters think that EP elections are “second-order” to national elections, resulting in better results for small, challenger parties and less influence -​ parties: 20  -​ No campaigns are organised for EP, but rather for national parties (exception: -​ To vote: -​ be a citizen of the EU -​ be resident in the EU country in which they propose to vote or to stand as a candidate -​ Citizens residing abroad can choose -​ satisfy the same conditions as a national of that EU country where one wishes to vote or to stand as a candidate (the principle of equality between national and non-national voters). After the 2024 elections: Progressive move to the right from 1979 onwards, with a recent consolidation of the most far right-wing ever. Second-order elections happened again. Lecture 11 European Court of Justice (ECJ) Overview ​ Purpose: Ensures compliance with EU treaties and promotes European integration through judicial policies. ​ Structure: Includes the European Court of Justice, General Court, and Civil Service Tribunal. ​ Criticism: The appointment of judges was criticised for lack of transparency and diversity despite reforms under the Lisbon Treaty. Jurisdiction and Actions ​ ECJ ensures EU law adherence via direct actions (e.g., infringement, annulment, damages) and preliminary rulings that guide national courts. ​ Case example: Stefan Saddleman v. Austria (Schengen ID law violation). ​ Judicial Politics: ECJ often interprets vague laws in favour of EU integration, akin to political courts like the U.S. Supreme Court. European General Court ​ Focuses on administrative law, reducing ECJ's workload. ​ Handles cases not related to constitutional or political issues. Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) ​ Monetary Union: centralised; governed by the European Central Bank (ECB), managing euro policies and inflation. 21  ​ Economic Union: decentralised, with policymaking controlled by member states. ​ Challenges: Asymmetry between monetary and economic policies contributed to crises (e.g., the Eurozone crisis 2009–2015). European Central Bank (ECB) ​ Role: Maintains price stability and sets monetary policies. ​ Independence: modelled after Germany's Bundesbank; political independence prevents short-term biases. ​ Challenges: inflation pressures from COVID-19, energy crises, and geopolitical events. Eurozone: Convergence Criteria and Issues ​ Criteria: inflation control, public debt limits, etc., ensure economic stability for euro adoption. ​ Opt-Outs: Countries like Denmark and Sweden maintain independent monetary policies due to sovereignty and public opposition. ​ Criticism: Enforcement of criteria is uneven, and economically weaker states face undue financial burdens. Symbolic and Practical Importance of the Euro ​ Enhances European identity and unity. ​ Represents shared European destiny, fostering integration. ​ Criticised for limited labour mobility and lack of redistribution during crises. Optimal Currency Area Theory ​ It suggests integration and labour mobility justify a common currency, but the EU struggles to meet these conditions. Lecture 12 1. EU Lawmaking Overview and Structure: ​ The session focused on EU lawmaking, emphasising legislative procedures and the role of the Court of Justice. ​ Key questions: What does the EU legislate, and when does it have the power to legislate? ​ Central principles: Conferral, Subsidiarity, and Proportionality guide EU actions. 2. Hierarchy of EU Sources of Law: 22  ​ Primary Law: EU treaties and the Charter of Fundamental Rights prevail over other sources, including international law. ​ General Principles: Direct effect, primacy, and proportionality govern EU legal actions. ​ Secondary Law: Includes binding acts like regulations, directives, and decisions, derived from treaties and subordinate to primary law. 3. Competencies and Legal Basis: ​ Principle of Conferral: The EU can only legislate within powers conferred by treaties. ​ Competencies: ○​ Exclusive (e.g., customs union, monetary policy). ○​ Shared (e.g., environment, internal market). ○​ Complementary (e.g., health, culture). ​ The legal basis for legislation must align with specific treaty provisions, such as Articles 2-6 and Part Three of the TFEU. Complementary competence refers to areas where the European Union (EU) has the authority to support, coordinate, or supplement the actions of Member States, without replacing or overriding their national competence. It is the least intrusive level of EU competence and ensures that Member States retain primary responsibility while allowing the EU to provide added value through collaboration or support. Key Features of Complementary Competence: Defined Areas: Complementary competences are outlined in Article 6 TFEU, covering specific policy fields: Health: Promoting health and disease prevention. Culture 4. Subsidiary Legal Basis & Article 352: ​ Subsidiary legal bases (e.g., Articles 113, 352 TFEU) are used when no specific legal basis exists. ​ Article 352 allows EU action linked to treaty objectives but requires Council unanimity. 23 5. Principle of Subsidiarity: ​ Ensures EU action is taken only when objectives cannot be achieved effectively by member states and can be better achieved at the Union level. ​ Applies to shared competencies. ​ Includes mechanisms like the Yellow Card (1/3 parliamentary chambers) and Orange Card (50% chambers) to challenge legislation. 6. Principle of Proportionality: ​ Ensures measures are appropriate, necessary, and not excessive. ​ A proportionality test involves: 1.​ Appropriateness to the goal. 2.​ Necessity. 3.​ Balancing competing goals. 7. Legislative Procedures and Legal Basis: ​ Ordinary Legislative Procedure (OLP): Default method unless specified otherwise in the legal basis. ​ Special procedures are used for certain areas like taxation or town planning. 8. Types of Secondary Law: ​ Regulations: Binding, directly applicable across the EU (e.g., GDPR). ​ Directives: Set goals for member states, requiring national implementation. Can have a direct effect if poorly implemented or deadlines expire. ​ Decisions: Binding on specific individuals or entities, directly applicable. ​ Non-binding Acts: recommendations and opinions influence behaviour but lack legal enforceability. 9. Exercises on Legal Acts: ​ Practical exercises highlighted the importance of choosing the appropriate legal act (e.g., regulations for uniformity or directives for flexibility). 10. Final Steps in Lawmaking: ​ Identify competence, legal basis, legislative procedure, and the type of legal act. ​ Ensure compliance with conferral, subsidiarity, and proportionality principles. ​ Read the legal basis meticulously to determine legislative requirements. Seminar: Natural person: individual bearing rights Legal person: bearing rights influenced by natural person 24  1.​ What are the main functions of the European Court of Justice? a.​ interpreting the EU law b.​ Ensures compliance with EU treaties and promotes European integration through judicial policies. Structure: Includes the European Court of Justice, General Court, and Civil Service Tribunal. Criticism: The appointment of judges criticised for lack of transparency and diversity despite reforms under the Lisbon Treaty. Jurisdiction and Actions ECJ ensures EU law adherence via direct actions (e.g., infringement, annulment, damages) and preliminary rulings that guide national courts. Case example: Stefan Saddleman v. Austria (Schengen ID law violation). Judicial Politics: ECJ often interprets vague laws in favour of EU integration, akin to political courts like the U.S. Supreme Court. 2.​ What are the relations between the ECJ and the other EU institutions? a.​ acts as an administrative and constitutional court between the other EU institutions and the Member States and can annul or invalidate unlawful acts of EU institutions, bodies, offices and agencies. 3.​ Why can the ECJ be considered to be the constitutional court of the EU? Questions to answer later: -​ When does a directive have a direct effect? -​ Who can open a case with the ECJ, besides natural people and legal persons? -​ Note for Jam: need to know the difference between natural and legal persons (not in lecture) -​ Recommendation of the ECJ -​ Election of ECJ (I covered it somewhere but i forgot where) -​ Only ECJ interprets EU Law -​ Note for devina: dig up 1 of your million summaries on EU Law and put them in document -​ Early warning system (see yellow card and orange card procedure) is a way for national parliaments to have a say -​ Emu was established as a result of the Bretton Woods System failure to improve economic stability and provide strong and sustainable growth. -​ ESCB is collection of national banks and aims to deal with inflation. -​ Countries shouldn’t have more than 60% of ??? -​ State should show ??? -​ Years of establishing treaties, know which one comes first and so forth. -​ The euro remains a political symbol of unity, even with economic challenges. Notes Devi (i'm gonna answer everything and work it out and put it in the doc): 25 -​ What were the main reasons behind the establishment of the economic and monetary union? (In book) Breckenwood system. EMU was established also for the internal market. Conflation -​ What were the objections of the convergence criteria? (Memorize the 60 prct and the 3 prct?! Ciphers) -​ What is the european system of central banks ESCB and what is its main objective? -​ What was the objective of the convergence criteria that were agreed upon Maastricht in 1991? -​ The euro came in 2001 and 2002 -​ What is the Stability and Growth Pact? Why was it amended during the Eurocrisis of 2008 -2011? Which EU Institution gained a bigger rote in terms of supervising government budgets? -​ For exam: need to know: year of established and year when treaty was ratified -​ European commission got power to enforce? -​ European citizens initiative 26 Exam Questions 1.​ What was the Schuman plan? Proposed by French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman in 1950, the Schuman Plan aimed to pool French and German coal and steel production and create economic interdependence to prevent future wars. 2.​ What factors contributed to its success? Key factors included the post-WWII desire for peace, economic cooperation, U.S. support for European integration, and the French-German reconciliation goal. The plan’s focus on coal and steel was strategic since these industries were crucial for war machinery. 3.​ What are the similarities and differences between the European Coal and Steel Community that emanated from the Schuman Plan and the European Union as it exists today? Similarities: Both promote economic cooperation and integration among member states. Differences: The ECSC was sector-specific, focusing solely on coal and steel, while the EU today encompasses a much broader range of policy areas, including economic, political, social, and environmental policies. 4.​ What was the European Defence Community (EDC)? ​ The EDC was proposed in 1950 as a way to create a pan-European military force under joint command envisioned as a defence mechanism against Soviet expansion. 5.​ What model of integration of Europe did it entail? ​ The EDC proposed supranational military integration, where European forces would operate under a unified command rather than national control. 6.​ What factors contributed to it being rejected? ​ The French National Assembly rejected the EDC in 1954 due to concerns over national sovereignty and fears of undermining NATO. Additionally, there were reservations about German rearmament. 7.​ What model of integration was pursued by the ‘European six’ instead? After the EDC’s failure, the European Economic Community (EEC) and EURATOM were established in 1957, focusing on economic rather than military integration among France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. 8.​ What were the main successes and challenges of the European Economic Community (EEC)? ​ Main successes: The EEC fostered economic growth by creating a common market, removing trade barriers among member states, and introducing common policies on agriculture and trade. The main challenges included handling national sovereignty concerns, balancing economic disparities between states, and managing complex decision-making processes. 9.​ How did the EEC differ in terms of institutional structure from the earlier established ECSC? The EEC had a more comprehensive institutional structure, with the establishment of the European Commission, Council of Ministers, and European Parliament, enabling broader governance beyond coal and steel.  10.​What problem did the Luxembourg compromise, solve, and what resolutions did it entail? The Luxembourg Compromise in 1966 resolved a crisis over the shift from unanimous voting to majority voting in certain Council decisions, which had led France to boycott European institutions.​ The compromise allowed a de facto veto for any member state on issues it deemed of “very important national interest,” thus preserving unanimity in critical areas and assuaging national sovereignty concerns. 1.​ What does the contention between supranationalism and intergovernmentalism entail? ​ Supranationalism and intergovernmentalism represent two different models for European integration: -​ Supranationalism involves transferring authority from individual nations to a higher authority, like the EU, which can make binding decisions that member states must follow. -​ Intergovernmentalism emphasises cooperation between governments, where decisions are made through consensus and require national approval, preserving state sovereignty. 2.​ What is better for the full integration of Europe? Supranationalism generally supports deeper integration, as it enables uniform policies and reduces national veto power on collective matters. Intergovernmentalism, however, is favoured by those who prioritise national sovereignty, as it allows states to retain control over their affairs. Full integration would likely require a supranational approach for greater consistency and coordination, though it’s politically challenging. 3.​ What is the difference between intergovernmentalism and supranationalism? Intergovernmentalism: decisions require the consensus of member states. States retain sovereignty, and decision-making bodies act primarily as forums for negotiation and collaboration. Examples include NATO and the United Nations (UN). Supranationalism: like the European Union (EU), have the authority to make decisions that are binding on member states, even if individual states disagree. This approach reduces national veto power, allowing decisions to be made more efficiently on common issues. 4.​ Can you name non-European supranational and intergovernmental organisations? ​ Supranational: -​ Mercosur: A South American trade bloc with some supranational elements, focusing on economic integration. -​ Andean Community: An organisation promoting economic cooperation among several South American nations. -​ African Union (AU): Has elements of supranational governance, especially in peacekeeping and development initiatives. ​ Intergovernmental:  -​ United Nations (UN): Primarily intergovernmental, with decisions made by consensus or majority in specific areas. -​ North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): Operates through intergovernmental agreements on defence and security. -​ ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations): Maintains an intergovernmental structure, emphasising cooperation without supranational authority. 5.​ What are the main advantages and what are the main challenges of intergovernmentalism/supranationalism? Supranationalism: -​ Advantages: streamlined decision-making, cohesive policies, and stronger collective action. -​ Challenges: reduced national sovereignty, possible resistance from member states, and issues with democratic accountability. Intergovernmentalism: -​ Advantages: preserves state autonomy, allows tailored decisions, and increases acceptance by member governments. -​ Challenges: can be slow and inefficient, may lead to inconsistent policies, and sometimes weakens the ability to address cross-border issues. Question 1: Question 2: Question 3: Answer: B !! Answer: C !! Answer: A!! 1. What priorities of European integration (for the EEC) did each of these entail: completion, deepening, widening. How did the Single European Act contribute to the project of completion and deepening of European integration? remember definitions and years Completion - Focus: Removing remaining barriers to achieve the objectives set in the Treaty of Rome, particularly the establishment of a fully operational Common Market. - Key Actions: - Elimination of internal customs duties and trade barriers among member states. - Streamlining regulations to ensure the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people.  - Ensuring legal and technical harmonization to facilitate cross-border economic activity. Deepening - Focus: Expanding the scope of integration beyond economic cooperation to include political, social, and monetary dimensions. - Key Actions: - Strengthening the role of supranational institutions like the European Parliament and the European Commission. - Introducing common policies in areas such as social rights, environment, and technology. - Setting the stage for further integration through initiatives like monetary cooperation (e.g., European Monetary System). Widening - Focus: Expanding the European Economic Community (EEC) by including new member states. - Key Actions: - Enabling candidate countries to join the EEC, provided they met economic and political criteria. - Facilitating the accession of countries such as Denmark, Ireland, and the UK (1973), Greece (1981), and later Spain and Portugal (1986). - Balancing enlargement with ensuring cohesion among existing members. The Single European Act (1986) was a landmark treaty that re-energized European integration by addressing both completion and deepening priorities. Contribution to Completion - Single Market by 1992: - The SEA set a legally binding deadline to complete the internal market by 1992. - It aimed to remove remaining physical, technical, and fiscal barriers, enabling the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people. - Streamlined Decision-Making: - Introduced Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) in the Council of Ministers for internal market legislation, reducing the ability of individual states to veto key initiatives. - Legal Framework: - Provided a legal basis for harmonizing standards, ensuring mutual recognition of goods and services, and addressing regulatory discrepancies. Contribution to Deepening - Expansion of EEC Competences: - Extended the EEC’s remit into new areas such as environmental policy, research and development, and social cohesion.  - Enhanced cooperation in foreign policy and introduced a framework for greater political coordination. - Strengthened Institutions: - Gave the European Parliament more influence, particularly in the legislative process, paving the way for more democratic accountability. - Reinforced the European Commission’s role in drafting and enforcing Single Market legislation. The SEA was pivotal in both completing the Common Market and deepening European integration. It removed longstanding obstacles to economic unification and expanded cooperation into new policy areas, setting the stage for the Maastricht Treaty and the eventual creation of the European Union. It represented a shift towards supranationalism, as member states agreed to pool sovereignty in specific areas to achieve shared goals. 2. What steps for creating the EMU did the Werner plan envision? Why was the Werner plan abandoned? What model of European integration did ‘the Six’ member states go for instead? Phase 1: Coordination of Economic Policies -​ National governments would begin aligning their economic and fiscal policies, particularly budgetary and inflation controls, to create a framework for monetary stability. -​ Exchange rate fluctuations would be limited through closer cooperation between central banks. Phase 2: Harmonization and Fixed Exchange Rates -​ National policies would undergo deeper harmonization, and a system of fixed but adjustable exchange rates would be implemented. -​ The establishment of collective monetary policies and a shared reserve management system would pave the way for monetary unification. Phase 3: Full Economic and Monetary Union -​ Member states would adopt a single currency and establish supranational institutions, including a European Central Bank (ECB), to manage monetary policy. -​ Fiscal and economic decision-making powers would be centralized at the European level. 1. Economic Crises of the 1970s: - The collapse of the Bretton Woods system (1971-73) led to increased exchange rate instability, making fixed exchange rates unattainable. - The oil crises and stagflation compounded economic challenges, leading to divergent national economic priorities. 2. Sovereignty Concerns:  - Member states, particularly France, were reluctant to cede control over monetary and fiscal policies to a supranational body. - National governments prioritized retaining flexibility in managing their economies during crises. 3. Lack of Political Commitment: - The political will to push through such deep integration was insufficient, with many leaders fearing domestic backlash. Instead of the ambitious supranational framework proposed by the Werner Plan, the six founding members (France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg) opted for a more pragmatic, incremental approach to integration: - The European Monetary System (EMS) was established in 1979 as a compromise. It introduced the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) to stabilise exchange rates without moving towards a full monetary union. - The EMS maintained national sovereignty over monetary policy while creating a framework for future convergence. - The Single European Act (1986) aimed to complete the internal market by 1992, focusing on economic integration rather than monetary unification. - This model reflected intergovernmentalism, balancing national sovereignty with collective decision-making. 3. What changes to the European structure (institutional and decision-making) did the Maastricht treaty introduce? Has the deepening of the process of European integration and the transition towards a more political union through the Maastricht Treaty been a positive development in your opinion? The Maastricht Treaty (1992), formally known as the Treaty on European Union (TEU), marked a significant milestone in the European integration process. It introduced several changes to the EU’s institutional structure and decision-making processes, transitioning the European Community (EC) into a more political and integrated union. Institutional Changes 1.​ Creation of the European Union (EU): - The treaty formally established the EU, incorporating the existing European Communities and introducing new areas of cooperation. ​ 2.​ Three Pillar Structure: - The EU was organized into three pillars: - First Pillar: European Communities (economic, social, and environmental policies). - Second Pillar: Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). - Third Pillar: Cooperation in Justice and Home Affairs (JHA).​  3.​ Introduction of EU Citizenship: - Citizens of member states were granted EU citizenship, allowing free movement, voting rights in local and European elections, and consular protection outside the EU. 4.​ Strengthened Role for the European Parliament (EP): - The treaty introduced the co-decision procedure, giving the EP more power to legislate alongside the Council of Ministers. - It expanded the EP’s role in approving treaties and overseeing other EU institutions. Decision-Making Changes 1. Economic and Monetary Union (EMU): - The treaty laid the groundwork for the EMU, culminating in the introduction of the euro in 1999. - It established convergence criteria for member states to join the single currency. 2. Qualified Majority Voting (QMV): - Extended the use of QMV in the Council of Ministers, making decision-making more efficient by reducing the need for unanimous agreement in certain policy areas. 3. Subsidiarity Principle: - Introduced the principle that decisions should be taken as closely as possible to the citizen, ensuring EU actions are only taken when more effective at the EU level. 4. Expanded Competences: - New policy areas were brought under EU control, including education, health, consumer protection, and trans-European networks. --- Evaluation of Maastricht’s Deepening of Integration Positive Developments 1. Economic Integration Success: - The EMU and the euro have significantly facilitated trade and investment by reducing currency exchange risks and fostering economic interdependence among member states. 2. Stronger Political Cooperation: - The CFSP allowed the EU to present a more unified stance on global issues, enhancing its role on the world stage. - Justice and Home Affairs cooperation improved responses to transnational challenges like crime and immigration. 3. Democratic Legitimacy:  - The enhanced role of the European Parliament improved the democratic accountability of EU decision-making. 4. Symbolic Unity: - The EU citizenship concept strengthened Europeans’ sense of belonging to a larger community, fostering solidarity and shared identity. --- Criticisms 1. Democratic Deficit: - Despite reforms, many citizens feel disconnected from EU decision-making, perceiving the process as dominated by bureaucrats and distant institutions. 2. Economic Disparities: - The EMU has been criticized for exacerbating economic imbalances between member states, particularly during the eurozone crisis. 3. Sovereignty Concerns: - The treaty deepened integration, but it also fueled Euroscepticism, with many states wary of ceding more control to supranational institutions. 4. Implementation Challenges: - The ambitious scope of Maastricht’s reforms has occasionally led to implementation difficulties, particularly in managing the euro and addressing divergent national interests. The Maastricht Treaty has been a net positive development in the long-term European integration process. It enabled unprecedented economic and political cooperation, which has helped the EU navigate global challenges more effectively than individual states could alone. However, it also highlighted the importance of balancing integration with respect for national identities and economic realities. For future success, deeper integration must address the democratic deficit and ensure that the benefits of union are equitably shared. 1.​ To what extent can the European Commission be compared to a national government? 2.​ What is the role of EU expert Committees and EU agency networks in the formulation and implementation of EU policy? 3.​ Which body adopts policy proposals in the European Commission?