Introduction to Exotic Animal Theriogenology PDF

Introduction to Exotic Animal Theriogenology Julianne McCready, DVM, DVSc, DACZM Assistant Professor, Zoological Medicine Pre-class videos } 1st class } Bird reproductive system } https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25nyZd7gbj4&t=91s } Reptile sex determination }...

Introduction to Exotic Animal Theriogenology Julianne McCready, DVM, DVSc, DACZM Assistant Professor, Zoological Medicine Pre-class videos } 1st class } Bird reproductive system } https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25nyZd7gbj4&t=91s } Reptile sex determination } https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOqCTWp7j80 } 2nd class } Rabbits } https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K2XNaSjUTbs Introduction } Reproductive anatomy and physiology vary greatly across taxa } Range from asexual reproduction to egg laying to live bearing } Different accessory sex glands } Different numbers of functional gonads } Varying levels of sexual dimorphism } Some have no distinct external differences } Some have minimal differences only known to educated eye } Some similar to dog/cat } Some have obvious differences (e.g. different colors)  Egg Layers Non-Egg Layers Birds Most Most reptiles mammals Most amphibians Monotremes Placental mammals Marsupials Introduction } Reproduction-related problems } Common presentation } Often husbandry-related } Spaying/neutering not as common } May be more complicated in some species Reptile Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Extremely variable and diverse group } Marked differences in reproductive anatomy and physiology } Even within taxa Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Sexing reptiles } Chelonians } Longer tail with more distal cloaca in males } Tortoises: flat plastron in females, concave in males } Aquatic turtles: males have longer nails on front feet } Box turtles: red iris in males Male Female Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Sexing reptiles } Chelonians } Phallus ¨ Not a penis ¨ Not involved in urination Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Sexing reptiles } Snakes } Probing ¨ 2-5 scales in females ¨ 8-15 scales in males } Hemipenal eversion ¨ Risk of trauma Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Sexing reptiles } Lizards } Hemipenal bulge } Larger femoral pores in males } Pre-anal pores in male leopard geckos } Veiled chameleons: larger casque, heel spurs in males Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Sexing reptiles } Lizards } Hemipenal bulge } Larger femoral pores in males } Pre-anal pores in male leopard geckos } Veiled chameleons: larger casque, heel spurs in males Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } All reptiles reproduce by internal fertilization } Different from amphibians } Most reptiles lay eggs } Oviparous } “Pregnant” females = gravid } Exceptions } Some snakes (e.g. boa constrictors) ¨ Viviparous Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Able to produce eggs even without a male } But eggs are not fertile } Bilateral ovaries and oviduct } Different from birds } Oviduct connects to the cloaca } Like birds } Urinary bladder? } ABSENT in snakes } Present in most (not all) lizards } Present in chelonians } Reports of ectopic eggs in UB! Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Cloaca } Similar to birds } End termination of the GI, reproductive, urinary system } 3 components } Coprodeum: GI } Urodeum: urinary and reproductive } Proctodeum Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Egg laying } Similar process in birds and reptiles } More information for birds } Reptiles take longer than birds } Reptiles may not have hard-shelled eggs Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } Egg laying } Parental care in a few species } Longer process } Precocial } Do not rotate eggs Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } What is the impact of global warming on reptile species? Anatomy and Physiology: Reptiles } What is the impact of global warming on reptile species? Avian Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Reproductive system } Entirely internal } No external genitalia/gonads } Most species } Only left ovary } How to sex birds? } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) } Most species not sexually dimorphic Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) } Most species not sexually dimorphic } Exceptions: } Eclectus } Budgerigar } Ringneck parrot } Cockatiel } Cockatoos Male Female Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) } Most species not sexually dimorphic } Exceptions: } Eclectus } Budgerigar } Ringneck parrot } Cockatiel } Cockatoos Budgerigar Budgerigar Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) } Most species not sexually dimorphic } Exceptions: } Eclectus } Budgerigar } Ringneck parrot } Cockatiel } Cockatoos Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) Wild Type } Most species not sexually dimorphic } Exceptions: } Eclectus } Budgerigar } Ringneck parrot } Cockatiel } Cockatoos Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) Pearl } Most species not sexually dimorphic Males lose their pearl at 1 year old } Exceptions: Will look like wild } Eclectus type male } Budgerigar Females retain pearl } Ringneck parrot } Cockatiel } Cockatoos Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) Pied } Most species not sexually dimorphic Cannot be sexed visually } Exceptions: Males may retain pearl } Eclectus } Budgerigar } Ringneck parrot } Cockatiel } Cockatoos Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) Lutino } Most species not sexually dimorphic Difficult } Exceptions: Barring of tail in females } Eclectus Lutino pied cannot be sexed visually } Budgerigar } Ringneck parrot } Cockatiel } Cockatoos Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) Albino } Most species not sexually dimorphic Cannot be sexed visually } Exceptions: } Eclectus } Budgerigar } Ringneck parrot } Cockatiel } Cockatoos Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing psittacine birds (parrots) } Most species not sexually dimorphic } Exceptions: } Eclectus } Budgerigar } Ringneck parrot } Cockatiel } Cockatoos ¨ Most white/pink species ¨ Female: reddish iris ¨ Male: black/brown iris Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Sexing other bird species } Waterfowl: } Breeding plumage } Curly tail in males } Poultry: } Combs and wattles } Spurs } Crowing } Raptors: } Females larger than males Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } What if you cannot visually sex them? } Ask if they have laid eggs before } DNA sexing } Endoscopy } What side? Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } What if you cannot visually sex them? } Ask if they have laid eggs before } DNA sexing } Endoscopy } What side? ¨ Left to increase the chances of finding something ¨ Either a testicle or an ovary Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Cloaca } Similar to reptiles } NO URINARY BLADDER } Phallus only in some species ¨ Ducks, geese, ostrich Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Ovary and oviduct } Most species only the left } Right oviduct may exist } But regressed/vestigial Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Testicles } Bilateral } Large changes breeding vs non-breeding } Asymmetrical } Potentially left is larger Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Egg laying } Chickens ~24 h } Birds always lay hard-shelled eggs Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Egg laying } Variably-sized follicles } Follicle released into oviduct } Oviduct parts: } Infundibulum } Magnum } Isthmus } Uterus (shell gland) } Vagina Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Oviduct parts } Infundibulum } Receives ovum } Magnum } Largest } Deposits albumen } Isthmus } Shell membranes added } Uterus (shell gland) } Shell deposition } Longest time (80%) } Vagina } Oviposition Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Parental care in most } Egg rotation needed } Chicks } Altricial } Parrots, songbirds } Semialtricial } Hawks, owls } Precocial } Ducks Anatomy and Physiology: Birds } Checking eggs } Candling  Mammal Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Myomorph rodents (mice, rats, hamsters, gerbils) } Polyestrous } Spontaneous ovulators } Anatomy } Females: ¨ Bicornuate uterus ¨ Short uterine body ¨ Single cervix Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Myomporph rodents (mice, rats, hamsters, gerbils) } Sex determination } Very easy to sex } Males ¨ Larger anogenital distance ¨ Large testicles ¨ No nipples } Females ¨ Shorter anogenital distance ¨ 3 external openings (anus, vaginal orifice, urinary papilla) ¨ Nipples Young male rat Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Myomorph rodents (mice, rats, hamsters, gerbils) } Sex determination } Males ¨ Larger anogenital distance ¨ Large testicles ¨ No nipples } Females ¨ Shorter anogenital distance ¨ 3 external openings (anus, vaginal orifice, urinary papilla) A. Male B. Female ¨ Nipples Anus (black arrow) Anus (black arrow) Genital papilla (red arrow) Genital papilla (red arrow) Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Hystricomorph rodents (guinea pigs, chinchillas) } Sex determination } Females (A): Y-shaped anogenital orifice } Males (B): ¨ Large scrotal sacs caudal to prepuce ¨ Extrude penis with pressure to area 3-month-old guinea pigs (female and male) Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Hystricomorph rodents (guinea pigs, chinchillas) } Sex determination } Females: Y-shaped anogenital orifice } Males: ¨ Large scrotal sacs caudal to prepuce ¨ Extrude penis with pressure to area Adult male guinea pig Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Hystricomorph rodents (guinea pigs, chinchillas) } Anatomy } No true scrotum ¨ Either in inguinal canals (chinchillas) or in a scrotal pouch } Seminal vesicles ¨ Long, coiled, blind sacs, located ventral to the ureters ¨ Do not confuse with uterus Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Hystricomorph rodents (guinea pigs, chinchillas) } Breeding guinea pigs } Pubic symphysis does not fuse in a young, reproductively active female } During last week of pregnancy ¨ Relaxin produced by pituitary gland and endometrium ¨ Causes the fibrocartilage of the pubic Breeding female Non-breeding female symphysis to disintegrate } If not bred by 8 months ¨ Symphysis will fuse permanently ¨ Predisposing to dystocia Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Hystricomorph rodents (guinea pigs, chinchillas) } Young } Precocial Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Rabbits } Sexing } Harder in young animals } Do not rely on dewlap ¨ Males can have it (esp. if overweight) Overweight male rabbit Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Rabbits } Male anatomy } Scrotal sacs } Penis caudal to testicles } Very small nipples Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Rabbits } Female anatomy } Long vaginal body with 2 cervices } 2 uterine horns } No uterine body Anatomy and Physiology: Mammals } Ferrets } In USA, most spayed/castrated by 6 weeks age } Sexing: easy } Males: prepuce in ventral abdomen (long anogenital distance) } Females: short anogenital distance } Anatomy and physiology } Males: ¨ Os penis ¨ Prostate: only accessory sex gland ¨ Surrounds urethra at base of bladder ¨ Urethral obstruction if enlarged } Females: ¨ Induced ovulator and will remain in estrus if not bred  Reptile Reproductive Disorders Reproductive Disorders: Reptiles } Neoplasia } Occasionally reported } Teratoma, dysgerminoma, adenocarcinoma, granulosa cell tumors } Non-reproductive tumors } May cause mass effect à prevent laying } But typically not laying if there is neoplastic process elsewhere Coelomic distension in a corn snake with an ovarian tumor Reproductive Disorders: Reptiles } Most commonly associated with husbandry } Housing } Lack of appropriate substrate/nest box } Stress } Metabolic } Hypocalcemia ¨ Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism Reproductive Disorders: Reptiles } Follicular stasis (AKA preovulatory egg binding) } More common in reptiles } Static condition of ovarian follicle development } Predisposing factors } Nutritional deficiencies } Inappropriate husbandry } Diagnosis? Reproductive Disorders: Reptiles } Follicular stasis (AKA preovulatory egg binding) } Diagnosis } Imaging ¨ Radiographs? ¨ Follicles not mineralized ¨ Ultrasound ¨ CT } How long is too long? Reproductive Disorders: Reptiles } Follicular stasis (AKA preovulatory egg binding) } How long is too long? } Unclear } If stable (not lethargic) ¨ Wait a couple weeks and repeat imaging ¨ Correct any husbandry problems ¨ If animal remains the same ¨ Potential stasis Reproductive Disorders: Reptiles } Follicular stasis (AKA preovulatory egg binding) } Treatment } Surgical spay ¨ Better to do when animal stable ¨ Consider preventative spay in lizards ¨ Risks of surgery vs risks of reproductive disease } Risk of hemorrhage with sx Reproductive Disorders: Reptiles } Prolapse } Gastrointestinal } Urinary } Reproductive Reproductive Disorders: Reptiles } Prolapse } Phallus } Common problem in chelonians } Phallectomy can be performed ¨ Will not affect defecation or urination ¨ General anesthesia or intrathecal anesthesia Reproductive Disorders: Reptiles } Prolapse } Phallus } Common problem in chelonians } Phallectomy can be performed ¨ Will not affect defecation or urination ¨ General anesthesia or intrathecal anesthesia  Avian Reproductive Disorders Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Chronic egg laying } Hen lays repeated clutches without regard to presence of normal mate or breeding season } For most species } >2-3 clutches/year } Especially with larger clutches than expected } More common in canaries, cockatiels, budgerigars } May have behavioral/husbandry component } Stimulation by owners, mirrors, day length } Chickens } Can be promoted/stimulated Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Chronic egg laying } Leads to metabolic exhaustion } Hypocalcemia } May increase chance of other conditions } Egg-related coelomitis Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Chronic egg laying } Treatment } Calcium supplementation if hypocalcemic } Prevent further laying ¨ Correct husbandry ¨ Surgical spaying? ¨ Complex and should not be offered preventatively ¨ Chemical spaying? Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Chronic egg laying } Treatment } Calcium supplementation if hypocalcemic } Prevent further laying ¨ Correct husbandry ¨ Surgical spaying? ¨ Chemical spaying? Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Egg binding and dystocia } Egg binding: prolonged oviposition } >24 h in birds } Dystocia: obstruction } Diagnostic testing } Imaging (radiographs, CT, ultrasound) } Bloodwork (CBC, chem, iCa, Mg) } Causes: } Functional: hypocalcemia } Mechanical: obstruction, torsion, large egg Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Egg binding and dystocia } Treatment } Medical: ¨ Heat, humidity, low stress, dark, quiet ¨ Fluids ¨ Analgesics ¨ Calcium Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Egg binding and dystocia } Treatment } Ovocentesis ¨ Percloacal ovocentesis: implosion of egg via vent opening ¨ Percutaneous ovocentesis: ¨ NOT RECOMMENDED Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Egg binding and dystocia } Treatment } Surgical ¨ Salpingotomy (“C-section”) ¨ Salpingohysterectomy (spay) Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Egg-related coelomitis (AKA egg yolk coelomitis/peritonitis) } More common in birds vs reptiles } Part of egg causes coelomitis } Inflammation +/- infection } Causes } Follicle(s) that drop(s) into coelom } Ectopic eggs } Fractured eggs ¨ Ex. iatrogenic } Oviductal rupture } Retropulsion of egg } Tumor Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Egg-related coelomitis (AKA egg yolk coelomitis/peritonitis) } Consequences } Ascites } Infection } Mass effect à dyspnea } Treatment } Medical ¨ Anti-inflammatories ¨ Antibiotics? ¨ Coelomocentesis } Surgical ¨ Removal of material ¨ Spay Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Prolapse } Gastrointestinal } Reproductive } Oviduct } Phallus in species with one } Cloaca itself } Most common in birds Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Prolapse } Initial treatment } Lubricate } Dextrose } Keep clean } Prolapse reduction } Ensure no eggs first } Sedation/anesthesia } Clean, reduce } Place transverse sutures ¨ NOT pursestring Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Prolapse } Long-term treatment } Treat underlying cause } Consider additional surgeries ¨ Ex. Asymmetric cloacoplasty ¨ Right cloacoplasty in parrots } Rectal opening to coprodeum is on left in Psittaciformes } Still allows defecation/urination on left Asymmetric cloacoplasty Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Ovarian and/or oviductal tumors } Common in chickens } Mainly ovarian tumors } No good treatment ¨ Ovariectomy can be attempted ¨ But risk ovarian remnants, hemorrhage, death Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Testicular tumors } Common in birds } Budgerigars, cockatiels } Presentation } Unilateral lameness ¨ Sciatic nerve compression Same male budgerigar after } Cere color change in budgerigars Male budgerigar developing testicular tumor } Hormonal involvement Male budgerigar during treatment with leuprolide, showing blue color starting to return to cere Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Testicular tumors } Common in birds } Budgerigars, cockatiels } Presentation } Unilateral lameness ¨ Sciatic nerve compression Same male budgerigar after } Cere color change in budgerigars Male budgerigar developing testicular tumor } Hormonal involvement Male budgerigar after several months of treatment with leuprolide (cere returned to blue) Reproductive Disorders: Birds } Testicular tumors } Common in birds } Budgerigars, cockatiels } Presentation } Unilateral lameness ¨ Sciatic nerve compression } Cere color change in budgerigars } Hormonal involvement Male budgerigar with presumed testicular tumor, before and after treatment with leuprolide  Mammal Reproductive Disorders Reproductive Disorders: Mammals } Rabbits } I am your client and I just got my first female rabbit } What is your main medical recommendation? Reproductive Disorders: Mammals } Rabbits } Uterine disease } Uterine adenocarcinoma, endometrial hyperplasia } High prevalence in intact females } >4 years old ¨ 80% have tumors ¨ Numbers vary with studies } Spay at early age ( 70% normal Morphology – Stains Fast green FCF – rose Bengal Wright-Giemsa Nigrosin-eosin – Phase contrast or DIC – Count 100 to 200 cells – 70 – 80% should be normal – < 60% - subfertile classification – Note other cells/debris: epithelial, WBCs, RBCs, urine crystals Microscopic Parameters Concentration – Hemocytometer – Spectrophotometer – Cell counter (NucleoCounter) Total sperm number – Concentration x volume – Most meaningful measure of sperm output Hormone Measurement Testosterone – May be low or normal in males with normal libido others have poor libido and normal and high – Pulsatile release – hCG challenge Sample before and 24 h after hCG IM (30 – 50 IU/kg) Sample before and 1.5 h after hCG IV – GnRH challenge 0.1 to 1 ug/kg IM or IV Blood sample prior to and 1 to 2 h after T < 2 ng/ml after challenge = hypogonadism Hormone Measurement Adrenal disorders – Addison’s, Cushion’s can affect gonad function Hypothyroidism – Can affect gonad function Testicular tumors – Serum estrogen > 10 pg/ml indicates active Sertoli or Leydig cell tumor Diagnostic Imaging Radiography – Investigate fractures of os penis – Contrast Urethral obstruction Colonic compression by enlarged prostate – Distance from sacrum to pelvis (S-P) – Prostatic hyperplasia diagnosed when diameter of prostate > 70% of S-P – Prostate considered enlarged when > 50% S-P – Radiology tends to overestimate prostate size Ultrasonography – Evaluate testis, prostate and other soft tissue – FNA and biopsy Poor Semen Quality Oligospermia – Low number of sperm in the ejaculate – TSN should be > 300 million – Frequent use – Seasonal in hot regions – Testicular hyperthermia – Field Trail stress and heat – Hormonal – Infectious disease – Immune mediated Teratozoospermia – > 60% morphologically abnormal sperm – Tumor, orchitis, prostatitis, fever, idiopathic Poor Semen Quality Hemospermia – Noticeable amount of blood in ejaculate – BPH, malignant neoplasia Asthenozoospermia – Progressive motility < 70% – Testicular tumor, infectious, contaminated collection equipment, idiopathic Azoospermia – Absence of sperm in ejaculate – Azoospermia vs didn’t ejaculate ALP < 5000 IU/L failed to ejaculate – Intersex animals, cryptorchid, testicular injury/trauma, neoplasia, retrograde ejaculation into bladder – Karyotype Poor Semen Quality Urospermia – Urine in ejaculate – Toxic to sperm – Excited for long period of time, urethritis, cystitis, electroejaculation, – Measure creatinine Should be zero (normal) Failure to Achieve Erection Reasons – Psychologic Inexperience Previous bad experience – Anatomical Phimosis, trauma, orchitis, torsion, prostatitis, musculoskeletal – Endocrine Testicular hypoplasia, testicular degeneration – Congenital Intersex, phimosis Failure to Achieve Normal Copulation Could be male or female problem – Inexperience – Testicular condition Hypoplasia Degeneration Secondary to drugs Pain Failure to Achieve Ejaculation Absence of ejaculation in the presence of erection and ejaculation – aspermia Sexual immaturity, pain, psychologic, iatrogenic, neuropathic conditions Paraphimosis Inability to retract penis Exposure and entrapment of penis causes ischemia, dying and excoriation Clean, lubricate and replace (recent occurrence) Edematous –hyperosmolar sugar solution, Esmarch bandage, topical steroids Purse string Castration will not prevent occurrence – Testosterone independent Myorrhaphy of preputial muscle Phalectomy Prostate Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) Prostatitis Prostatic Cysts Prostatic Cancer BPH Increase in size with age of dog Prostatic growth modulated by DHT (dihydrotestosterone) Clinical signs – None – Hematuria, dysuria – Constipation, ribbon shaped stool BPH Diagnosis – Rectal palpation Large, symmetrical, not painful – Ultrasonography – Radiographs – Canine specific prostatic esterase Not available in USA Treatment Treat if symptomatic Castration Estrogenic compounds – Not recommended Progestins Antiandrogens 5α-reductase inhibitors – finasteride Prostatitis Similar signs to BPH Palpation Ultrasonography Prostatic wash Collect semen fractions Treatment – Antibiotics – Treat for concurrent BPH Prostatic Cysts Intra- or extraprostatic No signs to stranguria, dysuria, constipation etc. Transrectal palpation Ultrasonography Treatment – Aspiration – Chemical ablation – Marsupialization surgery – Omentalization surgery Prostatic Cancer Adenocarcinoma most common Similar signs to other prostatic disease Palpation Ultrasonography Cytology and biopsy confirmatory – Risks Treatment – chemotherapy or radiation Bad prognosis  Question 1: You collect a 5-year-old male dog and obtain 5-ml of ejaculate with no sperm seen in the ejaculate. Your working diagnosis is failure to ejaculate. Scale: -2 ruled out diagnosis -1 diagnosis less probable 0 neither un-probable or probable +1 diagnosis more probable +2 diagnosis almost certain IF you were to And then find This diagnosis becomes Measure ALP in the semen ALP = 250 IU/L -2 -1 0 +1 +2 Measure creatinine in the Creatinine = 0 umol/L -2 -1 0 +1 +2 semen  Question 2: You collect a 6-year-old male Beagle presents for infertility. Scale: -2 ruled out diagnosis -1 diagnosis less probable 0 neither un-probable or probable +1 diagnosis more probable +2 diagnosis almost certain If you were thinking the And the following information This diagnosis hypothesis following diagnosis: became available: would become Asthenozoospermia Sperm motility = 85% -2 -1 0 +1 +2 Oliogospermia Total sperm number = 50x106 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 Azoospermia You see no sperm when looking at a sample of -2 -1 0 +1 +2 the ejaculate on the microscope and ALP=300 IU/L Canine Pregnancy and Parturition Alex Wittorff Theriogenology Resident  2 Learning Objectives You should understand and be able to have a fluent conversation about: Canine pregnancy diagnosis Important gestational events Normal parturition and interventional techniques Neonate and postpartum dam care  3 Outline Pregnancy Diagnosis C-section Timing Neonatal Care Postpartum Care Pregnancy Diagnosis ¬ Manual palpation and physical signs ¬ Hormone assay ¬ Ultrasonography ¬ Radiography  5 Manual palpation and physical signs Physical Signs Manual Palpation ¬ Mammary gland enlargement: early as 3 Accurate days 24-35 of gestation weeks ¬ 85% accuracy ¬ Persistent vulvar swelling ¬ False positives most common ¬ Malaise: 21-35 day range ¬ Harder in obese or tense patients ¬ Palpation: 24-35 days gestation ¬ Litter size accuracy: 12% ¬ Abdominal distention: 35+ days ¬ Requires practice!  6 Hormone Assays Progesterone Relaxin - tells wasorisnot Others ¬ P4 levels indistinguishable ¬ Placental origin – starts ¬ Prolactin between pregnant and rising 20-30 days gestation ¬ C-peptide nonpregnant until days 52-60 ¬ Can be measured starting ¬ C-reactive protein ¬ Drops to < 2.0 ng/mL 24 21d gestation, should check hours before parturition 1 week after if negative ¬ Estrogen ¬ May not always drop… ¬ Pregnancy viability? ¬ FSH ¬ Commercially available ¬ Commercially available ¬ Acute phase proteins  7 Ultrasonography Uses Gestational Aging ¬ Pregnancy diagnosis Days 19-21: Amniotic vesicles first visible ¬ Fetal viability and stress (~1cm) ¬ Gestational age Day 23: fetal heartbeat first visible ¬ Early gestation: Inner chorionic cavity Days 25-30: best time for initial ¬ Later gestation: Biparietal diameter pregnancy diagnosis ↳ widest part of head ¬ Fetal maturation btwn eyes Days 39-47: fetal kidney first visible ¬ Kidney development Day 57: renal development complete ¬ Intestinal peristalsis Days 58-60: Fetal intestine first visible Days 62-64: intestinal peristalsis mature  8 Best used for late pregnancy diagnosis and Radiography fetal count Fetal mineralization first visible at 44 days gestation, easiest to see after 50 days Can estimate gestational age – biparietal diameter Monday, February 1, 20XX  9 Cesarian Section Timing Things to consider Scheduled C-section Emergency C-section ¬ Most important reason: ¬ Medical stability of dam to undergo ¬ Increased neonatal survival! anesthesia ¬ Timing ¬ Fetal viability and stress ¬ Litter size ¬ Fetal size ¬ Age of first parturition ¬ Breeding and ovulation timing (or lack thereof ) ¬ Anesthesia risk ¬ Possible surgical complications ¬ Cost  11 The Basics Fetal Fetal renal intestinal maturity peristalsis X Progesterone Fetal concentration heartrate ↳ 180beobm Surgery 1So-180 bpm Timing  12 P4 timing: watching for drop 180bpm Kidneys: complete renal architecture **All properly timed c-sections require Intestines: adequate motility progesterone timing** Temperature: transient 2°F drop below baseline Owners start measuring ~1 week before estimated due date q8h measurement = catches transient drop  13 Treatment: Oxytocin (20U/mL): 2-4U/ dog max Medical Management Give 0.5-1U every 30 min, up to 3 times Clock “restarts” every time she has a puppy Indicated if: 10% Calcium Gluconate Active contractions haven’t produced a 1mL / 5.5kg every 4-6hrs puppy, or >2hrs since last puppy born Keep in mind No obstructive cause of dystocia Dam will often be eucalcemic – Ca Glu FHR >150 bpm works at the cellular/subcellular level Dam not in distress Oxytocin increases contraction frequency, Ca Glu increases contraction intensity Too much oxytocin = unorganized placental contractions + fetal distress  14 Emergency C-section cont. Go to c-section if… FHR folds and borders become increasingly sharp => crenulation E2 is falling and P4 is starting to rise  Estrus Early Mid  Diestrus & Anestrus Patchy, hyperemic mucosa that is irritable, and contact with the vaginoscope provokes the formation of a “rosette” of pink-white folds  Vaginal Cytology Collect daily to every other day (EOD) – Or as clinically necessary based on progression Obtained via vaginal speculum Cotton swab or cytology brush  Vaginal Cytology Parabasal cells Small intermediate cells – 10 – 20 µm – > 20 µm – Largest nucleus to – Round to ellipsoid cytoplasm ratio – Prominent nuclei that appear normal  Vaginal Cytology Large intermediate cells – > 30 µm – Irregular or angulated cytoplasmic borders – Prominent nuclei that appear normal  Vaginal Cytology Superficial cells (squames) – 30 – 75 µm – Nucleated & anucleated  Vaginal Cytology Red blood cells – ~ 7 µm – Proestrus, estrus, early diestrus – Diapedesis: believed to be due to increase in estradiol – From the vagina not the uterus  Vaginal Cytology WBC (primarily neutrophils) – Normal finding Early diestrus – Can be abundant – Can precede or lag behind epithelial cell types Proestrus (more typical in early to mid-proestrus) Inflammation Estrus  Vaginal Cytology Bacteria – Normal Especially in the absence of WBC’s – # of bacteria can increase logarithmically during estrus vs. anestrus, pregnancy, or postpartum  Vulvar Swelling and Discharge Stage of Estrous Vulva Vulvar Discharge Cycle Swollen and Serosanguineous Proestrus turgid (bloody) Swollen but Straw-colored, Estrus softer bloody, or none Diestrus Small None (minimal) Anestrus Small None (minimal) Behavioral  Sexual Reflexes of the Bitch Touch/tap/rub the skin – Immediately dorsal to the vulva Upward tipping or “winking” of the vulva – To the right or left of the vulva Ipsilateral curvature of the rear legs Contralateral or vertical deviation (“flagging”) of the tail Sexual Reflexes of the Bitch Stage of Attracts Receptive to Estrous Sexual Reflexes Males Male Cycle Present –intensity Proestrus Yes No increases during this stage Estrus Yes Yes Peak Intensity Diestrus No No Absent Anestrus No No Absent  Silent Heat Highest incidence in young pubertal bitches Absence of proestrus-estrous behavior or notable clinical signs (i.e. abnormal behavioral estrus) Normal physiologic and cytologic (vaginal) estrus  Split or False Heat Highest incidence in young pubertal bitches Exhibits behavioral signs of true proestrus- estrus After a few days, the proestrus-estrus signs recede True estrus begins several more days or weeks later Ovulation – Does not occur in the first part of the split heat – Occurs in the second part of the split heat (i.e., the true estrus) Conception can occur if the bitch is bred during the true heat  Canine Theriogenology Clinical Application Part 2 How do we use this information in a clinical setting?  Table Pod Discussions: Basics of canine breeding management: – Ovulation timing? – Fertile period? – Breeding timing? Methods? – Onset of diestrus? What are the key factors and sequence of each? Most utilized tools… Vaginoscopy Vaginal cytology Progesterone Manual exam & vaginoscopy Preemptively identify anatomical abnormalities Practical & simple way of staging estrous Vaginal epithelium appearance and texture correlate with vaginal cytology findings; if they don’t then what? Unique anatomical shape of the canine vestibule and vagina…. Vaginal cytology – so many uses! http://therio.vetmed.lsu.edu Vaginal cytology using an otoscope cone Speculum, swab insertion… Insert vaginal ‘speculum’ (ear cone, plastic syringe case works, too) first – When through vulva, direct up towards rectal sphincter first until you see speculum protruding beneath skin up by sphincter… – Then change angle 90 degrees so that speculum is being pushed forwards to ‘ears’ Brush/swab then guided through speculum as far forward as can go to get vaginal epithelial sample Vaginal Cytology  A brief tangent for your learning pleasure And your future use “Utilizing a Patient-Side, Estrogenic Bioassay” The Vaginal Cytology Brush: not just for breeding managment!  “Who qualifies for vaginal cytology?” Patients with any of the following clinical signs: – Symmetrical alopecia in flank &/or perineum – Petechiation or spontaneous hemorrhage – Unexpectedly enlarged vulva – Pale mucous membranes – Enlarged clitoris “Who qualifies for preputial cytology?” Males with any of the following clinical signs: – Enlarged testicles – Preputial discharge – Pendulous prepuce – Bilaterally small testicles – Pale mucous membranes – Cutaneous hyperpigmentation – Symmetrical alopecia in flank, perineum – Petechiation &/or spontaneous hemorrhage  Essentially looking to diagnose… hyperestrogenism! Excessive concentrations of estradiol, estriol, and estrone Originating from the following locations/structures: – Feminizing pituitary or adrenal tumors – Ovarian granulosa cell tumor – Functional, cystic ovarian follicle – Testicular sertoli cell tumor – Exogenous exposure to estrogen (topical creams)  If you are ever inclined to submit a serum sample to a lab for an estrogen concentration, stop and ask yourself if a vaginal/preputial cytology will provide an answer! inexpensive rapid turnaround time This is a patient-side “estrogenic bioassay” back to cycle management of the bitch… http://onwardstate.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/golden-retreiver-puppies.jpeg  Proestrus Which has a swollen vulva?  Proestrus Clinical signs – Swollen and turgid vulva – Serosanguinous vulvar discharge (“spotting”) – Attract male Vaginal Cytology – Beginning to increase in proportion of superficial ‘cornified’ epithelial cells, mostly intermediate cells at this stage Vaginoscopy: pink, edematous walls Duration- – average 9 days, range 0-27 days Estrus  Estrus Clinical signs and behavior – Sexually receptive- flagging – Vulvar size decreasing Vaginal Cytology – >90% cornification Vaginoscopy: crenulated, pinkish-white walls Duration – Average of 9 days, range 4-24 days  Diestrus Metestrum cells  Diestrus Clinical signs and behavior – Behavioral estrus may persist 1-3 days after cytological diestrus – Non-receptive for most of period – Mammary development, etc. at end of diestrus Vaginal cytology – Sudden decrease in percent cornification – ~50% parabasal cells Duration lasts around 2 months regardless of pregnant (57 days) or not pregnant Caution owner to be aware for signs of pyometra Serum progesterone use [P4] – serum progesterone concentration – Begin blood draws on day 4-7 after spotting – Repeat EOD (on average) until ovulation confirmed May have need to do daily blood draws if utilizing frozen semen – OV = a rise of >3 ng/mL in 1 ng/ml at the time of LH surge (rising -> 3ng/mL)  “Rule of 2” General Guidelines (many exceptions exist!) 2ng/ml = LH surge; +2 days = ovulation; +2 days fertile period starts Serum Progesterone (ng/mL) Reproductive status 10.0 with cornified vaginal cytology 1-5 days post ovulation >10.0 with non-cornified vaginal Diestrus cytology  “Rule of 2s….” Use this to jog your memory, but many females do not ‘obey’ this guideline so also take it with a grain of salt… When a [P4] (progesterone concentration) reaches a level of 2 ng/mL… – Ovulation ‘will happen’ 2 days later… – Then breed 2 days after ovulation… It is true that OV occurs ~2 days after LH peaks and that the FIRST day of peak fertility (i.e. when oocytes are ready to be fertilized) occurs 2 days after OV Not all LH peaks occur when a [P4] is ‘caught’ at 2 ng/mL Day Relative to # of Bitches Serum P4 Concentration (ng/ml) LH Surge (mean ± SEM) -4 6 0.3 ± 0.05 -3 6 0.5 ± 0.1 -2 6 0.7 ± 0.2 -1 6 0.7 ± 0.1 0 6 1.37 ± 0.1 (LH surge) 1 6 2.2 ± 0.2 2 6 2.8 ± 0.3 3 6 5.4 ± 0.6 (ovd) 4 6 7.0 ± 0.5 5 6 11.8 ± 0.8 6 6 15.5 ± 2.1 (fertilization) 7 5 16.2 ± 1.9 8 4 19.4 ± 2.6 9 1 34.9 (diestrus) (determined via vaginal cytology NOT by P4 levels) From Olson PN, Bowen RA, Behrendt MD, et al: Concentration of reproductive hormones in canine serum throughout late anestrus, proestrus, and estrus. Biol Reprod 27:1196-1206, 1982.  Best time to breed Fresh or shipped, cooled semen – Day 2, 3, 4 post ovulation – Sperm have longer life span to survive in the oviduct Frozen semen – Day 3-6 post ovulation – Life span (hours) after post thawing Oocyte maturity in the bitch – unique! In the bitch, oocytes ovulated are not yet ready for fertilization (owner education) – Primary oocytes are ovulated – Requires 48 hours of maturation to reach metaphase II of meiosis Breeding methods Artificial insemination – Vaginal insemination Fresh, cooled shipped semen – Transcervical insemination (TCI) Fresh, cooled shipped, or frozen semen – Surgical insemination Typically reserved for frozen semen if TCI unavailable Transcervical insemination (TCI)  Various hormone analysis equipment are not identical. Each have their own curve. Establish the curve for your machine / laboratory and time your cycle management accordingly Vaginal septum Vestibulovaginal stricture (also with septum) Natural cover – “tie” or “copulatory lock” Pregnancy Duration may seem “variable” Dependent on time at which oocytes are fertilized – LH surge to parturition 65 + 2 days – Ovulation to parturition 63 + 2 days – Cytological diestrus to parturition 57 + 1 days – Breeding to parturition- 57-72 days Diagnostics?  What were the five most clinically relevant things you learned thus far and how might you use them in practice? Were any of the things you learned applicable to other veterinary species?  Canine Breeding Management Reproductive diseases of the female Reed Holyoak, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ACT  Table Pod Discussions: Basics of canine pregnancy, whelping, and neonatology: – Diagnosis? – Whelping parameters? C-section yes or no? – Neonatology? Assessment / resuscitation? What are the key factors of each?  Diseases of the Vagina, Vestibule, and Vulva Clitoral Hypertrophy Vaginal Prolapse Vaginitis Transmissible Venereal Tumor  Infertility in the bitch Two broad categories for convenience – 1) those cycling normally – 2) those cycling abnormally Is the infertility related to: – 1) Abnormalities in duration of anestrus, proestrus or estrus? – 2) Abnormalities in diestrus or pregnancy: preimplantation period, period of the embryo, period of the fetus, abortion?  Infertility The probability that an apparently normal pair will produce a litter after one estrus with adequate breeding management is ~ 75%. Therefore, one can reasonably expect a 25% probability that a normal bitch will fail to whelp ("miss") even though apparently adequate management was used. The probability of the same bitch missing in 2 consecutive cycles is 1/4 X 1/4 = 1/16 (or not very likely). Therefore, it would be wise to investigate infertility in a bitch that has missed twice, but not necessarily a bitch that has only missed once.  Problems during pregnancy/diestrus A shortened luteal phase resulting in premature progesterone withdrawal will result in embryonic/fetal death. – Failure of the corpora lutea to produce progesterone has not been documented adequately in the literature, but probably occurs. – Serial serum progesterone levels ( 3 months or cleaning patient *Routine cage cleaning Possible discospondylitis with Brucella low on differential list *Intact, largely indoor dog with *Minimal handling as *Brucella log *Patient housed in 1 *Lab samples labeled no exposure to swine or other needed maintained on cage location within hospital as moderate risk of Moderate Risk intact animals in last 12 months *Gloves, face shield, *PPE used when in mini-isolation Brucella Patient *Discospondylitis, abortion, disposable gown worn cleaning cages *Cage selected to *Submit Brucella prostatitis, or orchitis for interactions *Moderate risk cage minimize patient- confirming testing to *Brucella on differential list card on cage patient and patient- reference lab with moderate priority personnel contact *Intact dog with exposure to *Minimal handling as *No students *Patient housed in *Advanced diagnostics swine or other intact animals in needed *Brucella log isolation (depending on most likely needed High Risk Patient last 3 months OR outdoor dog *Gloves and gown maintained on cage stability) *Lab samples labeled *Discospondylitis, abortion, worn if Brucella canis *PPE used when *Only moved if as high-risk Brucella prostatitis, or orchitis suspected cleaning cages euthanized or *Submit Brucella *Brucella on differential list *Gloves, face shield, *High risk cage card on downgraded status, or confirming testing to with high priority gown, mask worn if cage if discharged reference lab another Brucella suspected Kennel Control & Treatment Confirm disease Quarantine kennel Determine source of infection – Remove infected animals – Disinfect surfaces and kennel grounds E.g., bleach (2.5%), quaternary ammonium compounds, lime suspension (20%), formaldehyde (2%) Eliminate mode of transmission within kennel Kennels should NOT be considered clear of disease until all animals have tested negative for 3 consecutive months  Treatment Zoonotic potential for B. canis – Possible but uncommon, immunocompromised people most at risk – Fevers, headaches, spondylitis, joint and muscle pain, weakness – May disappear for wks. to mos. and reappear No antimicrobial protocol has been shown to consistently achieve long-term cure – Prolonged treatment with Tetracyclines + aminoglycosides Fluoroquinolones + aminoglycosides  Viral Reproductive Pathogens Viral pathogens represent a significant cause of reproductive failures in dogs and cats. Losses occur via transplacental transmission and direct infection of the embryos and fetuses, or less often, severe debilitation of pregnant animals. Viruses can also cause perinatal infections leading to neonatal mortality and abnormalities (MVC, CaHV, FPLV). Canine Herpesvirus 1 Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Canine Minute Virus Feline Panleukopenia Virus Feline Leukemia Virus Feline Herpesvirus 1  Canid Herpesvirus 1 (CaHV-1) Virus characteristics – Replicates best at temps lower than 96.8˚F (i.e. puppies improperly warmed) – Transmission occurs via genital or oronasal secretions – Vesicular lesions on genitalia of bitches may occur  The outcome following exposure depends largely on the time of infection  Early gestation infection – fetal death, mummification  Mid-gestation infection – abort, stillborn puppies - Placentas will have multifocal necrotizing lesions  Late gestation infection – premature parturition  Puppies can be infected during parturition - Puppies infected 2 wks of age usually develop subclinical disease Recrudescent canine herpes with virus shedding may be stimulated by the stress of pregnancy and parturition  Puppy infection with CaHV-1 – Death of infected puppies usually 3-7 days after appearance of clinical signs, may be entire litter Loss of appetite Ataxia Abdominal pain Serosanguineous nasal dc Soft feces, diarrhea Mucosal hemorrhage – Pathognomonic necropsy: renal hemorrhages, multifocal necrosis of liver and lungs, enlargement of spleen and lymph nodes – Histology: eosinophilic intranuclear viral inclusions in parenchymal organs  Canine Minute Virus (CnMV) Canine Parvovirus-1 Variety of clinical forms – Asymptomatic – Respiratory distress – Enteric disease – Neonatal mortality – Reproductive disorders  Puppy infection with CnMV – Puppies infected conceptus-maternal dialog [PGR = progesterone receptors] ensuring maintenance of pregnancy [OXTR = oxytocin receptors] The villi later coalesce into labyrinthine Theriogenology, 150:329-338, 2020 placentation Subinvolution of Placental Sites (SIPS) Normal uterine involution = ~12-15wks after whelping Delay in uterine involution or failure of regression of fetal trophoblasts = SIPS – Retained placenta at cellular level Clinical signs: – Young, primiparous bitches (2-3yrs), commonly 1st litter – Serosanguinous vaginal discharge, most commonly starting after 4wks postpartum Treatment: depends on severity of discharge – Most often  benign neglect and monitoring – Heavy or continued bleeding  medical or surgical intervention  Table Pod discussion – what do you remember about: Pyometra Ovarian Remnant Syndrome SIPS  What did you learn that: You will use in practice? That will save patient lives? THE END Feline Reproduction 11/??/24 Learning Objectives: understand the following Distinct anatomical differences Breeding management differences between feline and canine Estrous cycle Ovulation timing Infertility Assisted reproduction Pregnancy / MRP / gestation Dystocia management Reproductive disorders, female and male Infectious and non-infectious  Table pod discussion: Feline ▪ What unique anatomy and physiology is clinically important? ▪ Where do we most often get involved clinically? ▪ Which diseases are associated with reproduction? Outline Importance of feline reproduction Anatomy Estrous Cycle Assisted Reproduction Semen Collection Pregnancy Parturition Dystocia Diseases Importance of Feline Reproduction Conservation biology Research Colonies Male Anatomy Penile spines Present in intact males Testosterone dependent Stimulate female during Cat in dorsal recumbency for neuter copulation Appear at puberty Disappear after neuter Os Penis in the Tom Male Anatomy Accessory Sex Glands Prostate gland Paired Bulbourethral glands Testicles located dorsally to prepuce Puberty Average is ~6 months of age (6-15 months)  Female Anatomy Bicornuate uterus Vulva appears as a slit ventral to anus Four pairs of mammary glands Puberty As early as 4 months of age Normal Uterus Feline Estrous Cycle Seasonally polyestrous January-October Anestrus October- mid-January Induced ovulation Need copulatory stimulus (4 or more breedings) Queen that was bred but failed to become pregnant will not cycle again for 60-80 days Each cycle lasts 14-21 days 1-6 days of estrus 8-15 days of postestrus Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery (2022) 24, 204–211 Feline Estrous Cycle Proestrus Not as defined as in bitches Estrus Acceptance of mating Post-estrus (interestrus) No luteal phase if not induced to ovulate Diestrus When ovulation has occurred Proestrus in the Queen Increased activity, vocalization, increased affection towards people Usually lasts ~24 hours Vaginal cytology- similar in the bitch but not routinely done Tom is attracted to queen Estrus in the Queen Queen is receptive to mating Vaginal Cytology Cornified epithelial cells Estrogen is high Estrus Behavior Lordosis Vocalizing Rolling Frequent urination Estrus can occur 1 week after kittens are born  Depending on if the queen ovulates… Post-estrus (interestrus) Diestrus Not induced to ovulate Ovulation is induced by breeding Follicles undergo atresia (3-4/24h) or hormonal/mechanical No luteal tissue on ovary Corpus luteum formed-increase in p4 No progesterone Pregnancy Average duration 63-67 days ~8 days Non-pregnant luteal phase No sexual receptivity, normal 40-50 days behavior Spontaneous ovulation can occur (39-87%) Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery (2022) 24, 204–211 Estrous Cycle in the Queen Estrous Cycle in the Queen Anestrus in the Queen Winter anestrus of seasonal breeders No cycling activity seen during this time October-November through January Lactational anestrus- up to 8 weeks Mating Queen vocalizes to attract tom Tom mounts while using teeth to scruff queen Intromission and Ejaculation Semen deposited into cranial vagina Last stage of mating is self-grooming of the queen and post-coital aggression toward male Ideal breeding window: first 3 days of estrus (too soon => ovulation failure) Ovulation Copulation required for GnRH release → LH surge Magnitude of LH release increases with number of copulations Max LH occurs 4 hours after multiple copulations ~4+ breedings – 100% ovulation Single coital event achieves 50% ovulation Ovulation- 29-40 hours post coitus Infertility in the Queen Primary anestrus Lack of or delayed puberty Lack of social contact, low luminosity in breeding facility, body weight below 2.3 kg, excessive stress Silent heats Estrus without clinical signs Maine Coons and Persians Stress or inexperience Too immature or abnormally stressed Health problems Preputial hair ring in long-haired cats Lack of teeth or stomatitis in toms What questions do you have at this point? What have you learned? What do you need to review? Assisted Feline Reproduction Assisted Feline Reproduction 1- Ovulation induction w/ eCG + hCG: non-luteal queens or Manual Stimulation—cotton swab or cytobrush 4-8 times at 5-20 minute intervals Repeat in 12 hours eCG—85h→hCG—31-33h→AI—25-30h→OV 2- Semen collection 3- Insemination  Semen Collection Artificial Vagina Requires trained tom and “teaser” queen Electroejaculation 2V-8V rectal probe Requires patient to be anesthetized Urethral catheterization Heavy sedation Ejaculate Electroejaculation Volume: 0.01-1.0 mL Concentration: 30-600 million/mL Total number: 15 to 150 million Normal Methods of Insemination Vaginal Intrauterine Transcervical – technically difficult Laparoscopic oviductal – most common in zoo housed cats Embryo transfer and in-vitro fertilization are also options Gestation in the Queen 65 days from ovulation (range 60-67) Increased caloric intake required from second half of gestation through weaning Prevent negative energy balance Placentation Zonary endotheliochorial CL dependent until after day 45 when placenta takes over Pregnancy Diagnosis Abdominal palpation 21-28 days ”String of pearls” Relaxin assay 25-50 days Ultrasound Gestational sacs: 11-16 days post- breeding Heartbeat : 21 days Radiographs 45-55 days Best done last week of gestation Feline Uterus at 21 Days of Gestation Feline Uterus at 28 and 35 Days of Gestation Parturition Stage 1 Stimulated by fetal stress and cortisol release Nesting, Cervical relaxation Can last up to 36 hours Stage 2 Strong uterine contractions Expulsion of the fetus 5-30 minutes between kittens Stage 3 Expulsion of fetal membranes Typically after each kitten No more than an hour after each kitten When to Intervene in Dystocia Cases Labor does not begin when expected (temp or due date calculation) Stage 2 > 4 hours w/o fetal delivery >2 h between delivery of successive fetus’s Signs of disease or distress in the dam > 30 minutes of strong contraction w/o delivery Prominent bloody discharge from the vulva Dystocia Causes: Large fetus, malposition of fetus, fetal death, uterine inertia, malnutrition, obesity Clinical signs: Anorexia, lethargy, vomiting, straining Presence of fetus in birth canal Diagnosis: History, clinical signs, presence of fetus in birth canal Radiographs- how many are left Ultrasound- fetal viability Treatment: Medical management C-section  Medical Management: Oxytocin (2-4 U) IM or SC 10% Calcium Gluconate —1-2 mL by slow IV infusion + Repeat Oxytocin 50% Dextrose (2 mL) slow IV infusion + Repeat Oxytocin SURGERY Feline Reproductive Disorders Ovarian Remnant Syndrome Several months or even years after OHE Ovarian tissue implants on the peritoneal surface or on the omentum Induces behavioral estrus Diagnosis: Vaginal cytology AMH assay LH levels Treatment: Surgery or laparotomy Pyometra Suppurative bacterial infection of the uterus “Pus-filled uterus” Affects middle-older intact queens within 4 months after estrus Hormonal and bacterial factors are involved Progesterone plays a key role CEH can be a predisposing factor Treatment: Medical Management PGF2a -Causes smooth muscle (myometrial) contractions for uterine evacuation and will lyse CL Antibiotics Surgery- OHE Pyometra - Before and after PGF2a therapy Neonatal Isoerythrolysis Cats have A, B or AB blood groups A is dominant over B Tom with blood group A and queen with blood group B Colostral antibodies Hemoglobinuria and death Almost 60% of British breeds have blood group B Abyssinian, Scottish Fold, Persian After 72 hours it is safe for kittens to nurse Other female reproductive disorders Ovarian Cysts Hormonally functional- persistent estrus due to high estrogens Induce luteinization or surgery Mammary hyperplasia Benign condition under influence of progesterone Spay is curative, may spontaneously resolve Feline Infectious Diseases Feline Leukemia Virus Fetal resorption, abortion Stillbirth Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Abortion and stillbirths Feline Panleukopenia Virus Abortion, stillbirth Cerebellar hypoplasia in kittens Infectious Causes of Abortion/Infertility Toxoplasmosis Zoonotic Q Fever: Coxiella burnetti Abortion and infertility in cats. Zoonotic - severe pneumonia, headache and fever in humans but is rarely fatal. Feline viral rhinotracheitis: Feline Herpesvirus Potential cause of abortion in cats. Linked to mummification, stillbirth, abortion and neonatal death but very little is known Chlamydophila felis Potential cause of abortion in cats Routine vaccinations against feline rhinotracheitis, panleukopenia and rhinopneumonitis may be protective against reproductive failure caused by these diseases. Noninfectious Causes of Abortion Taurine deficiency Vitamin A deficiency Hypoluteodism Cystic Endometrial Hyperplasia-Pyometra complex Fetotoxic drugs Male reproductive disorders Cryptorchidism Inguinal or abdominal Bilateral or unilateral Castration is curative Neoplasia Uncommon Tortoiseshell males Klinefelter syndrome 39XXY Azoospermia