Political Theory: Defining Concepts (PDF)

**LESSON 1: What is Political Theory?** **DEFINING POLITICAL THEORY** (Politics as Science, Philosophy and Theory) **Study of politics** - usually seen to [encompass] two, and some would say three, [distinct subdivisions.] On the one hand, there is what is called **political science** and...

**LESSON 1: What is Political Theory?** **DEFINING POLITICAL THEORY** (Politics as Science, Philosophy and Theory) **Study of politics** - usually seen to [encompass] two, and some would say three, [distinct subdivisions.] On the one hand, there is what is called **political science** and, on the other, **political theory** and **political philosophy** -- terms that are [often used interchangeably] but between which distinctions are sometimes drawn. **Theory** - Can be described as [anything from a plan to a piece of abstract knowledge.] - In academic discourse, a theory is an [explanatory proposition, an idea or set of ideas] that in some way [seeks to impose order or meaning on phenomena. ] - As such, [all enquiry proceeds through the construction of theories], sometimes thought of as **hypotheses** -- that is, explanatory propositions waiting to be tested. **Political philosophy** - can be used loosely to cover any abstract thought about politics, law or society -- philosophy being, - the search for wisdom and understanding. - philosophy has also been seen more specifically as a **second-order discipline**, in *contrast to first-order disciplines* which [deal with empirical subjects. ] - philosophy is [not so much concerned with revealing truth] in the manner of science, as with [asking secondary questions about how knowledge is acquired and how understanding is expressed. ] **POLITICAL THEORY IN TRANSITION** **Western political thought** [has gone through various phases of development since its inception in classical or ancient times.] However, since its **revival** in the **1970s**, following a period during which an almost unquestioned faith in science was often taken to imply that **normative theorizing** is [meaningless], political theory has been reshaped in a number of ways. **Modern political theory** (*first)* - tends to place a greater emphasis than did earlier manifestations on the role of history and culture in structuring political understanding. - This implies that what **Plato, Rousseau, or Marx** [wrote may tell us more about the societies] in which they lived than it does about supposedly timeless political and moral issues. **Political theory** (*Second*) - become [increasingly diffuse and fragmented in character.] - From the early modern period onwards, [political thought acquired an unmistakably liberal character], to such an extent that **liberalism and political theory came to be virtually coextensive.** - Since the **1960s**, a [range of rival political traditions have emerged] *as critiques of, or alternatives to, liberal theory*, examples including [radical feminism, communitarianism, green politics and multiculturalism.] **Conventional political theory** (*Third*) - has been [challenged by the emergence of] an **'anti-foundationalist'** **critique** that [questions the rationalism] that lay at its heart. - Most clearly linked to postmodernism, but also associated, with traditions such as feminism, critical theory and Postcolonialism, **anti-foundationalism** emphasizes the [contingent nature of all principles, doctrines and theories,] based on the belief that there is no moral and rational high point from which they can be judged. **USES AND ABUSES OF POLITICAL CONCEPTS** **Concept** - a general idea about something, usually expressed in a single word or a short phrase. - more than a proper noun or the name of a thing. - There is, for example, a difference between talking about a cat (a particular and unique cat) and [having a general concept] of a 'cat'. The concept of a cat is not a 'thing' but an **'idea'**, an idea [composed of the various attributes] that give a cat its distinctive character -- 'a furry mammal', 'small', 'domesticated', 'catches mice', and so on. - are therefore **'general'** in the sense that they can refer to a number of objects, indeed to any object that complies with the general idea itself. - formation is an essential step in the process of reasoning. - the tools with which we think, criticize, argue, explain and analyze. **NORMATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE CONCEPTS** The first problem encountered with political concepts is that they are often, and some would argue always, difficult to disentangle from the moral and philosophical views of those who advance them. **Values** - explicitly acknowledged in the case of prescriptive or normative concepts, usually categorized as 'values'. - refer to moral principles or ideals: that which should, ought to or must be brought about. - Examples of political values include 'justice', 'liberty', 'human rights', 'equality' and 'toleration'. **Descriptive or Positive concepts** - refer to 'facts' which have an objective and demonstrable existence - refer to what is. Concepts such as 'power', 'authority', 'order' and 'law' are categorized in this sense as descriptive rather than normative. - As facts can be proved to be either true or false, descriptive concepts are often portrayed as **neutral or value-free.** **Words and things** - occurs when concepts are treated as though they have a concrete existence separate from holding sway over, the human beings who use them. - words are treated as things, rather than as devices for understanding things. **HUMAN NATURE, THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY** **Human nature** - refers to the essential and immutable character of all human beings. - It highlights what is innate and 'natural' about human life, as opposed to what human beings have gained from education or through social experience. - This does not mean that those who believe that human behaviour is shaped more by society than by unchanging and inborn characteristics have abandoned the idea of human nature altogether. - Indeed, this very assertion is based on clear assumptions about innate human qualities, in this case, the capacity to be shaped or molded by external factors. - Concept of human nature does not conceal or overlook this complexity so much as attempt to impose order on it by designating certain features as 'natural' or 'essential'. - If such a thing as a human core exists it should be manifest in human behaviour. - Should therefore be reflected in behavioral patterns that are regular and distinctively human. A limited number of [political thinkers have openly rejected the idea of human nature.] **Jean-Paul Sartre (1905--80)** - *French existentialist philosopher* - argued that there was no such thing as a given 'human nature' determining how people act or behave. - In Sartre's view, existence comes before essence, meaning that human beings enjoy the freedom to define themselves through their own actions and deeds, in which case the assertion of any concept of human nature is an affront to that freedom. Most political thinkers are clearly aware that human beings are complex, multi-faceted creatures, made up of biological, physical, psychological, intellectual, social and perhaps spiritual elements. **NATURE VERSUS NURTURE** *Is the essential core of human nature fixed or given, fashioned by 'nature', or is it moulded or structured by the influence of social experience or 'nurture'?* **Nature** - stands for biological or genetic factors, suggesting that there is an established and unchanging human core. - The political significance of such a belief is considerable. - it implies that political and social theories should be constructed on the basis of a pre-established concept of human nature. - human beings do not reflect society, society reflects human nature. - it suggests that the roots of political understanding lie in the natural sciences in general, and in biology in particular. - Political arguments should therefore be constructed on the basis of biological theories, giving such arguments a 'scientific' character. **Charles Darwin (1809--82)** - *British scientist* - Biological theory that has had greatest impact on political and social thought has been the theory of natural selection. - On the Origin of Species (\[1859\] 1986) - Darwin's goal was to explain the almost infinite variety of species which have existed on earth. - suggested that each species develops through a series of random genetic mutations, some of which fit the species to survive and prosper, while other, less fortunate species become extinct. - Darwin appears to have recognized that his theories had radical political implications, he chose not to develop them himself. **Nurture** - influence of the social environment or experience on the human character. - play down the importance of fixed and unchanging biological factors, emphasizing instead the malleable quality of human nature, or what has been called its '**plasticity'**. The significance of such theories is to [shift political understanding away from biology and towards sociology.] **Political behaviour** tells us less about an [immutable human essence than it does about the structure of society.] When **human nature is 'given'**, the [possibility of progress and social advancement is clearly limited]; however, if **human nature is 'plastic'**, the [opportunities confronting human beings immediately expand and perhaps become infinite]. **Evils** such as *poverty, social conflict, political oppression and gender inequality* [can be overcome precisely because their origins are social and therefore capable of being changed.] **INTELLECT VERSUS INSTINCT** **role of rationality in human life**. This [does not come down to a choice between] **rationalism and irrationalism.** The **real issue** is the degree to which the [reasoning mind influences human conduct, suggesting a distinction between those who emphasize thinking, analysis and rational calculation, and those who highlight the role of impulse, instincts or other non-rational drives. ] **Age of Reason** - Faith in the power of human reason reached its high point during the enlightenment, - in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. - philosophers and political thinkers turned away from religious dogmas and faith, and instead based their ideas on rationalism, the belief that the workings of the physical and social world can be explained by the exercise of reason alone. **René Descartes (1596--1650)** - *French philosopher* - Expressed with particular clarity in the dualism advanced that human beings are essentially rational creatures, guided by intellect and a process of argument, analysis and debate. **The Individual** (*first*) - widely used in everyday language that its implications and political significance are often ignored. - a single human being. - it implies that the single human being is an independent and meaningful entity, possessing an identity in himself or herself. - to talk of people as individuals is to suggest that they are autonomous creatures, acting according to personal choice rather than as members of a social group or collective body. (*Second)* - individuals are not merely independent; they are also distinct, even unique. (*Third*) - to understand human beings as individuals is usually to believe in universalism, to accept that human beings everywhere share certain fundamental characteristics. - individuals are not defined by social background, race, religion, gender or any other 'accident of birth', but by what they share with people everywhere: their moral worth, their personal identity and their uniqueness. **INDIVIDUALISM** - does not simply imply a belief in the existence of individuals. - it refers to a belief in the primacy of the individual over any social group or collective body, suggesting that the individual is central to any political theory or social explanation. - individualism does not have a clear political character. - it has often been linked to the classical liberal tradition, and ideas such as limited government and the free market, it has also been used to justify state intervention and has, at times, been embraced by socialists. **SOCIETY** - Resilient and independent individuals may be, human existence outside society is unthinkable. - Often little better understood than that of the individual - Denotes a collection of people occupying the same territorial area - Not just any group of people constitutes a society. **Robinson Crusoes** - Human beings are not isolated - able to live in complete and permanent isolation -- even the skills and knowledge which enabled Robinson Crusoe to survive were acquired through education and social interaction before his shipwreck. **Societies** - characterized by regular patterns of social interaction, suggesting the existence of some kind of social 'structure'. **social relationships** - involve mutual awareness and at least some measure of cooperation. Warring tribes, for example, do not constitute a 'society', even though they may live in close proximity to one another and interact on a regular basis. **World society** - the internationalization of tourism and of economic life, and the spread of transnational cultural and intellectual exchange, has created the idea of an emerging 'world society'. **cooperative interaction** - defines 'social' behaviour need not necessarily be reinforced by a common identity or sense of loyalty. This is what distinguishes 'society' from the stronger notion of 'community', which requires at least a measure of affinity or social solidarity, an identification with the community.