The Discovery of Sanskrit Language PDF

CHAPTER ONE o The use of "Aryan" by linguists declined after its association with the Nazi The Discovery of Sanskrit Language c...

CHAPTER ONE o The use of "Aryan" by linguists declined after its association with the Nazi The Discovery of Sanskrit Language concept of a "master race." o Some older works may still refer to the Language Similarities: term in its original linguistic sense. o English shares similarities with various Modern Usage of "Indo-European": languages: o Refers only to the cultural and linguistic ▪ "Father" in English resembles: heritage, without racial implications. ▪ Norwegian, Danish, o Denotes a group of people who spoke a Swedish: fader unified language thousands of years ▪ Icelandic: faðir ago. ▪ Dutch: vader o Indo-European languages are now ▪ German: vater (where spoken by about half of the world's "v" sounds like "f") population. ▪ Other related words for "father": ▪ Latin: pater The Kurgan Civilization Hypothesis ▪ Spanish: padre ▪ Portuguese: pai Clues about the Indo-European Homeland: ▪ Catalan: pare o Linguistic evidence suggests Indo- ▪ French: père European was originally spoken in an ▪ Greek: patër area between northern Europe and ▪ Sanskrit: pitar- southern Russia. ▪ Persian: pedar ▪ Gaelic: athair (with a ▪ Plant and animal names: loss of the first ▪ Cognate terms exist for consonant) temperate climate trees (e.g., alder, apple, ash, Indo-European Hypothesis: beech, oak, yew). o The similarities among these languages ▪ There are no cognate suggest a common origin. terms for Mediterranean o The hypothesis was first proposed by Sir or Asiatic trees (e.g., William Jones, a British judge and olive, palm). Sanskrit scholar. o It suggests that these languages ▪ Animal terms: evolved from a now-extinct source ▪ Common words for wolf, language known as Proto-Indo- bear, and salmon (lox in European (PIE). Old English) are o Proto-Indo-European languages spread present. as speakers traveled to different parts of ▪ There is a lack of terms the world. for creatures native to Asia. The Indo-European Family of Languages: ▪ Absence of a common word o Includes many languages, such as: for ocean: ▪ English, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, ▪ Suggests, but does not Persian, and Gaelic confirm, an inland ▪ Russian, Polish, Czech, homeland. Bulgarian, Albanian, Armenian, Romany, etc. Identification with the Kurgan Culture: o Formerly referred to as Aryan, a o Early Indo-Europeans are associated Sanskrit term meaning "noble." with the Kurgan culture, known for ▪ The term was used to describe mound-building. Indo-European languages, o Location: Northwest of the Caucasus especially the Indo-Iranian and north of the Caspian Sea, dating branch. back to the fifth millennium B.C. The Term "Aryan": o Lifestyle:  ▪ Domesticated cattle and horses overemphasizes the Germanic for milk, meat, and languages. transportation. o The term Indo-European is now widely ▪ Practiced both farming and used, reflecting the geographical range herding. of the languages. ▪ Mobility: Used four-wheeled wagons for transportation. Origin and Development: ▪ Built fortified palaces on o The parent Indo-European language hilltops and small nearby had already diversified and spread villages. before recorded history. o When historical records emerged, o Social Structure: speakers had no memory of a ▪ Society was stratified, with a common origin. warrior nobility and a common o There are no written records of the laboring class. original language, but reconstructions are possible through comparison of its Religion and Beliefs: descendants. o Worshiped a sky god associated with thunder. Geographical Distribution and Language o The horse, sun, boar, and snake were significant in their religion. Groups: o Had a strong belief in life after death, o The Indo-European languages exhibit leading to elaborate burial practices. varying degrees of similarity, often o The culture’s burial sites can be traced influenced by geographical proximity. across much of Europe. o They are classified into eleven principal branches: Expansion and Dispersal: 1. Indian o Early expansion into the Balkans and 2. Iranian northern Europe. 3. Armenian o Later migrations to Iran, Anatolia, and 4. Hellenic (Greek) southern Europe. 5. Albanian 6. Italic (including Latin and its Alternative Theories for the Indo-European descendants) Homeland: 7. Balto-Slavic (Baltic and Slavic o Other proposed locations include: languages) ▪ North-central Europe between 8. Germanic (e.g., English, the Vistula and Elbe rivers. German, Scandinavian ▪ Eastern Anatolia (modern languages) Turkey), the site of the ancient 9. Celtic (e.g., Irish, Welsh) Hittite empire. 10. Hittite (extinct Anatolian o The early dispersal of Indo-European language) languages makes it difficult to determine 11. Tocharian (extinct languages the exact origin and migration paths. from Central Asia) Indian Branch of Indo-European Language Branches of Indo-European Languages Oldest Literary Texts: Definition and Naming: o The earliest literary texts in any Indo- o The Indo-European languages form a European language are the Vedas, family of languages descended from a sacred books of India. common parent speech. o The Vedas are divided into four groups: o The term Aryan was historically used 1. Rig-veda: A collection of about but is now mostly abandoned, reserved a thousand hymns (the earliest). for languages in India and Iran. 2. Atharva-veda: A compilation of o Indo-Germanic was preferred by incantations and ritual formulas. German philologists but o These texts are foundational to Brahman philosophy and were initially  preserved through oral transmission ▪ Bengali (official language of by priests before being written down. Bangladesh) o The oldest texts date back to ▪ Punjabi approximately 1500 B.C.. ▪ Marathi o Urdu is closely related to Hindi, both Language of the Vedas: deriving from Hindustani, a colloquial o The Vedas are written in Sanskrit, form of speech used for specifically referred to as Vedic intercommunication in northern India. Sanskrit to distinguish it from later o Differences: Urdu has a mixture of forms. Persian and Arabic influences and is o Sanskrit is also found in: written in the Perso-Arabic script, unlike Hindi, which uses Sanskrit ▪ Brahmanas: Prose writings with characters. ritual and theological commentary. Romany Language: ▪ Aranyakas: Meditations for o Romany, the language of the Gypsies, recluses. represents a dialect from Northwestern ▪ Upanishads: Philosophical India. speculations. o It was carried through Persia into ▪ Sutras: Rules regarding Armenia and later spread throughout religious and private life. Europe and America starting around the fifth century A.D. Evolution of Sanskrit: o Sanskrit evolved under the influence of Iranian Branch of Indo-European Language native grammarians, especially Panini Geographical Overview: in the fourth century B.C., who helped fix o The Iranian branch of Indo-European its literary form, known as Classical languages is located northwest of India, Sanskrit. covering the great plateau of Iran. o Classical Sanskrit is the medium for o The Indo-European population in this extensive Indian literature, including: region lived alongside the Indian branch, ▪ National epics: Mahabharata leading to shared linguistic features. and Ramayana. o Some groups settled in Iran, while ▪ A large body of drama, lyric others migrated into India. poetry, and didactic poetry. o Iranian languages have spread into ▪ Numerous scientific and territories such as southern Russia and philosophical works. central China. o While it ceased to be a spoken language early on, it remains a learned language Influences and Challenges: in India. o The Iranian region has historically been influenced by Semitic languages. Prakrits and Local Dialects: o Early texts are often preserved in o Various local dialects known as Semitic scripts, complicating accurate Prakrits existed alongside Sanskrit and interpretation. were colloquially used. o Recent decades have seen the recovery o Some Prakrits attained literary form; of early documents, revealing previously notably, Pali became the language of unknown varieties of Iranian speech. Buddhism around the sixth century B.C. o Present languages of India, Pakistan, Divisions of the Iranian Language: and Bangladesh (spoken by o The earliest remains of the Iranian approximately 600 million people) branch are divided into: descended from these dialects. ▪ Eastern Iranian: Represented by Avestan. Major Contemporary Languages: ▪ Avestan is the language o Important modern languages include: of the Avesta, the ▪ Hindi sacred book of ▪ Urdu (official language of Zoroastrians. Pakistan)  ▪ Sometimes inaccurately o In addition to Persian, several other referred to as Zend, languages are in use across the former which refers only to Iranian empire: certain late ▪ Pashto (Afghan) and Baluchi commentaries. in eastern Afghanistan and ▪ The Avesta consists of: Pakistan. ▪ Gathas: ▪ Kurdish in western Kurdistan. Metrical o Numerous languages and dialects exist sermons of in the Pamir highlands, along the Zoroaster, Caspian Sea, and in the Caucasus possibly dating valleys. back to 1000 B.C.. Armenian Branch of Indo-European Language ▪ Avesta Proper: A collection of Geographical Location: hymns, o Armenian is primarily found in a small legends, area south of the Caucasus prayers, and Mountains and the eastern end of the legal Black Sea. prescriptions o Armenians are believed to have settled from a later in this region between the eighth and period. sixth centuries B.C.. o They likely arrived via the Balkans and ▪ Western Iranian: Represented crossed the Hellespont. by Old Persian. ▪ Preserved in cuneiform Historical Context: inscriptions primarily o Upon settling, Armenians conquered a documenting the local population, remnants of which may achievements of Darius still exist in the Caucasus. (522-486 B.C.) and o The native language of this population Xerxes (486-466 B.C.). may have influenced Armenian in terms ▪ Notable inscription: A of accent and phonology. trilingual record at Behistan, near Linguistic Features: Kirmanshah, featuring o Armenian displays a consonant shift Darius with nine reminiscent of the Germanic language shackled prisoners. changes, likely due to contact with other languages. Evolution of the Language: o Unlike many Indo-European languages, o Middle Iranian (Pahlavi): The official Armenian lacks grammatical gender, language during the Sassanid dynasty similar to other Caucasian languages. (A.D. 226-652) and the ancestor of modern Persian. Isolation and Affiliation: o Armenian is not closely linked to any o Modern Persian (Farsi): other specific group within the Indo- ▪ Emerged as a significant European family, placing it in a relatively cultural and literary language isolated position. since the ninth century. o In ancient times, Thrace and ▪ Contains a substantial Arabic Macedonia were home to the Thraco- admixture, making its Phrygians and Macedonians. vocabulary heavily influenced by o The Phrygians migrated into Asia Arabic. Minor and are associated with the ▪ Notable literary work: The Trojans of Homer, sharing certain Shahnamah, a great Persian linguistic affinities with Armenian. epic. o Scant remains of the Phrygian and Macedonian languages (mostly place Contemporary Languages: names, glosses, and inscriptions)  provide minimal evidence of their Indo- gradually migrating in groups speaking European character. different dialects. o They spread through mainland Greece, Literary Heritage: the Aegean islands, and the coast of o Armenian is documented from about the Asia Minor, absorbing previous fifth century A.D., primarily through a populations. translation of the Bible. o There is a rich body of Armenian Literary Monuments: literature, especially in historical and theological texts. o The earliest significant literary works in Greek are the Homeric poems: the Influences: Iliad and the Odyssey, believed to be o For several centuries, the Armenian from the eighth century B.C.. population was under Persian Dialectal Groups: domination, resulting in a significant Iranian influence on the language. o Greek is classified into five principal o Armenian vocabulary reflects numerous dialectal groups: influences from: ▪ Semitic languages ▪ Ionic (with Attic as a sub- ▪ Greek dialect) - found in Asia Minor ▪ Turkish and the Aegean islands. o Due to this, Armenian has developed a ▪ Aeolic - in the north and rich and diverse vocabulary. northeast. ▪ Arcadian-Cyprian - in the Hellenic Branch of Indo-European Language Peloponnesus and Cyprus. Early History: ▪ Doric - which replaced Arcadian o The Aegean region was occupied by in the Peloponnesus. various populations differing in race and language from the later Greek settlers. ▪ Northwest Greek - in north- central and western Greece. o Inscriptions found in Lemnos, Cyprus, Crete, the Greek mainland, and Asia Attic Dialect: Minor include languages that may be o Attic is the most studied dialect, Indo-European and others that are not. originating from Athens, which gained Languages and Populations: political and commercial dominance in the fifth century B.C.. o Indo-European languages present in the region included Phrygian and o The cultural achievements of Athens Armenian. during the age of Pericles (495-429 B.C.) significantly influenced subsequent o Other languages like Lydian, Carian, civilization. and Lycian show some resemblance to Indo-European but are not fully o Prominent figures in Athens included: classified. ▪ Dramatists: Aeschylus, o The Hittites, who spoke an Indo- Euripides, Sophocles European language, had a kingdom (tragedy) and Aristophanes from approximately 2000 to 1200 B.C.. (comedy). o The Phoenicians, a Semitic people, ▪ Historians: Herodotus, dominated the eastern Mediterranean Thucydides. commercially and influenced the ▪ Orator: Demosthenes. Hellenic world. ▪ Philosophers: Plato, Aristotle. Greek Migration: Koiné Greek: o The Greeks entered the Aegean region from the north around 2000 B.C.,  o The political and cultural prestige of o The early vocabulary of Albanian is Athens led to the rise of a koiné or significantly influenced by: common Greek from the fourth century B.C., superseding other dialects. ▪ Latin o The conquests of Alexander the Great ▪ Greek (336-323 B.C.) spread this language ▪ Turkish throughout Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt as the ▪ Slavonic common language for international o These influences are attributed to communication. various conquests and cultural o Koiné Greek is primarily known today as exchanges, complicating the isolation of the language of the New Testament original Albanian vocabulary. and was the medium for extensive Byzantine literature. Classification: o Initially classified with the Hellenic Modern Greek: group, Albanian has been recognized o The language of modern Greece has as an independent member of the Indo- developed into various dialects European family since the early 20th representing local differentiation from century. koiné over centuries. Italic Branch of Indo-European Language o Two primary varieties of Greek (often called Romaic) are: Geographical Center: ▪ Demotic - the natural language o Primarily located in Italy. of the people. o Latin, the language of Rome, dominates ▪ Pure Greek - a conscious effort historical perception, but was one of to restore ancient Greek several languages in the area. vocabulary and inflections. Cultural Diversity: o Both varieties are used in schools and o Italy's favorable climate and geography universities, but demotic is currently led to early settlement, resulting in a favored officially. diverse cultural landscape. Albanian Branch of Indo-European Language o Early Neolithic inhabitants were largely Geographical Location: replaced before the first millennium B.C. o The Albanian language is located Languages Before Latin: northwest of Greece on the eastern o By the 6th century B.C., various coast of the Adriatic Sea. languages were spoken in Italy: Historical Background: ▪ Etruscan: A non-Indo-European o Albanian may be a modern remnant of language spoken in the west Illyrian, an ancient language spoken in (from the Tiber north). the Northwestern Balkans. ▪ Ligurian: Located in o Knowledge of Illyrian is limited, making it Northwestern Italy. challenging to confirm the connection ▪ Venetic: Spoken in the between Albanian and Illyrian. northeast, an offshoot of Illyrian. Language Development: ▪ Messapian: Spoken in the extreme southeast, also an o Documentation of the Albanian language offshoot of Illyrian. dates back only to the fifteenth century. ▪ Greek: Spoken in southern Italy and Sicily, primarily by Greek colonies.  Languages of the Italic Branch: o Romanian: The easternmost Romance language, stemming from Roman o Latin: The most significant Italic influence in ancient Dacia. language, the language of Latium and Rome. Additional Romance Languages: o Related languages include: o Other languages include Catalan (northeast Iberian Peninsula) and ▪ Umbrian: Spoken northeast of Galician (northwest Iberian Peninsula). Latium. o Rhaeto-Romanic group in Switzerland ▪ Oscan: Language of the includes languages like Romansh. Samnites and most of southern Italy. o Walloon: A French dialect spoken in southern Belgium. Spread of Latin: Vulgar Latin vs. Classical Latin: o Latin supplanted other languages as Rome's political influence grew. o Vulgar Latin: The spoken language of the masses, simpler in structure than o Latin spread beyond Italy due to Roman Classical Latin. colonization: ▪ Example vocabulary ▪ Regions include Spain, Gaul, differences: the area west of the Black Sea, northern Africa, and Britain. ▪ Classical Latin: equus (horse) vs. Vulgar Latin: Romance Languages: caballus. o Languages derived from Latin are ▪ Classical Latin: pugna known as Romance languages, (fight) vs. Vulgar Latin: including: battualia (battle). ▪ French Factors in Language Divergence: ▪ Spanish o Vulgar Latin evolved differently in ▪ Portuguese various Roman provinces due to: ▪ Italian ▪ Initial differences in Vulgar Latin brought into colonies. o Romance languages represent a continuum from Latin, not derived from ▪ Influence from native Classical Latin (the literary language). languages, leading to unique modifications. Dialects and Variants: Significance: o French: Evolved from northern dialects; standard French emerged from the Ile- o The process of progressive de-France dialect. differentiation observed in Romance languages illustrates the broader o Provençal: Language of southern patterns of language evolution within the France, historically significant but now Indo-European family. mainly regional. Balto-Slavic Branch of Indo-European Language o Spanish and Portuguese: Closely related due to geographical proximity, Overview: widely spoken in Central and South o Covers a vast area in eastern Europe. America. o Divided into two main groups: Baltic o Italian: Retains a continuous history, and Slavic. reflecting the spoken Latin from ancient Rome.  o Despite differences, both groups share o Russian: Spoken by about 375 million enough features to be classified people; official and literary language of together. Russia. Baltic Languages: o Belorussian (White Russian): Spoken by about 9 million people in Belarus o Three languages: and nearby Poland. ▪ Prussian: Extinct; displaced by o Ukrainian: Spoken by about 50 million German since the 17th century. people; has nationalist distinctions from ▪ Latvian: Spoken by about 2 Russian, affecting mutual intelligibility. million people in Latvia. West Slavic Languages: ▪ Lithuanian: Spoken by about 3 o Comprises four languages: million people; noted for its conservatism in preserving ▪ Polish: Largest, spoken by archaic features of Indo- about 36 million people in European. Poland and 5 million in the U.S. ▪ Remarkably, some ▪ Czech: Spoken by about 10 Lithuanian speakers million people in the Czech can understand simple Republic. Sanskrit phrases, indicating linguistic ▪ Slovak: Spoken by about 5 preservation. million people in Slovakia; mutually intelligible with Czech. Slavic Languages: ▪ Sorbian: A minority language o Historical Context: spoken by 100,000 people in Germany, northeast of Dresden. ▪ Languages were largely identical or frequently interacted South Slavic Languages: as late as the 7th or 8th century. o Includes Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, and modern Macedonian ▪ Divided into three divisions: (distinct from ancient Macedonian). ▪ East Slavic ▪ Bulgarian: Evolved through the absorption of a non-Slavic ▪ West Slavic conqueror’s language; heavily ▪ South Slavic borrows from Turkish in everyday use, but the literary ▪ South Slavs are separated from form aligns more with Russian. the other groups by non-Slavic populations (Hungarians and ▪ Serbo-Croatian: A combination Romanians). of Serbian and Croatian; practically identical but uses Old Church Slavonic: different alphabets. With Yugoslavia's breakup, o Earliest form of Slavic language from the distinctions between the 9th century, translated by missionaries languages are becoming more Cyril and Methodius. pronounced. o Represents the South Slavic language ▪ Slovene: Spoken by about 1.5 but closely approximates the common million people in Slovenia. Slavic root. Linguistic Homogeneity: o Used as the ecclesiastical language of the Orthodox Church well into modern o Slavic languages are more times. homogeneous compared to some other Indo-European branches (e.g., East Slavic Languages: Germanic).  o They have diverged less from the o Dialectal differences emerge from the common Slavic type and preserve more 11th century onward. archaic features. o Divided into two groups: o Close historical contact between Baltic and Slavic speakers suggests a shared ▪ Eastern Group: Includes linguistic heritage. Swedish and Danish. Germanic Branch of Indo-European Language ▪ Western Group: Includes Norwegian and Icelandic. Proto-Germanic: ▪ Norwegian ceased to o The common ancestral language of the be a literary language in Germanic branch. the 14th century; Danish (with Norwegian o Preceded the earliest written records elements) is a written and is reconstructed by philologists, language of Norway. similar to the parent Indo-European. ▪ Old Icelandic is the Classification: most literary of the early o Languages descended from Proto- Scandinavian Germanic fall into three groups: languages. ▪ East Germanic ▪ Important Literary Works: ▪ North Germanic ▪ Elder/Poetic ▪ West Germanic Edda: A collection of East Germanic: poems, likely o Principal Language: Gothic dating from the 10th or 11th ▪ Spread from the Vistula River to century. the Black Sea by the 3rd century. ▪ Younger/Prose Edda: Compiled ▪ Christianized by Ulfilas (311- by Snorri 383), whose translation of the Sturluson Gospels is the primary source of (1178-1241). knowledge about Gothic. ▪ About forty ▪ Goths conquered parts of Italy sagas (prose (Ostrogoths) and Spain epics) detailing (Visigoths), but their language the lives of was soon replaced by Latin. traditional figures. ▪ Gothic survived longest in the Crimea, with remnants noted in West Germanic: the 16th century. o English belongs to this group. o Other East Germanic languages: Burgundian and Vandalic (limited o Divided into two branches: High knowledge, primarily proper names). German and Low German, separated by the Second Sound Shift (or High North Germanic: German Sound Shift) around A.D. 600. o Found in Scandinavia, Denmark, ▪ Low German: Includes: Iceland, and the Faroe Islands. ▪ Old Saxon: Basis of o Earliest traces are in runic inscriptions modern Low German from the 3rd century. or Plattdeutsch.  ▪ Old Low Franconian: o Experienced a steady retreat against Contributes to modern advancing Italic and Germanic Dutch and Flemish. languages. ▪ Old Frisian: Survives in Current Distribution: parts of Friesland and nearby areas. o Today, Celtic languages are primarily found in: ▪ High German: ▪ Far corners of France ▪ Consists of several dialects (Middle, ▪ British Isles Rhenish, East o Areas where Celtic languages were Franconian, Bavarian, once dominant show little trace of their Alemannic). presence. ▪ Chronologically divided Gaulish Language: into: o The language of the Celts in Gaul, ▪ Old High known as Gallic. German (before 1100) o Replaced early by Latin, resulting in limited knowledge: ▪ Middle High German (1100- ▪ Few inscriptions 1500) ▪ Some proper names (e.g., ▪ Modern High Orgetorix) German (since 1500) ▪ A fragmentary text ▪ Popularized by Luther's ▪ A small number of words translation of the preserved in modern French. Bible (1522-1532). Celtic Languages in Britain: ▪ Gradually became the o Better historical evidence exists, though literary language of theories are contradictory: Germany after the 16th century. ▪ Older view: Goidelic (Gaelic) Celts were the first in England. Celtic Branch of Indo-European Language ▪ Some may have been Historical Overview: driven to Ireland and o Once one of the most extensive groups then spread to in the Indo-European family. Scotland and the Isle of Man. o At the beginning of the Christian era, Celts were found in: ▪ Modern representations include: ▪ Gaul (modern-day France) ▪ Irish ▪ Spain ▪ Scottish Gaelic ▪ Great Britain ▪ Manx ▪ Western Germany ▪ Brythonic Celts later occupied what is now England but ▪ Northern Italy retreated westward due to Germanic invasions in the 5th o Celtic expansion previously reached into century. Greece and Asia Minor. ▪ Some fled to Brittany.  ▪ Modern representatives ▪ Relatively unified with distinctive include: sounds, inflections, accentual systems, and vocabulary. ▪ Welsh ▪ Spoken before the Christian era ▪ Cornish and lacked written records, ▪ Breton making reconstruction necessary. Current Status of Celtic Languages: o As Germanic spread over a large area, it o Languages are losing ground, facing developed marked dialectal competition from dominant languages: differences, leading to: ▪ Cornish became extinct in the ▪ North Germanic 18th century. ▪ West Germanic ▪ Manx, once widely spoken on the Isle of Man, has died out ▪ East Germanic since World War II. ▪ Scottish Gaelic: North Germanic Languages ▪ Spoken only in the Languages Included: Highlands by around 75,000 people (fewer o Danish than 5,000 do not know English). o Swedish ▪ Welsh: o Norwegian ▪ Spoken by about 25% o Icelandic of the population. o Faeroese (similar to Icelandic, spoken ▪ Decline in those in the Faeroe Islands) speaking only Welsh, Classification: dropping from 30% in 1891 to 2% in 1950. o Divided into: ▪ Irish: ▪ East Scandinavian: Danish and Swedish ▪ Spoken by around 500,000 people, most ▪ West Scandinavian: are bilingual. Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faroese o Uncertain future regarding the preservation of Celtic languages amidst declining trends and the influence of English. West Germanic Languages Languages Included: CHAPTER 2 The Germanic Language Family o High German Overview: o Low German (Plattdeutsch) o The Germanic group is significant o Dutch (and Flemish) because it includes English. o Frisian o Proto-Germanic (or simply Germanic) o English is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Germanic languages. Notable Variants:  o Yiddish: Developed from medieval High CHAPTER 3 The Invaders of Britain German with Hebrew and Slavic influences; declined post-World War II. o Afrikaans: Derived from 17th-century The Conquest of Britain Dutch, spoken in South Africa. o Pennsylvania Dutch: A High German The Celts dialect spoken by early American settlers from southern Germany and Arrival of the Celts: Switzerland. o The Celts inhabited Britain long before the English migration in the fifth century and Julius Caesar’s invasion in 55 B.C. East Germanic Languages o The original inhabitants were Celtic- Primary Language: speaking tribes. o Gothic o The Celts were not a unified people or ▪ Earliest attested Germanic nation; their presence in Britain was language; knowledge primarily marked by successive invasions. from a 4th-century New Impact of Germanic Invasions: Testament translation by Wulfila, bishop of the Visigoths. o The Anglo-Saxons, a collection of Germanic tribes, erased most traces of ▪ Provides insight into early Celtic culture from England. Germanic language development but has no modern o It was once believed that this erasure descendants. extended to the Celts themselves. Other East Germanic Languages: o Vandalic and Burgundian: Little Roman Invasion of Britain information available, mostly proper names. Caesar’s Invasion: o Julius Caesar invaded England in 55 B.C. after conquering Gaul. Historical Context and Cultural Impact of the Term "Gothic" Claudius’s Conquest: Eighteenth Century Usage: o In A.D. 43, Emperor Claudius led a significant invasion with an army of o The term "Gothic" was used derogatorily 40,000 men. to describe the medieval period as "dark ages." o The Romans subjugated much of central and southeastern Britain within three o Associated with Gothic architecture, years. contrasting classical styles. o The conquest extended to almost all of o The term later evolved to describe modern-day England, but the Romans Gothic literature, characterized by did not penetrate deep into Wales and mysterious settings and macabre Scotland. characters. Establishment of Roman Rule: Modern Associations: o The Romans built a protective stone wall o Applied to a style of dress and culture in northern England, marking the limits characterized by black attire, heavy of their control. metal adornments, and body piercings. o The area south of this wall remained under Roman rule for over 300 years.  Roman Governance: o Saxons occupied the area south of the Thames, while the Angles settled from o Roman governance focused on the Thames northward to the Scottish pacification and tax revenues, Highlands, except for western Wales. allowing a degree of autonomy to conquered peoples. o The Germanic settlement resulted in the formation of the Anglo-Saxon o Although Latin was not imposed by Heptarchy, which included: force, many native Britons learned it, especially among the ambitious. ▪ Kent ▪ Essex Germanic Invasion of Britain ▪ Sussex Historical Accounts: ▪ Wessex o The traditional account of Germanic ▪ East Anglia invasions is based on Bede and the ▪ Mercia Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. ▪ Northumbria o Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People (completed in 733) notes that the Germanic tribes included the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles. Scandinavian Invasion to Great Britain Invasions Timeline: Overview of Invasion: o Attacks by the Saxons began in the o Scandinavian incursions began in the fourth century. late 8th century and continued for over 300 years. o The first landing of the Saxons is dated to 449, marking the beginning of the Old o Initial raids evolved into conquest and English period. colonization. Formation of England: o Two main waves of Viking settlement: o This period marks the transformation of ▪ First Wave: Established the Britain into England—the land of the Danelaw, controlling half of Angles. England. o The term Anglo-Saxon refers to both ▪ Second Wave: Led to King the language of this era and its Cnut's (Canute) accession to speakers. the English throne in 1016. Germanic Tribes: Viking Age: o The invaders came from various o Vikings, known as daring sea rovers, Germanic tribes in northern Germany, were responsible for raids, settlements, including the Jutland peninsula. and conquests. o They spoke closely related Germanic o Activities spanned from the mid-8th dialects. century to the early 11th century, significantly influencing Old English. Notable Leaders: Stages of Scandinavian Attacks: o The Jutes, led by brothers Hengest and Horsa, are associated with the first 1. Early Raids (787 - 850): Germanic settlements in southeastern ▪ Initial plundering of coastal Britain (Kent). towns and monasteries. Settlement Patterns: ▪ Valuable treasures and captives were taken as slaves. 2. Large Army Incursions (850 - late 10th ▪ Other terms include angst, century): waltz, and poltergeist. ▪ Marked by widespread Scandinavian Influence: plundering and significant settlements. o Many Old English words were influenced by Scandinavian, especially ▪ A fleet of 350 Danish ships in the Middle English period. captured Canterbury and London. o Examples include: 3. Political Adjustment and Assimilation (878 - ▪ Words with [sk] sound (e.g., 1042): scathe, skill, sky). ▪ Transition to coexistence and ▪ Verbs like get and give came assimilation of Danes into from Scandinavian, replacing English society. Old English forms. Assimilation and Influence: o Vikings settled peacefully, assimilating with the English population. o Cultural integration resulted in a blend of traditions and beliefs. Similarities of Old English to Other Languages Celtic Language: o Early Celtic loanwords included: ▪ bannuc (a bit), bratt (cloak), brocc (badger). o Place names of Celtic origin include: ▪ Avon, Cornwall, Dover. Latin Influence: o Early loanwords from Latin in Germanic period focused on military, commerce, and agriculture (e.g., anchor, butter, kitchen). o Latin loanwords in Old English include: ▪ candle, monastery, psalm. German Influence: o Low German: ▪ Nautical terms (e.g., boom, deck, sloop). ▪ Cloth-making terms (e.g., cambric, spool). o High German: ▪ Culinary terms (e.g., bratwurst, schnitzel). CHAPTER 4: French Invasion to Great Britain o The distinction between French and English speakers became more social than ethnic. Norman Conquest Language Exchange: Overview: o Long-term coexistence of English and o The Norman Conquest in 1066 French led to significant vocabulary significantly impacted the English transfer between the languages. language. o The influx of French words began slowly o Marked the end of the Old English after the conquest and continued for period and the beginning of the Middle centuries. English period. o Close cultural ties between France and Historical Context: England enabled ongoing borrowing of words. o Edward the Confessor: Last king in the direct male line from Alfred the Great; Characteristics of Middle English (1150-1500) died without heirs. Period Overview: o Harold Godwinson was elected king but o Marked significant changes in the faced challenges to his claim, notably English language, more extensive than from William, Duke of Normandy. any previous period. Battle of Hastings: o Influenced by the Norman Conquest and o William the Conqueror led the Norman its aftermath. forces to victory against King Harold in Changes in Grammar: 1066. o General reduction of inflections: o This conquest transformed English culture, influenced by French ▪ Alterations in noun and architecture (churches and castles) adjective endings led to loss of while maintaining an English essence. distinctive forms (number, case, gender). Impact of French on Middle English ▪ This leveling was due to Language Landscape: phonetic changes and the o Post-conquest, England was effectively operation of analogy. trilingual: o The plural form: ▪ Latin: Language of the Church. ▪ The ending -s became the ▪ Norman French: Language of standard plural marker for the government and ruling nouns. class. ▪ Two main methods for indicating ▪ English: Spoken by the majority plurals remained: of the population. ▪ -s or -es from strong French Language in England: masculine declension. ▪ -en (as in "oxen") from o The Norman ruling class continued to weak declension. use their language, leading to a gradual learning of English by some Normans Elimination of Grammatical Gender: over time. o Decay of inflections resulted in the o For 200 years, French was the primary removal of grammatical gender in language among the upper classes; nouns. intermarriage facilitated the spread of French among the English population.  o Natural gender recognition was already o In 1348, the black rat (Rattus rattus) present in Old English through personal brought the Bubonic Plague to England, pronouns. docking near Weymouth. o In Middle English, sex became the sole o The epidemic caused radical changes, factor for determining noun gender. including a significant loss of life— estimated up to one-third of England's Canterbury Tales and Geoffrey Chaucer population (approximately 1.3 million out Period of Great Individual Writers (1350- of 4 million). 1400): Social Upheavals: o Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400): The o The Black Death triggered a series of greatest English poet before social changes that accelerated the Shakespeare. recognition of English as the native o Known for: language. ▪ Troilus and Criseyde (narrative o A disproportionate number of the clergy poem). died, weakening the influence of Latin across the country: ▪ The Canterbury Tales (most famous work). ▪ In some regions, the Latin- speaking clergy was reduced by Significance of The Canterbury Tales: almost half. o Features a diverse array of ▪ Replacements were often contemporary character types and laymen with limited literacy, medieval literature. primarily speaking English. o Provides a rich portrait gallery in the Language Shift in Education: general prologue. o English began to replace French in o Stories told by a group of pilgrims schoolrooms during this period. traveling from Southwark to Canterbury Cathedral. o The increase in education and literacy created a growing demand for books in Literary Impact: English. o Chaucer’s characters are individually Official Recognition of English: realized, reflecting different social strata and backgrounds. o In 1362, English was officially recognized for the first time in almost o Used English instead of Latin or French, three centuries as a language of official making literature more accessible. business. o Highlighted a "canny cross-class cluster" Did You Know? of characters united in a common purpose. After King Harold's defeat, William of Normandy was crowned King of England on Christmas Day, o Tailored language to suit each story and 1066. character, creating mood, tone, and realism. o His ability to reflect the natural rhythm of CHAPTER 5: Modern English English poetry in everyday conversation. The Impact of Bubonic Plague on the Decline of Queen Elizabeth I and the English Language French Language Religious Context: Arrival of the Plague: o Elizabeth I reinstated the Protestant faith established by her father.  o The term "Protestant" entered the also grammar guides and gossipy English language around the time of the gazettes. Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536- 1539), stemming from a dissenting o This movement highlighted the 'Protestation' by German rulers against robustness and confidence in the Catholic edicts. English language during this period Shakespearean Literature Revival of the Book of Common Prayer: o Under Elizabeth I, the Book of Common Biography: Prayer was revived and became one of o Birth: Born in Stratford-upon-Avon in the most influential volumes in English 1564. history. o Family Background: o Following revisions after the English Civil War (1642-1651), it was used for ▪ Father: John Shakespeare, a Anglican services for three centuries. glover. o The Prayer Book is characterized by: ▪ Mother: Mary Arden, from a farming family. ▪ Style: Vigorous and plain. o Career: Arrived in London as an ▪ References: Immediate and actor/writer in the early 1590s. easily understood (e.g., "lost sheep," "dust to dust"). Works: ▪ Language: Primarily based on o Attribution: Scholars attribute thirty- the oldest vocabulary, with eight plays, one hundred fifty-four many words derived from Old sonnets, and other major poems to English rather than Norman Shakespeare. French or Latin. It is often monosyllabic. o Vocabulary Contribution: Over 2,000 words first recorded or invented by him. The Printing Press and English Language Development Language and Style: Introduction of Printing: o Range of Speech Styles: Shakespeare used various speech styles to match o Johannes Gutenberg introduced characters from different social classes, movable type to Europe in 1458, including: although the first book in English was printed in 1475 by William Caxton, who ▪ Foppish courtiers produced a history of the Trojan War. ▪ Bluff soldiers Standardization of Written English: ▪ Simple country dwellers o Caxton was followed by other printers in o Dominant Manner: Elevated and London, establishing a growing standard rhetorical speech; even non-poetic of printed English. dialogue resembles poetry. o Printing helped create shared o Literary Devices: Commonly used conventions of spelling and punctuation devices include: across different presses. ▪ Alliteration o Increased circulation of printed materials led to greater conformity in usage. ▪ Assonance Cultural Impact: ▪ Rhythm o The flourishing of printing presses ▪ Extensive metaphorical catered to the growing appetite for language reading, producing not just novels but o Vocabulary Flexibility: Shakespeare drew from a wide array of English  vocabulary, incorporating elements from ▪ Within six months, six Anglo-Saxon, Norman French, Latin, companies of translators were and other sources. established. Impact on Modern English: ▪ Translations relied heavily on earlier versions, including: o Word Creation: Approximately 2,000 terms first appear in his plays; a ▪ Bishops' Bible significant portion (up to 75%) may be ▪ William Tyndale's his own coinages. version (1520s). o Innovative Use of Language: ▪ A committee gathered in London ▪ Famous for puns and wordplay, (1610) to evaluate the often using bawdy and double translations and finalize the text entendres. over nine months. ▪ Examples of words making their Characteristics of the King James Bible: first appearance include: o Language chosen was often slightly old- ▪ "Obscene" fashioned and elevated. ▪ "Accommodation" o Aimed for a distinct English separate from everyday use. ▪ "Barefaced" o Resulted in a book that has endured for ▪ "Leap-frog" over four centuries. ▪ "Lack-lustre" o Although newer translations exist (e.g., ▪ Other terms: New English Bible, 1970), the King "Courtship," James Bible is often cited for its: "Dextrously," ▪ Musicality "Indistinguishable," "Premeditated," ▪ Dignity "Reliance." ▪ Grace o Linguistic Innovations: Rise of Science in the 17th Century: ▪ Transformed adjectives into verbs (e.g., "Thank me no o Emergence of a modern style and thankings, nor proud me no vocabulary in scientific investigation. prouds" – Capulet to Juliet). o Reflection of research and ▪ Created novel expressions, experimentation in the language used by such as "the dark backward and writers. abysm of time" (Prospero in The o Introduction of Technical Tempest), demonstrating his Expressions: forward-thinking approach to language. ▪ New terms emerged alongside existing ones gaining additional The Influence of Politics, Science, Religion, definitions. Technology, and Others in the English Language ▪ Examples: King James's Reign (1603): ▪ Gas: Modeled o Marked by a significant linguistic on the Greek enterprise: the proposal for a new word "chaos." translation of the Bible. ▪ Atmosphere: o Translation Process: Initially described the "gaseous envelope"  around heavenly bodies before adopting a metaphorical sense. ▪ Microscope & Telescope: First used in the mid-17th century, derived from Greek. ▪ Refraction: Acquired a scientific application in the early 1600s to describe the bending of light rays. ▪ Spectrum: Originally meant "apparition" or "spectre" before referring to the splitting of light into colors. Inventions and New Terminology: o Barometer: Invented in 1643, named from Greek terms meaning "weight" and "measure." o Pendulum: Borrowed from Latin. o Corpuscle: Earliest use to mean a "minute body," expanding scientific vocabulary and metaphorical meanings.