Research Methods PDF

Step 1: Research Problem Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study. The most excellent way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with contemporaries or with those having some knowledge in the related matter (from a guide who is usually an experie...

Step 1: Research Problem Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study. The most excellent way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with contemporaries or with those having some knowledge in the related matter (from a guide who is usually an experienced man). 4  What is Research Question/Problem? A statement of the specific query or question the investigator wants to answer through research. Often similar to the statement of purpose, just provides more detail and focus. – Used to: ▪ Focus attention on the kinds of data needed to provide an answer ▪ Clarify the purpose statement ▪ Identify key variables and their potential relationship ▪ Identify the population under study  Problem Statement The statement of the research problem, sometimes phrased in the form of a research question Usually located in the introduction or literature review of the research report – Rarely labelled problem statement ▪ The statement of the research problem – Identifies The nature of the problem The context of the problem The significance of the problem The problem statement can be written as either a question or as a declarative statement  Important of the Research Question/Problem The research question is the starting point of the study. Everything flows from the research question. It will determine the population to be studied, the setting for the study, the data to be collected, and the time period for the study. A clear and concisely stated research question is the most important requirement for a successful study.  Research Questions Characteristics ❖ Feasible ▪ Adequate number of subjects ▪ Adequate technical expertise ▪ Affordable in time and money ❖ Interesting ▪ Getting the answer intrigues the investigator ❖ Novel ▪ Confirms, refutes or extends previous findings ▪ Provide new findings ▪ Manageable in scope Formulation of Research Problem/Question At the very outset, the researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire into and then research problem should be formulated. ▪ Choose an interesting general topic ▪ Do some research on your general topic ▪ Consider your audience ▪ Start asking questions ▪ Evaluate your question  Step 2: Literature Review Once the problem is formulated, the researcher should undertake extensive literature connected with the problem. ▪ Gather articles on a topic of interest ▪ Summarize the findings Why Literature Review? Assist in refining statement of the problem Strengthening the argument of the selection of a research topic (Justification) It helps to get familiar with various types of methodology that might be used in the study (Design) 10  Sources of Literature Review ✓ Journal Articles : Academic Journals, Conference Proceedings, Government Reports ✓ Books : Text Books, Monographs, Edited Collections ✓ Indexing and Abstracting Journal Search Engines : Google Scholar ✓ Past Dissertations ✓ Vital Statistics : Census, Government Records and Reports, Surveillance System, Surveys ✓ International Organizations Documents : WHO, UNICEF ✓ Media : Newspaper, Magazines ✓ Internet 11  Step 3: Hypotheses What is of Hypothesis ❖ A tentative statement about something that might be true or wrong and the validity of which is usually unknown. ❖ It is a tentative supposition or provisional guess which seems to explain the situation under observation. ❖ A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or disproven by valid and reliable data. ❖ A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables. ❖ Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an independent and dependent variable.  What is Hypothesis…. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation of an observable phenomenon which is capable of being tested by scientific methods. In other words, a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect will happen in a certain circumstance. ▪ For a researcher hypothesis is a formal question that he intends to resolve. For example, consider a statement: “Drug A is equally efficient as Drug B” This is a hypothesis capable of being objectively verified and tested. ▪ Hypothesis should be clear and precise, capable of being tested, limited in scope, simple in terms. 13  Meaning and Purpose of Hypotheses The word hypothesis is derived from the Greek word – ‘hypotithenai’ meaning ‘to put under’ or ‘to suppose’. The word hypothesis consists of two words ‘Hypo’ and ‘thesis’. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem. So the word “Hypothesis” means tentative statement about solution of a problem or Hypothesis means the guesses to solve the research problem. ❑ The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine whether there is enough statistical evidence in favor of a certain belief about a parameter.  Importance of a Hypothesis ▪ To the point enquiry ▪ Separating Relevant from Irrelevant observations ▪ Selecting required facts ▪ Direction of research ▪ Act as a guide ▪ Save Time, Money and Energy ▪ Proper data collection and conclusion It brings clarity, specificity and focus to the research problem, as they guide the researcher to what specific information to collect  Nature of Hypothesis The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated. It is conceptual in nature. It should be specified before research is conducted. This allow to ▪ Identify the research objectives ▪ Identify the key abstract concepts involved in the research ▪ Identify its relationship with both the problem and solution ▪ It is neither too specific nor too general ▪ It is considered valuable even if proven false.  Formulation of Hypothesis ❖ An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been concluded. ❖ It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical background to the problem. Hypothesis formulation could be done by using the following approaches: (a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the research problem, its source, cause and the objectives in search of a solution; (b) Assessment of data and records, (c) Evaluation of similar previous studies in the area similar problems; (d) Personal investigation which involves original field survey Thus, any hypotheses take place as a result of a-prior thinking about the subject, assessment of the available data and material including related previous studies. Formulation of working hypotheses is a basic step of any research process.  Hypothesis Testing ✓After analysing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. ✓Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary? ✓This is the usual question which is to be answered by applying various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc. F test have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. ✓Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. ✓If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated.  Types of Hypotheses Descriptive Hypotheses: These are propositions that describe the characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organization etc., e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates. The educational system is not oriented to human resource needs of a country. Relational Hypotheses: These are propositions which describe the relationship between tow variables. e. g., Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation; Upper – class people have fewer children than lower class people.  Types of Hypotheses…. Causal Hypotheses: ▪ It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. ▪ The first variable is called the independent variable, and the latter the dependent variable. ▪ When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher must consider the direction in which such relationship flow e.g., which is cause and which is effect. Working Hypotheses: ▪ While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are formed. ▪ Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they are referred to as ‘ working hypotheses’ which are subject to modification as the investigation proceeds.  Development of Working Hypotheses…. ▪ After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. ▪ Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. ▪ It’s very important or it provides the focal point for research.  Types of Hypotheses…. Null and Alternative Hypotheses: Null Hypothesis is tested for possible rejection and alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities or wishes to prove.  Examples of Null and Alternative Hypothesis Null Hypothesis: There will be no difference in students knowledge level of Research Methodology who participated in DEV 6101 course and who participated in undergraduate ‘Research Methodology’ course. Alternative Hypothesis: The Research Methodology knowledge levels of students who participated in undergraduate course will be lower knowledge level than that participated in DEV 6101 course.  More Example In a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the new drug is no better, on average, than the current drug. We would write HO: there is no difference between the two drugs on average. The alternative hypothesis might be that: the new drug has a different effect, on average, compared to that of the current drug. We would write H1: the two drugs have different effects, on average. The new drug is better than the current drug, on average.  Errors in Hypothesis Testing There are two types of errors in hypothesis: ▪ Type I error ▪ Type II error Type I error: Rejection of a true null hypothesis is called the type I error. Type II error: Retention of false null hypothesis is called the type II error, i.e., Failure to reject a false H0 Decision Accept HO Reject HO HO (true) Correct decision Type I error (alpha error) HO (false) Type II error (beta error) Correct decision  Research Questions VS Hypothesis Hypothesis Research Questions Is predictive in nature Is inquisitive in nature A tentative prediction about the The question research study sets relationship between 2 or more to answer variables Can be used if there is significant Can be used if there is little knowledge or previous research previous knowledge on the on this subject subject Mainly used in experimental Can be used in both quantitative quantitative and qualitative Does not allow a wide range of Allows a wide range of outcomes outcomes Sometime, research questions are used in lieu of hypotheses.  Difference Between Hypothesis and Problem ▪ Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of knowledge which supports or refutes an existing theory. ▪ An hypothesis differs from a problem. ▪ A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is derived. ▪ An hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. ▪ A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an hypothesis can be tested and verified.  Step 4: Research Design After framing hypothesis we have to prepare a research design i.e. we have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with optimum effort, time and expenditure. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. 28  Research Design….. The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively answers to research questions or address the research problem; It is an outline of what researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data; Research Design comprises the outline for the data collection, data analysis, and report writing. 29  Research Design Research Design Analytical Research Experimental Research Descriptive Research Pre-designs Reviews Philosophical Case Study Survey Quasi-designs Historical Cross-Sectional True-designs Meta-Analyses Longitudinal Statistical- Correlation designs  Characteristics of Good Research Design ▪ It should be flexible ▪ It should be economical ▪ It should be unbiased ▪ It should fulfill the objectives of the research ▪ It should be more appropriate to all the aspects of research. ▪ It should guide you to achieve correct results. ▪ It provides scientific base for your research. ▪ It also should facilitate to complete the research work within the stipulated time.  Data Selection It is important to determine the data type and source as the project is being initiated. Also important are what instruments are suitable for the collection of data in order to answer the research questions. The following should be considered during the “data selection” process: Appropriate type and source of data in order to answer the research question ▪ Qualitative data collection is a type of collection used for textual type data (observational research) ▪ Quantitative data collection is a type of data collection used for numerical type data (recording biochemical markers) Procedures needed to obtain a representative sample Proper instruments used to collect the data 32  Step 5: Data Collection The process of gathering information about variables of interest systematically in order to answer the research questions or test hypotheses. If data is not collected properly the research questions cannot be answered, the study cannot be repeated, there are distorted findings, other researchers are misled, public policy decisions can be compromised and harm to humans and animals can result. Execution of the Project: If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. 33  Data Collection….. The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design chalked out. There are two types of data: PRIMARY DATA are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time and therefore to be original in character. Data collection methods are Observation, Personal Interview, Questionnaire, Case Study Method, Survey Method, etc. SECONDARY DATA are those which have been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. Existing data that is related to the research topic in question. Sources: Journals, Books, Reports, Newspapers, Internet, etc. 34  Data Collection Process There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at the disposal of the research. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. In case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways: – By observation, – Through personal interviews – Through telephonic interviews – By mailing of questionnaires – Through schedules Sample Design: A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.  Types of datadiscussion 4. The semi-structured collection methods? approach Individual interview – collecting data at individual level, to help understand situation and characteristics of individuals within the population of interest → can include some HH level indicators if needed Key informant interview – collecting data at community, location or group level from a key informant (KIs) i.e. an individual whose informal/ formal position gives him specific knowledge about other people, processes, or events that is more extensive, detailed, or privileged than other individuals in their group/ community/ location Group discussion – collecting data at community, location or group level from a group of representatives e.g. Kis Focus group discussion – bringing together people from similar backgrounds or experiences to discuss a specific topic of interest; data collected at community, location or group level  Step 6: Data Analysis Data Analysis is important to answer the research questions and to help determine the trends and relationships among the variables. Data Analysis is a procedure of editing, coding and tabulating data. 37  Analysis of Data ✓ The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inference. ✓ Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages; coefficients etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. ✓ In the process of analysis, relationships of differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.  Steps in Data Analysis Before Data Collection, the researcher should accomplish the following: ▪ Determine the method of data analysis ▪ Determine how to process the data ▪ Consult a statistician ▪ Prepare dummy tables After Data Collection: ▪ Process the data ▪ Prepare tables and graphs ▪ Analyze and interpret findings ▪ Consult again the statistician ▪ Prepare for editing ▪ Prepare for presentation 39  Data Analysis Choosing Statistical Software and Techniques: SPSS, SAS, Genstate.Ink, Statistical tests e.g. ANOVA, regression, descriptive statistics, t-tests, Chi square etc. Data Management refer to any activity concerned with: ▪ Designing data recording format ▪ Collection of data, with appropriate quality control ▪ Checking of raw data ▪ Cleaning of data ▪ Keep backup of the data ▪ Preparing data for analysis ▪ Maintaining records of the processing steps  Data Management Data management is integral to all aspects of Responsible Conduct of Research. The data management practices includes the selection, collection, analysis, storage, and ownership. Note: Researchers should consider all of the above when designing research 41  Storage of Data Data storage refers to the maintenance of electronic and non- electronic data and issues related to confidentiality, security, and preservation. ▪ Non-electronic data can exist in paper files, journals, laboratory notebooks ▪ Electronic data can exist in the form of an electronic file, videotapes, DVDs, etc. Various ways the data is stored and used in order to ensure data integrity ▪ During the initial stage of the project the data could be stored in paper format (e.g., notes, laboratory notebooks) ▪ Data can then be transferred to an electronic format ▪ Electronic data could then be analyzed and graphs and charts produced in yet another type of format 42  Storage of Data - Integrity Data integrity should be considered initially as part of the initiation of the project. ▪ Storage capacity is enough to store your data ▪ Storage solution is reliable ▪ How long the data will be kept ▪ Who will input the data and who checks on the accuracy of the data ▪ Do you need data handling processes/procedures Storage of Data – Other Issues to Consider Use logins and passwords Manage access rights Update virus protection regularly Ensure data recoverability Update electronic storage media to avoid outdated storage/retrieval devices Backup files in secured multiple locations Encrypt files 43  Data Ownership ❖ Data is a product resulting from research. ❖ It is often thought that the person conducting and producing the data owns the data. ❖ However, funding agencies, institutions and sources where the data was obtained can determine otherwise. 44  Step 7: Interpretation and Report Writing ❖ Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and experimental study. ❖ Interpretation is the process of making in the sense of numerical data that has been collected, analyzed and presented. Techniques of Interpretation: 1. Explanations 2. Extraneous Information 3. Guidance 4. Relevant Factors 45  Research Report ▪ A Research Report is a document giving summarized and interpretative information of research done based on factual data, opinions and about procedure used by the individual or group. ▪ A Research Report is a recorded data prepared by researchers after analyzing information gathered by conducting organized research. ▪ A Research Report generally, but not always have actionable recommendations such as investment ideas that investors can act upon, recommendations on any act or law on which government can take action, policy decisions that are practically applicable, etc. 46  Layout of the Research Report or the Thesis The researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him/her. ❖ Preliminary Pages: Title, Acknowledgements, Forward and Content. ❖ Main Text a. Summary/ Abstract b. Introduction c. Methodology d. Results e. Implications of the results f. Statement of findings and recommendations g. References ❑ End Matter /Appendix 47