Biology 2P93 Botanical Drawing Rules PDF

http://www.bookiejar.com/Conte nt/Books/7ccbe2a1-12a9-41fa- Biology 2P93 a3ff- 0f8ebaf40ef6/4060_r1/22165/w ww.gutenberg.org@files@2216 5@22165- h@[email protected] Rules of Botanical Drawing...

http://www.bookiejar.com/Conte nt/Books/7ccbe2a1-12a9-41fa- Biology 2P93 a3ff- 0f8ebaf40ef6/4060_r1/22165/w ww.gutenberg.org@files@2216 5@22165- h@[email protected] Rules of Botanical Drawing Lab Assignments BIOL 2P93 1 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  What are botanical drawings? Any kind of artistic, accurate representation of plants At one point in time, hand drawings were the only way to convey to persons in different locations what a particular plant looked like Although now easier to take cell phone photos of plants, botanical images still have a role to play Photographs CANNOT take the place of botanical drawings Plant drawings provide detail that photographs may not reveal, especially for cross sectional drawings that include many layers of detail (Ellis, M.E., 2023) BIOL 2P93 2 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  A little history….. The earliest surviving illustrated botanical work is the Vienna Dioscorides, created in 512 The longest text within this work is Pedanius Dioscorides's De Materia Medica Dioscorides was a first century Greek physician, botanist and pharmacologist whose Encyclopedia of Materia Medica was used for centuries after his death De Materia Medica is arranged in alphabetical order describing the appearance and medicinal uses of 383 plants in Greek Majuscule (large lettering) Each description is accompanied by a painting of the plant labeled with its name (Christodoulou, M. 2020) BIOL 2P93 3 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  A little history…… Pedanius Dioscorides (c.40- c.90 AD), an ancient Greek physician. He worked as a surgeon with Emperor Nero's army during the first century AD. During his travels he wrote a five-volume book, De Materia Medica, in which he described various herbs and medicinal substances and their properties. The book was a precursor to all modern pharmacopeias. It was translated into Arabic and then back into Latin around 1000 AD, remaining in use until approximately1600 https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/224615/view/peda (Rogers, 2007). nius-dioscorides-greek-physician BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss 4 A little history…….. Several manuscripts and early printed versions of De Materia Medica survive, including the Vienna Dioscurides manuscript written in the original Greek. In 1592 it was deposited in the Imperial Library in Vienna, which later became the Austrian National Library, it continues to reside there today (Tomaselli, C., 2021). Four Leaves from the Arabic Version of Dioscorides' De Materia Medica. 7th century AH/AD 13th century ink and pigments on laid paper. This scientific manuscript was one of the earliest to be translated from Greek to Arabic. Walters Art Museum (2023). BIOL 2P93 5 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Preparation of Laboratory Botanical Drawings Botanical drawings create an accurate, systematic and informative account of a specimen or histological slide. Drawings allow critical examination of material, provide a permanent record for future reference and serve as an exam study guide. Artistic talent is not necessary! Observation skills, drawing what you see and following suggested guidelines, produces a good drawing. All you need is a sharp pencil, an eraser and ruler! https://www.amazon.com/Looking- Sharp-You-rule- Humorous/dp/1081434732 BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss http://biology.uco.edu/personalpages/bidlack/botany/botanypics/plant%20cells/syr%20l eaf%202.jpg In labs you will be asked to draw and label renditions of certain structures as observed on histological plant slides similar, to that above. How would you approach this? BIOL 2P93 7 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss http://imgc.allpostersimages.com/images/P-473-488- 90/64/6474/EPQH100Z/posters/biodisc-cross-section-of-a-three-year-pine-stem-pinus- lm-x5.jpg You may be given a cross-sectional tissue slide as seen above. How do you draw and label THIS without drawing everything? BIOL 2P93 8 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  http://www.uq.edu.au/_School_Science_Le http://biology4isc.weebly.com/uploads/9/0/ ssons/9.65.8.GIF 8/0/9080078/2374199_orig.jpg Here’s how! Just draw a small cross section of the tissue (left) (if given a slide like Slide 7), if you are given a slide to draw as shown on Slide 8, just divide it up like a pie and draw a slice (right). As long as the different tissue layers are represented, you don’t need to draw the entire slide. BIOL 2P93 9 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Take a slice of the tissue and draw all the cell layers from top to bottom. BIOL 2P93 10 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Carve out a pie shaped slice and draw the cell layers within that slice. BIOL 2P93 11 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Tissue and Cellular Drawings/Partial Section Lightly draw an outline of the specimen or part of the specimen of 10 cm x 10 cm Make a tissue diagram of the internal structures so you produce a drawing of the tissue outline, leaving out the individual cells Use broken lines to designate an area of the drawing that will include the tissues to be drawn in detail It is important to include an area large enough to provide information about the structure of the specimen Brackets and labels should be included within the broken lines BIOL 2P93 12 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Tissue and Cellular Drawings/Partial Section Note that the overall area is drawn with specific tissues elaborated upon within dashed lines. BIOL 2P93 13 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Tissue and Cellular Drawings/Partial Section Once your broad tissue outline is done…. Draw individual cells, paying special attention to the shape and relative size of cells, as well as cell wall thickness Avoid producing sketchy lines that do not meet or lines that overlap at the ends Remember that in your drawings, one of the objects is to relate form and function BIOL 2P93 14 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Histological Drawing Rules Histological structures are drawn with the naked eye, with no tracing To enhance clarity each drawing must be at least 10 cm x 10 cm Drawings are positioned slightly to the left of the page, whenever possible the long axis of the specimen https://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/d/drawin should be drawn vertically on g_board.asp the page to accommodate labels BIOL 2P93 15 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Histological Drawing Rules Sketches of plants are not acceptable; it is important that the ends of lines do not over- lap and gaps do not appear where in fact lines join Stippling NOT shading is used to highlight cellular inclusions, to give the effect of depth, or to indicate different color densities https://s-media-cache- ak0.pinimg.com/736x/b3/81/72/b38172eace5dc11a8dd796d 0b68150a3.jpg BIOL 2P93 16 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Captions Captions (a description of what has been drawn) must accompany each drawing and the rules regarding correct labeling are to be followed for every submission Captions for all submitted drawings are to be placed on the upper right-hand corner of the diagram The caption must include the following in this order: Taxonomic Phylum Genus and species Title Aspect BIOL 2P93 17 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  You are asked to draw and label the Synangium of Psilotum nudum (Whisk Fern). What should the caption at the the top right-hand corner of the drawing indicate? http://www.dipbot.unict.it/sistematica/Immagini/ 21001.JPG BIOL 2P93 18 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Caption example: Psilotum nudum Phylum: Psilotophyta Genus and species: Psilotum nudum Genus is always capitalized. Genus and species are either underlined or italicized. If the species is unknown the caption would read Psilotum sp. Title: Synangium (what you have drawn) Aspect: either longitudinal section (l.s) or cross sectional (x.s), or perhaps morphological if you are drawing an actual physical depiction of a plant In this case it is l.s., as the section was cut down the length of the stem BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  How do we label structures indicated on botanical drawings? http://www.seedbiology.de/images/avery4a-web.gif BIOL 2P93 20 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Labeling your botanical drawing Before labeling place a light line just to the right of the drawing to ensure alignment of label lines Erase the guideline before submission All labels and label lines should be parallel to the bottom of the page and to the right of the drawing On the left the label line must terminate in or on the structure Structures and regions of cells, either with the same cell type or a different cell type should be bracketed (square) Individual cells within the bracket should not be labeled, label these cells elsewhere in the drawing BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Labeling your botanical drawing Don’t label the same structure twice, don’t use one label line to indicate two similar structures or cells If labeling a single cell do not pluralize it (i.e “cells”) Don’t cross label or bracket lines, don’t use color or ink on drawings, only pencil The next slide indicates a previous drawing with proper label lines on the right-hand side of the drawing, lines go right into the structures, and all lines are aligned directly one under the next J BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Note that a square bracket is used to indicate a layer of tissue or in this case a cluster of sporangia (pl.). Individual lines go to the center of a specific structure. They are straight, do not cross, and are in pencil. Labels are aligned one under the other to the right of the label lines. BIOL 2P93 23 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Use of Drawing Programs If completing a lab drawing you may use a drawing program There are a number out there like Sketchbook (free with Apple iPads) However, keep some things in mind Just like with using paper…NO TRACING Don’t use the layering options which would enable you to do this A ”drawing” such as this would be given a mark of zero BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss 24  Ask your TA If you have a drawing question and are unsure of anything, be it the drawing or the labelling, ask your TA That’s why they are here They also provide comments on the drawing(s) and labels so that when you get the lab back, you avoid making the same mistake(s) on the next lab Pay attention to those comments…don’t lose easy marks! BIOL 2P93 25 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/109423465932 724917/ BIOL 2P93 26 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Literature Cited Christodoulou, M. 2020. “De Materia Medica: The Ancient Text that Changed the World”. The Herbal Academy. Obtained from: https://theherbalacademy.com/de-materia-medica/ Ellis, M.E. 2023. Gardening Know How. “Botanical Art History: What is the History of Botanical Illustration”? Obtained from: https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/info/botanical-art- history.htm Rogers, K. 2007. “Pedanius Dioscorides: Greek physician”. Brittanica. Obtained from: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pedanius- Dioscorides The Walters Art Museum. Online Collection. 2023. “Four Leaves from the Arabic Version of Dioscorides' De materia medica”. Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A. Obtained from: https://art.thewalters.org/detail/3536/four-leaves- from-the-arabic-version-of-dioscorides-de-materia-medica-2/ Tomaselli, C. "The Vienna Dioscurides," in Smarthistory, April 5, 2021, accessed April 4, 2023, https://smarthistory.org/the-vienna-dioscurides/. BIOL 2P93 27 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Hi, my name is Sandy and my mom (SJN) had just rescued me from Texas when she took this picture! She’s put it at the start of this Power Point for no other reason than she thinks I’m as cute as a button and I AM about to walk in some woods. Have a walkabout outside, it’s fun and good exercise (I’m talking in a drawl btw). BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss 1  Before we get to the nitty gritty Before we get to plant morphology, life cycles, reproductive and evolutionary strategies Let’s have a general look some of the forested/natural areas of Niagara There are some unique plant and tree species found here It could give you some perspective on your field assignment BIOL 2P93 2 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Protective Classifications Due to land degradation, insect infestations, agriculture, clear cutting and development, the current percent forest cover of the Niagara Region is 18% Hence, Niagara’s forests are extremely fragmented A minimum of 30% forest cover is required to maintain marginal ecosystem integrity Southern Ontario has only about 25% forest cover, which is less than the minimum needed to support healthy wildlife and ecosystems Protective measures are required to https://docs.assets.eco.on.ca/reports/environmental- maintain and promote forest cover protection/2018/Back-to-Basics-Volume4-Ch2.pdf BIOL 2P93 3 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Natural Areas: Protective Classifications In Niagara, protective classifications range from Regional/Municipal Provincial International A forested/natural area can have overlapping classifications, but not all may have the same intent Here are some protective classifications in place designed to protect Niagara’s forested/natural areas BIOL 2P93 4 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  ESA: Regional (Environmentally Sensitive Area) ESA’s “have significant environmental features, such as wetlands, rivers and creeks, groundwater recharge areas and the habitat of endangered and threatened species” (taken from: http://www.neptis.org/publicati ons/greenlands-protection- municipality/chapters/regional http://www.lifeintherough.com/wp- -municipality-niagara) content/uploads/2008/09/envsensitive.jpg BIOL 2P93 5 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  ESA: Regional (Environmentally Sensitive Area) The highest level of protection afforded a Regional Niagara ESA is 1 (fully protected), the lowest is 4 (no protection) Regional Niagara’s Official Plan lacks any specific policy provision to protect woodlands, and as a result these features are classified as having Level 4 protection (taken from: http://www.neptis.org/publications/greenlands-protection- municipality/chapters/regional-municipality-niagara) BIOL 2P93 6 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Note the almost complete lack of protection for Niagara’s wooded areas under the Niagara Regional Plan. http://www.neptis.org/publications/greenlands-protection- municipality/chapters/regional-municipality-niagara BIOL 2P93 7 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Wainfleet Bog is designated an ESA (Level 1 Protection), as it is a Provincially Significant Wetland and is also a Provincial ANSI (so, overlapping classifications). This is a rare area in Niagara with fairly good protective measures in place. http://www.massasauga.ca/module/Images/WainfleetMap2.jpg BIOL 2P93 8 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss The Wainfleet Bog is the only bog wetland in the Niagara Peninsula. The underlying peat material has Sphagnum Moss and other bog plants growing on top, like Labrador Tea, Cotton Grass and Leatherleaf, making it different from other wetlands. It’s easy to see why this area has overlapping protective classifications. Taken from: http://www.npca.ca/conservation-areas/wainfleet- bog/ BIOL 2P93 9 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Regional Tree By-Law No. 30-2008 Ineffectual against indiscriminate cutting of trees in Niagara It has more exemptions than it does rules Which leads to stuff like this: A house torn down with four mature Red Cedars and one Tamarack…gone just like that L I estimated their ages at around 70 years Developers often cut down the trees before anyone can complain Unfortunately, at that point, complaints don’t mean much People are finally noticing that this By-Law is flawed Check out: https://niagaraatlarge.com/2019/07/15/niagara-needs- stronger-rules-for-protecting-and-preserving-our-trees/ BIOL 2P93 10 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Provincial: Areas of Natural and Scientific Interest ANSIs are official Provincial designations applied to “contiguous geographical regions within the province that have geological or ecological features which are significantly representative provincially, regionally, or locally” (taken from: https://www.ontario.ca/en http://s.allacronyms.com/598380pngu.png vironment-and- energy/ontarios-parks- and-protected-areas) BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Others……. http://static.tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pub/images/Mor dor_and_Mount_Doom_1843.jpg Or is it to this place? Sometimes its https://c2.staticflickr.com/8/7128/7096868123_f36720cd4 hard to tell. 5_z.jpg As we drive to this place up that ##***#* hill… BIOL 2P93 https://www.nfcw.com/2019/06/20/ 12 363113/honkmobile-launches-app- Susan Jonsson-Ninniss free-apple-pay-nfc-payments/  Niagara Escarpment You are driving up the Niagara Escarpment J Brock is located in the middle of this very important stretch of green space Recognized as one of the world's unique natural wonders and is the most prominent topographical feature of southern Ontario It is 725 km in length, at its highest elevation it is 510 metres (1625 ft.) above sea level (taken from: http://www.escarpment.org/biosphere/index.php) BIOL 2P93 13 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Indicating the length of the Niagara Escarpment. Note that as it runs south, it is increasingly surrounded by urbanized areas. http://planningontario.com/wp- content/uploads/2013/05/NiagaraEscarpment_map.jpg BIOL 2P93 14 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Niagara Escarpment: Provincial Since June,1973, the Escarpment has been protected under the Niagara Escarpment Planning and Development Act to: “provide for the maintenance of the Niagara Escarpment and land in its vicinity substantially as a continuous natural environment, and to ensure only such development occurs as is compatible with that natural environment.” Administered by the Niagara Escarpment Commission We used the Wainfleet Bog as an example of overlapping classifications…Escarpment lands are subject to even more overlapping J BIOL 2P93 15 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Niagara Escarpment: International The Niagara Escarpment was designated as a World Biosphere Reserve in 1990 Biosphere Reserves are considered learning sites for sustainable development Sites established by individual countries and recognized under UNESCO's (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) http://voiceofniagara.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/niagara- Man and the Biosphere (MAB) escarpment-best.jpg Programme. BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss 16  Niagara Escarpment: International Biosphere Reserves: seek to “reconcile conservation of biological and cultural diversity and economic and social development through partnerships between people and nature” Taken from: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural- sciences/environment/ecological- sciences/biosphere-reserves/ BIOL 2P93 17 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Including the Niagara Escarpment, there are four Biosphere Reserves in Ontario. The Escarpment Biosphere Reserve includes Great Lakes coastlines, cliff edges, talus slopes, wetlands, woodlands, limestone alvars, oak savannahs, conifer swamps and others. These habitats collectively have the highest level of species diversity among Canadian biosphere reserves. Taken from: http://www.escarpment.org/biosphere/imgCnCFOaVMwU.jpg https://www.greenbelt.ca/h istory BIOL 2P93 18 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Biosphere Reserve: International Typical World Biosphere zonation. One or more core areas are protected. A buffer zone allows limited resource use. A transition area is a large outer portion where people live and work, using natural resources in a sustainable manner. A large part of the Escarpment runs through urban and/or rural areas, so being designated a Biosphere Reserve promotes a balance between conservation and development (theoretically). http://portal.unesco.org/geography/en/files/8763/1210238795131MAB.jpg/3 1MAB.jpg BIOL 2P93 19 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Vegetation found in core areas of Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve. Relatively older growth forests are found in such inaccessible areas. This small Eastern White Cedar (Thuja occidentalis) clinging to a rock face is likely hundreds, perhaps thousands of years old. http://wolfmaan.ca/wp- content/uploads/2011/03/1320647725_043db97 55e.jpg BIOL 2P93 20 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The University promotes it … Brock promotes itself, noting that it is on a Biosphere Reserve “Brock University is a public research university in St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. It is the only university in Canada in a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, at the centre of Canada's Niagara Peninsula on the Niagara Escarpment” (taken from https://brocku.ca) BIOL 2P93 21 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Biosphere Reserve Please watch the following you tube video on the Niagara Escarpment. I know we see it every day, but being a World Biosphere Reserve is an unique designation! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WSAHTdz1tto BIOL 2P93 22 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss https://caroliniancanada.ca/legacy/images/southernparadise.JPG BIOL 2P93 23 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Carolinian Canada (Deciduous Forest Region) Canada’s southernmost ecological region at the northern limit of the Deciduous Forest Region It sustains vegetation typical of eastern U.S. south to the Carolinas Canada’s most endangered major ecosystem and many of its flora and fauna are found nowhere else in Canada BIOL 2P93 24 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Carolinian Canada ecological region as indicated by green (within the Deciduous forest region). Found south of an imaginary line running approximately from Grand Bend to Toronto. Climate is the main reason this area is unique. Often called the `banana belt' of Canada. Has the warmest average annual temperatures, longest frost-free seasons, and mildest winters in Ontario. https://theurbangeographer.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/carolinia_map Contains two World.jpg Biosphere Reserves. Areas WITHIN this Region obtain ANSI, ESA or Biosphere status due to significant flora and/or fauna. BIOL 2P93 25 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Carolinian Canada (Deciduous Forest Region) Carolinian Canada is quite small compared with other Canadian vegetation zones, making up only 1% of Canada's total land area However, it has a greater number of both flora and fauna species than any other ecosystem in Canada Estimates are that 2,200 species of herbaceous plants are found here, including 64 species of ferns, about 110 species of grasses, and over 130 different sedges There are 70 species of trees alone BIOL 2P93 26 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Typical Carolinian forest as seen in St. John’s Conservation Area located just to the south of Brock University. Some crazy person is walking my dog. BIOL 2P93 27 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Carolinian Canada (Deciduous Forest Region) The term 'Carolinian' refers to this area’s similarity to forests found in the Carolina’s in the southern United States Southern-type deciduous forests mainly characterize this ecosystem Many agencies try to preserve Carolinian Canada, but a lot of this area is in the hands of private land-owners Therefore, Voluntary Stewardship Programs were conceived Carolinian Canada was the first region in Canada where a voluntary `handshake' stewardship agreement was used to encourage commitment to conservation by private landowners Nearly 500 landowners, who own over 12,000 acres in 30 different natural areas, had made such agreements in the Carolinian zone as of early 1994 BIOL 2P93 28 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Carolinian Canada (Deciduous Forest Region) Please watch the following You-Tube video on the Carolinian Canada Region. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZskO_SJRl0 BIOL 2P93 29 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Green Belt: All Encompassing In 2005, Ontario created the world’s largest Green Belt Niagara Escarpment and the Oak Ridges Moraine are its backbone Green Belt was created to: “Prevent further loss of farmland and natural heritage, restrict urban sprawl, develop vibrant communities where people can live, work, and play” In 2017, Greenbelt protection was extended to 21 major urban river valleys and 7 coastal wetlands across the Greater Golden Horseshoe area Currently over 800,000 hectares of land (Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing, 2022). BIOL 2P93 30 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Green Belt: All Encompassing The Greenbelt has over 800,000 ha of land extending 325 km from the western end of the Oak Ridges Moraine, near Rice Lake, in the east, to the Niagara River in the West. Current threats to the Greenbelt include: 1.Developers and municipalities wanting to remove lands from the Greenbelt to build sprawl subdivisions. 2.Infrastructure, such as mega-highways that would pave over prime farmland, contribute to poorer air quality, and generate more greenhouse gases. 3. A proposed airport in the Greenbelt eliminating 7,530 hectares of prime farmland and forests. 4. Dumping contaminated soil, putting water and food sources at risk (Environmental https://www.greenbelt.ca/greenbelt_plan_detailed_ma Defense, 2023) p_overview BIOL 2P93 31 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Green Belt: All Encompassing https://environmentjournal.ca/ontario-launches-consultation-on-proposed- changes-to-the-greenbelt/ Any threat to the Recent local threat example: Green Belt is a threat https://www.stcatharinesstandard.ca/ to ALL protective news/council/2023/04/04/greenbelt- measures for church-expansion-okd-by-st- Ontario/Niagara’s catharines-city-council.html forests L BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss 32  Climate Change and Niagara’s Forests The major component of Niagara’s forests’ is a complex of Sugar Maple and American Beech trees Both prefer cool and relatively wet areas They are also the major components of the Great Lakes- St. Lawrence Forest Region just to the north of us Research shows that Sugar Maple are demonstrating a potential shift northward in response to climate change (Woodall, C.W., Oswalt, C.M., Westfall, J.A., Perry, C.H., Nelson, M.D. and A.O.Finley, 2009) BIOL 2P93 33 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Present day distribution of Sugar Maple. Hypothesized to move 100 km north per century due to warming temperatures. http://www.geobabble.org/~hnw/global/treeranges3/climate_change/dynglobcurrent3.elev.30000.A cer_saccharum_FIA_plots.3.51.conus.png BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss 34 Projected 2050 Sugar Maple distribution. http://www.geobabble.org/~hnw/global/treeranges3/climate_change/dynglobcurrent3.elev.30000.Acer_sacc harum_FIA_plots.3.51.conus.png BIOL 2P93 35 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  So…… When and if there is a northerly shift in Sugar Maple, southerly species currently occasionally seen in the Deciduous Forest Region will become more commonplace Sugar Maple/Beech forests could change into Sassafras, Cucumber Magnolia and Tulip Tree forests It won’t be in our lifetime obviously but… Not only is this of ecological significance, but there are economic and cultural ramifications regarding loss of Sugar Maple trees…Maple Syrup anyone? Botany 2P93 36 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Declining Sugar Maple Syrup Farms Climate change and erratic weather is proving challenging to this typically Canadian industry L In Canada, syrup producers recorded declining yields due to increasing global temperatures, which lead to more invasive pests, less sugary sap and shorter harvesting periods than the normal four- to-six-weeks Worsening wind-storms destroy producing trees Longer and more severe droughts kill seedlings and stunt root growth Unpredictable spring frosts can shock and destroy new leaf buds, while milder winters with less snow cover leave bare roots exposed (Obtained from McGee, 2022) BIOL 2P93 37 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Declining Sugar Maple Farms Check out this link: https://globalnews.ca/new s/8879587/climate- change-maple-syrup- canada/#:~:text=Syrup%2 0producers%20are%20re cording%20declining,see dlings%20and%20stunt% 20root%20growth. https://www.treehugger.com/maple-sap-and- syrup-production-1342654 BIOL 2P93 38 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Climate Change and Niagara’s Forests Other potential effects of climate change on local forests (some are already being seen) are: Increased insect and disease outbreaks in trees as warmer winters and longer growing seasons allow pests to survive winter and reproduce more rapidly (i.e Emerald Ash Borer) Increased stress for trees due to summer heat and reduced rainfall, making them more vulnerable to fire Increase in undesirable plant species, such as Poison Ivy which thrives at higher levels of atmospheric CO2 Decline in wetlands due to lower water levels (Derived from Penney, 2012) BIOL 2P93 39 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Guess what? It has been shown that trees of the same species are communal and often form alliances with other species. Forest trees have evolved to live cooperatively, by communication and a collective intelligence. Trees are connected to each other through underground fungal (mycorrhizal) networks. They share water and nutrients through these networks, and also use them to communicate. https://memegenerator.net/instance/54002144 /grumpy-cat-trying-to-focus-and-here-comes- chatty-cathy Bio 2P93 40 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Yep, Trees Talk J Trees send distress signals about drought and disease, and alter their behavior when they receive these messages This underground system has been coined “the wood wide web” Young shaded saplings are aided in photosynthesis by larger trees who pump sugar into their roots through the network (obtained from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science- nature/the-whispering-trees-180968084/) BIOL 2P93 41 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Trees Communicate with each other This ground-breaking theory was first posited by Suzanne Simard, a professor at UBC Like with most new ideas most people in the forestry world thought she was off her rocker But her theories have gained traction Below is a link to a TED talk that she did…..have a look https://www.ted.com/talks/suzanne_simard_how_trees_t alk_to_each_other#t-582017 Bio 2P93 42 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Tree branches used as location markers Indigenous peoples used trees as communication in a different manner. A popular “Indian” marker tree (Catalpa sp.) can be seen in Grimsby on the lawn of Canterbury Cottage on Main Street West. As a sapling, one lower branch was pegged to the ground so that it grew out horizontally instead of upright. https://ahotcupofjoe.net/2016/06/trail-marker-trees-a-k-a-indian- Main Street was then an marker-trees/ Indigenous trail and this tree Trail Marker Tree aka “Indian” Marker Tree served as a signpost as a direction aid for tribal peoples. BIOL 2P93 43 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  And finally in these stressful times….. Try ”forest bathing” Known in Japanese as shinrin (forest)-yoku (bath) Shinrin-yoku is bathing in the forest atmosphere, taking it in through our senses Bridges the gap between us and the natural world Being in nature, connecting with it through all senses A two-hour forest bath will unplug you, slow you down, de-stress and relax you I think we all need it J Taken from: https://time.com/5259602/japanese-forest- https://healingforest.org/2020/01/27/fo rest-bathing-guide/ bathing/ BIOL 2P93 44 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Some Niagara Carolinian Canada Links A general overview of Carolinian tree species found in Niagara http://niagaracarolinian.blogspot.ca/2009/11/back- ground-information.html On the Kentucky Coffee Tree http://niagaracarolinian.blogspot.ca/2009/11/kentucky- coffeetree-gymnocladus-dioicus.html On the Cucumber Magnolia http://niagaracarolinian.blogspot.ca/2009/11/cucumber- magnolia-magnolia-acuminata.html These links lead to other links of typical Carolinian species if you are interested! BIOL 2P93 45 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Citations used Brock University. 2018. Obtained from: https://brocku.ca Cool Heads for a Hot Planet. 2012. “Will Maple Syrup Disappear”? Obtained from: https://coolheadsforahotplanet.wordpress.com/2012/03/0 5/will-maple-syrup-disappear/ Greenbelt Foundation. 2023. “History of the Greenbelt”. Obtained from: https://www.greenbelt.ca/history Environmental Defense. 2023. “Ontario’s Greenbelt Under Threat: A Study On What’s At Risk”. Obtained from: https://environmentaldefence.ca/report/ontarios- greenbelt-under-threat-a-study-on-whats-at-risk/ BIOL 2P93 46 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Citations used Environmental Commissioner of Canada. 2018. Environmental Protection Report: Southern Ontario’s Disappearing Forests. Obtained from: https://docs.assets.eco.on.ca/reports/environmental- protection/2018/Back-to-Basics-Volume4-Ch2.pdf Grant, R. 2018. “Do Trees Talk to Each Other”? ASKSmithsonian. Obtained from: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the- whispering-trees-180968084/ Li, Qing. 2018. “FOREST BATHING: How Trees Can Help You Find Health and Happiness”. Obtained from: https://time.com/5259602/japanese-forest-bathing/ Biol 2P93 47 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Citations Used McGee, M. 2022. The Canadian Press. ‘Climate change threatening maple syrup industry, producers say”. Global News Canada. Obtained from: https://globalnews.ca/news/8879587/climate-change- maple-syrup- canada/#:~:text=Syrup%20producers%20are%20recordi ng%20declining,seedlings%20and%20stunt%20root%20 growth Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing. 2022. “Ontario’s Greenbelt”. Obtained from: https://www.ontario.ca/page/ontarios-greenbelt BIOL 2P93 48 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Citations Used Niagara Regional Official Plan. 2000. Planning and Development Services Department, Regional Niagara, Thorold, Ontario. Penney, J. 2012. Adapting to climate change: Challenges for Niagara. Niagara Region. Obtained from: https://www.niagararegion.ca/government/planning/pdf/climatechan gerport.pdf Turcotte, D. 2019. “Opinion: Trees old and new need our protection”. Obtained from: https://www.niagarathisweek.com/opinion-story/9351117-trees-old- and-new-need-our-protection/ Woodall, C.W., Oswalt, C.M., Westfall, J.A., Perry, C.H., Nelson, M.D. and A.O. Finley. 2009. “An indicator of tree migration in forests of the eastern United States”. Forest Ecology and Management 257: 1434-1444 BIO 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss 49 https://quotefancy.com/quote/1554426/Joseph-Paxton-Botany-the-science-of-the-vegetable-kingdom-is-one-of-the-most-attractive BIOL 2P93 1 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  What is Botany? Botany is the scientific study of plants, including their physiology, structure, genetics, ecology, distribution, classification, and economic importance ”Botany" is from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη (botanē) meaning "pasture", "herbs" "grass", or "fodder"; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν (boskein), "to feed" or "to graze” (Liddell and Scott, 1940) Listen to this general description of Botany. Some of the things described will be talked about as we move through the course J https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jo-yiqfN15U BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  What is Botany? Padua Botanical Garden in Italy. Founded in 1545, it is the world's oldest academic botanical garden still in its original location. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-is-the-oldest-botanical-garden-in- the-world.html Botany originated as herbalism with identification and cultivation of edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one of the oldest branches of science. Medieval physic gardens (herb gardens with medicinal plants) were precursors to botanical gardens (gardens dedicated to collecting, cultivating, preserving and displaying a range of plants labelled with their botanical names). These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Cataloging and describing collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy. BIOL 2P93 3 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss What is Botany? Plants are convenient organisms to study scientifically because they do not pose the same ethical dilemmas as the study of animals or humans. In the 1850’s, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel wrote the first laws of inheritance, a set of primary tenets relating to the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parent organisms to their children, after crossing pea plants in his garden. https://www.redbubble.com/i/postcard/Gregor- Mendel-Joke-Biology-by- jonaszeferino/34091740.V7PMD BIOL 2P93 4 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  What is Botany? Humans and plants have a complex relationship extending far back into our joint evolutionary history This is seen today as plants provide nutrition, fiber, pharmaceuticals, and energy for people and animals across the globe Ancient hominids coevolved with plants for millions of years; skulls reflect the nature of the plant species they ate More recently plants were domesticated to suit our needs, leading to a dramatic cultural shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies (Schaal, 2018) BIOL 2P93 5 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Plants have been around for a while Photosynthetic evidence from around 3000 Ma (mega-annum = 1 million years), indicates Cyanobacteria fossils (Blue-Green Algae, a photosynthesizing prokaryote). Cyanobacteria use water as a reducing agent, producing atmospheric oxygen as a metabolic by-product. This oxygen rusted the earth, pumped enormous oxygen poison into the atmosphere, and in so doing https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/279293614369689775/ paved the way for aerobic-based life to emerge and diversify. BIOL 2P93 6 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Why are Cyanobacteria aka Blue Green Algae? Are aquatic and photosynthetic. Small unicellular bacteria, though can grow in macroscopic colonies. As they are aquatic AND photosynthetic, they are often called Blue Green Algae. As prokaryotes however, they lack most algal organelles. Cyanobacteria appear coloured as they contain photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll (green) and photocyanin (blue). https://foodwebsandus.wordpress.com/2015/07/21 They prepare more than a /an-ode-to-the-blue-green-algae/ quarter of the total food made by photosynthesis! BIOL 2P93 7 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Cyanobacteria: Altering our Atmosphere Check out these videos! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fXADhz6JjWw&spfreload=10 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DE4CPmTH3xg&spfreload=10 BIOL 2P93 8 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Plants have been around for a while Ancient Cyanobacteria are seen in stromatolites, laminated rocks formed by Cyanobacterial growth. Comparisons of ancient and modern stromatolites show ancient stromatolites were formed by similar bacteria. They encode the role that ancient microorganisms played in life’s evolution and in shaping earth's environments. Are the earliest macrostructures that support the notion of photosynthesizing prokaryotes. Australian stromatolites are https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/ approximately 3.7 Billion years science/oldest-evidence-of-life-on-earth- old; the oldest evidence of life on found-in-australia/articleshow/61658155.cms Earth! Taken from: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Tree _of_Life/Stromatolites.htm BIOL 2P93 9 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Stromatolites: Check out these videos! http://www.thescientificc artoonist.com/?pp_albu m=1&pp_image=cyano bacteria.png https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=olTMKF0QsDU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzwvjOSS2Pc&spfreload=10 BIOL 2P93 10 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Plants and Photosynthesis Plants, algae and some bacteria carry out photosynthesis Process by which these organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water Photosynthesis generally involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct Once light energy is in chemical form, it is available as energy to all other organisms In the absence of photosynthesis there would no food and oxygen for the survival of living organisms and life would be impossible on the earth https://s-media-cache- ak0.pinimg.com/236x/c2/3b/e0/c23be0dc002c 0a4c2aed4c874c614118.jpg BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Not every plant photosynthesizes Some rare plants do not possess chlorophyll and cannot photosynthesize One such native plant is the Indian Pipe Lacks chloroplasts and obtains nutrients from roots of other photosynthesizing plants via fungal root hyphae This plant is known as a myco-heterotroph Check it out on pg. 460 of your text J Look for it on the forest floor in the Spring months, if you’re lucky take a pic I haven’t been so lucky even though I scour the woods every spring L BIOL 2P93 12 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss I don’t photosynthesize L Indian Pipe, aka the Ghost Plant. It is parasitic, specifically a myco- heterotroph. Its fungal hosts are mycorrhizal with trees, so ultimately it does get its energy from photosynthetic trees. Since it is not dependent on sunlight to grow, it is found in dark environments such as dense forest understories. Native Americans used its sap to treat eye infections and other ailments. http://hencam.com/static/uploads/2012/07/pipe-closeup.jpg BIOL 2P93 13 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Plants and Carbon Sequestration Deforestation alters the carbon cycle by removing trees and disturbing forest soils, releasing stored carbon into the atmosphere. Canadian forests were considered a carbon sink, but through increased fires, insect infestation and harvesting, Canadian forests are now a net source of carbon. There is exciting research going on though! Check out this article on a collaboration between Australian botanists and accountants re: attempts at net zero carbon emission using tree carbon sequestration. Read about it here: https://fbe.unimelb.edu.au/newsroom/accou ntants-and-botanists-combine-forces-for-a- sustainable-future https://www.pinterest.at/pin/3924465550 00752977/ BIOL 2P93 14 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Let’s meet a couple of important Botany guys Theophrastus Student of Aristotle (371 – c. 287 BC) “The Father of Botany” Wrote “Enquiry into Plants” and “On the Causes of Plants” Contributed to botanical science during the Middle Ages, first systemization of the botanical world First described the anatomy of plants and classified them into trees, shrubs, herbaceous perennials and herbs https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/2289 35/view/theophrastus-ancient-greek- philosopher BIOL 2P93 15 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Let’s meet a couple of important Botany guys Carl Linnaeus - 1707-78 “Father of Taxonomy” Developed Binomial Name System Wrote “Systema Naturae”, which classified 4,400 animal species and 7,700 plant species Classifications supplemented with "binomials” composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet “Species Plantarum” (1753) considered the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today First work to consistently apply binomial https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Li names nnaeus Changed Latin phrasing to reflect relationships and placed one to many species in each genus BIOL 2P93 16 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Botanical Taxonomic Classification and Nomenclature These terms are aligned but don’t quite mean the same thing Taxonomic Classification: Identification and interpretation of natural groups of organisms (taxa) based on characters (morphology, genetics, behaviour, ecology) Taxonomic Nomenclature: System of scientific names for taxa (species, genera, or families) and the rules and conventions for the formation, treatment, and use of those names BIOL 2P93 17 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Early Linnaean Taxonomy In “Imperium Naturae”, Linnaeus established three kingdoms: Regnum Animale, Regnum Vegetabile and Regnum Lapideum (Animal, Vegetable and Mineral) His classes of plants were used for identification into the nineteenth century based on sexual characteristics Linneaus was the first to use the terms monoecious and dioecious BIOL 2P93 18 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Ranked-based Scientific Classification While originally used by Linnaeus, rank-based scientific classification has changed in modern times. The greatest innovation of Linnaeus, and the most important aspect of this system, is binomial nomenclature, the combination of a Genus name and a second term, which together uniquely identify each species of organism within a Kingdom. https://s-media-cache- ak0.pinimg.com/564x/093a6/0e93a67c87d8b9eb856dfa 5cd7796b9a.jpg BIOL 2P93 19 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Ranked-based Scientific Classification Species are placed in a ranked hierarchy, starting with either Domains or Kingdoms Domains are divided into Kingdoms Kingdoms are divided into Divisions Divisions are divided into Classes, and in turn into Orders, Families, Genera (singular: genus), and species One genus can have several species BIOL 2P93 20 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Example of Ranked-based Scientific Classification Classification can be defined as ‘the grouping of individuals so that all the individuals in one group have certain features or properties in common” Classifications should have predictive value, that is, they should tell us something about the object being named and its features For example, an Australian plant, the Waratah, is classified as follows: http://www.ausemade.com.au/f auna- flora/flora/magnoliophyta/magn oliopsida/proteales/proteaceae/ BIOL 2P93 telopea/t- 21 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss speciosissima/images/waratah- 0210215652.jpg  Ranked-based Scientific Classification: (Waratah) Kingdom: Plantae General Division: Magnoliophyta Order: Proteales Family: Proteaceae Subfamily: Grevilleoideae Genus: Telopea Species: speciosissima Specific Each level (moving down) in this classification gives more specific phenotypic information Don’t worry about the terms on the next page, you will learn them later. Just showing increasing specificity. J BIOL 2P93 22 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Information in Each Level of Classification (Waratah) Plantae: Green Plant Magnoliophyta: a plant with cotyledons, real flowers and seeds Proteales: has 4 perianth segments in each flower Proteaceae: a unique flower structure with 3 of the perianth segments fused and 1 free Grevilleoideae: flowers occur in pairs Telopea: has large pinkish red bracts surrounding the head-like flowerhead speciosissima: refers to its flowerheads BIOL 2P93 23 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Ranked-based Scientific Classification http://istudyroom.com/image s/Articles/Common_images/ 20130113_093838-1.jpg A plant’s scientific name is made up of two Latinized words The first is the Genus to which the organism belongs The second is the specific epithet or specific term of the species The Genus + the specific epithet make up the species name Species name and scientific name are synonymous The Genus of a plant can stand alone The specific epithet or term cannot stand alone, it is meaningless without a connection to a Genus as several Genera have the same species term BIOL 2P93 24 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Specific epithets cannot stand alone Tilia americana (Basswood) http://www.kgnaturephotography.com/ph otos-wetland-plants/trees/slides/Tilia- americana-~-American-basswood-1.JPG Fraxinus americana (White Ash) http://www.uwgb.edu/biodiversi ty/herbarium/trees/fraame_leaf 01.jpg Ulmus americana (White Elm) http://www.mushroomexpert. comtrees/ulmus_americana_ BIOL 2P93 02big.jpg 25 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Ranked-based Scientific Classification Sometimes, the name of the taxonomist/biologist who named a plant, will follow the specific epithet/specific term This person is known as the authority For example: Ulmus americana L. tells us that Carolus Linnaeus named the White Elm BIOL 2P93 26 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Ranked-based Scientific Classification Generally speaking, there is only one correct scientific name for any species (see next slide) Multiple vernacular (common) names may be given to the same species Example: Dicentra cucullaria Common names include Dutchman’s breeches, little-boy’s breeches, monkshood, boys-and-girls and soldier’s cap On the other hand, one common name may be applied to a number of different species BIOL 2P93 27 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Ranked-based Scientific Classification Why do scientific names get changed? An older name for the taxon is discovered that had been overlooked (nomenclatural reason for name change) Name used for a particular taxon had been applied earlier to another taxon (nomenclatural reason for name change) A decision that a species belongs in a different Genus, or that a taxon needs to be split, or that the rank of the taxon needs to be changed (taxonomic decision) Taken from: http://herbarium.usu.edu/teaching/4420/botnom.htm BIOL 2P93 28 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi and Plants. Formerly (ICN) International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), the name was changed, July 2011. Why? Mycologists felt that “Botanical” was misleading, implying that the Code excluded fungi and algal lineages. The ICN governs the naming and classification of plants https://www.iapt- taxon.org/nomen/main.php through six principles: BIOL 2P93 29 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  ICN: Six Governing Principles Principal 1: “Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological, bacteriological, and viral nomenclature” Principal 2 (Type Principle): “A botanical name must be fixed to a taxon by a type (dried plant material deposited and preserved in an herbarium, or as an image or a preserved culture)” Principle 3 (Priority Principle): “A guiding principle in botanical nomenclature is priority, the first publication of a name for a taxon. The formal starting date for purposes of priority is 1 May 1753, the publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus” BIOL 2P93 30 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  ICN: Six Governing Principles Principle 4 (Uniqueness Principle): “The intent of the Code is that each taxonomic group ("taxon", plural "taxa") of plants has only one correct name that is accepted worldwide” Principle 5: “Names of taxa are treated as Latin” Principle 6 (Retroactivity Principle): “The rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless there is an explicit statement that this does not apply” BIOL 2P93 31 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Development of the Kingdom Concept http://www.inspiredbymygarden.com/wp- content/uploads/2012/10/biological_classification.gif There have been some changes to the Kingdom Concept since Linnaeus…. BIOL 2P93 32 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Development of the Kingdom Concept In early classification schemes, organisms were placed in either Plant or Animal Kingdoms (Linnaeus) The Animal Kingdom were multicellular animals and protozoa The Plant Kingdom were vascular plants, bryophytes, algae, fungi, slime molds, water molds, and bacteria BIOL 2P93 33 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Hogg and Haeckel Propose Three Kingdoms Ernst Haeckel Robert Hogg http://c8.alamy.com/comp/FFA7NX/ernst-haeckel- https://www.bestthinking.com/thinkers/sci 1834-1919-ngerman-biologist-and-professor-line- ence/social_sciences/sociology/mike- engraving-FFA7NX.jpg sutton?tab=blog&blogpostid=22610 BIOL 2P93 34 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Development of the Kingdom Concept Sorting organisms into Animal or Plant Kingdoms was easy for large, multicellular organisms; microscopic development saw the discovery of many unicellular organisms It was difficult to put these organisms into one of the two Kingdoms In the 1860’s Hogg and Haeckel proposed a third Kingdom for all organisms that did not develop complex tissues This Kingdom was called Protista (Proctoctista) BIOL 2P93 35 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Development of the Kingdom Concept As a result: Animal Kingdom: multicellular animals Plant Kingdom: vascular plants and bryophytes Protista Kingdom: algae, fungi, slime molds, water molds and bacteria BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Development of the Kingdom Concept In 1938, Herbert F. Copeland proposed a fourth Kingdom for prokaryotic protists (Monera) Single-celled, prokaryotic organisms (bacteria) were placed in the Kingdom Monera, algae, fungi and single-celled eukaryotic organisms were left in Protoctista. Animal Kingdom: multicellular animals Plant Kingdom: vascular plants and bryophytes Protista Kingdom: algae, fungi, slime molds, water molds Monera Kingdom: bacteria http://america.pink/images/1/9/3/7/6/7/9/en/1 -herbert-copeland.jpg BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss 37 Development of the Kingdom Concept In 1969, R. F. Whittaker noting differing nutritional needs of protists, proposed a fifth Kingdom for fungi (Mycota) Fungi were separated from Kingdom Protista Animal Kingdom: multicellular animals Plant Kingdom: vascular plants and bryophytes Protista Kingdom: algae, slime molds, water molds http://image.slidesharecdn.com/sakshisaxenasbsp1- Monera Kingdom: bacteria 150410120855-conversion-gate01/95/microbial- Mycota Kingdom: fungi taxonomy-and-classification-system-9- 638.jpg?cb=1428667842 BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Development of the Kingdom Concept The Five Kingdom classification had three Kingdoms for multicellular eukaryotes based on nutrition and life cycle Plant: autotrophic; sporic life cycle Animal: heterotrophic (ingestion); gametic life cycle Fungi: heterotrophic (absorptive); zygotic life cycle There was a catch-all Kingdom for the remaining eukaryotes (Protista) and a single Kingdom for all prokaryotes (Monera) However, people were finding that a distinct type of prokaryote didn’t fit in…... BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss Carl Woese Proposes the Sixth and Final Kingdom In 1981, Carl Woese argued that Kingdom Monera should be split into Archaea and Bacteria, resulting in six kingdoms: Animal Kingdom: multicellular animals Plant Kingdom: vascular plants and bryophytes Protista Kingdom: protozoa, algae, slime molds Mycota Kingdom: fungi Bacteria Kingdom: including cyanobacteria Archaea Kingdom: methanogens, extreme http://2.bp.blogspot.com/uAAddvSwapE/UOnRH_Byes thermophiles, extreme halophiles I/AAAAAAAAAZo/BYVp_Cb8Das/s1600/carlwoese1_0 565_b.jpg And so, it ends…. BIOL 2P93 40 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  http://files.umwblogs.org/blogs.dir/1562/files/2008/11 /rbrn15l.jpg Species concepts have also changed….. BIOL 2P93 41 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Species Concept Morphological: Organisms classified in same species if identical morphologically, species don’t reproduce sexually, some known only from fossils https://www.slideserve.com/hada/species- and-speciation#google_vignette Biological: Species in a population that interbreeds producing fertile offspring; reproductively isolated from other groups to maintain species' integrity Ecological: https://help.ezbiocloud.net/bacterial- species-concept-explained/ Populations form discrete similar clusters recognized as species as ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources are divided up produce those clusters https://slideplayer.com/slide/34 61634/ BIOL 2P93 42 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Species Concept Eclectic: A philosophy that species are Cannot use a single criterion defined and formed and maintained by a variety of morphological to identify/define a species, interbreeding ecological and need morphological, phylogenetic factors (Crop geographical, biological and Genebank Knowledge Base, n.d.) ecological criteria Nominalistic: “Nature produces individuals Species have no actual and nothing more” (Buffon, existence, in nature it is to 1749-1788. refer great numbers collectively Species are man made and mental concepts BIOL 2P93 43 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Species Concept Phylogenetic/Cladistic species: Evolutionary relationships among organisms relies on common ancestry and shared evolutionary history to define species Cladistics is a method of hypothesizing relationships among organisms, aka, a method of reconstructing evolutionary trees Cladistic analysis looks at character data or traits of organisms of interest such as anatomical and physiological characteristics, behaviors, or genetic sequences BIOL 2P93 44 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Species Concept: Cladistics Cladistic analysis produces a tree (cladogram), which represents a supported hypothesis about the relationships among organisms A cladogram is not an evolutionary tree because it does not show how ancestors are related to descendants or how much they have changed However, many evolutionary trees can be inferred from a single cladogram BIOL 2P93 45 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  The Species Concept: Cladistics In choosing the best cladograms, taxonomists use the “principle of parsimony” Occam’s razor: “One should not make more assumptions than the minimum needed to explain anything.” Best cladogram is interpreted as that which requires fewest evolutionary changes in taxa involved BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss 46 The Species Concept: Cladistics A simplified cladogram. http://paleocave.sciencesortof.com/wp- content/uploads/2010/11/Cladogram-blog-post-II.001.jpg BIOL 2P93 Susan Jonsson-NInniss Taxonomists Taxonomy is not an exact science. Taxonomic identification is subject to human error, duplication, and multiple classifications. It’s difficult to gauge the exact number of species (plant or otherwise) in a particular area with 100% accuracy. http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_XSoRof7RYAM/S78SutLj5rI/ AAAAAAAAFR0/KYUAodnTy3I/s1600/Avocadoz.jpg BIOL 2P93 48 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Taxonomists Taxonomists specialize in identifying, naming, and classifying organisms How accurate is taxonomy? Are there enough qualified taxonomists? Has every species on Earth been identified? Has every species on Earth been identified correctly? Have certain species been identified as differing organisms? BIOL 2P93 49 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Taxonomy Evolving “Traditional” Taxonomy Molecular Taxonomy http://www.rbge.org.uk/assets/images/ed ucation/professional_courses/RBGE_MS c1_1.jpg https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/- 2dfeXju2dvg/TX2qHaSSXXI/AAAAAAAABt8/qGRSveeE PxA/s1600/Molecular-systematics.gif BIOL 2P93 50 Susan Jonsson-Ninniss  Molecular Taxonomy A DNA taxonomic bar-coding technique (Ontario Genomics Institute, 2013) was developed at the University of Guelph by Dr. Paul Herbert It uses a fragment of an organism’s DNA to identify the species to which it belongs The aim is to develop a “comprehensive DNA barcode library first of all the world’s birds and fishes, and then of other animals, fungi, plants, and protists” (Ontario Genomics Institute, 2013) Check out their website: http://www.ontariogenomics.ca/?s=biodiversity BIOL 2P93 51