Note PDF

Psychological process - Controlled and Automatic Processes Psychological processes can be categorized into two types: 1. Controlled Processes: Conscious, voluntary, and effortful processes that require attention and working memory. Examples include problem-solving, decision-making, and learning ne...

Psychological process - Controlled and Automatic Processes Psychological processes can be categorized into two types: 1. Controlled Processes: Conscious, voluntary, and effortful processes that require attention and working memory. Examples include problem-solving, decision-making, and learning new information. 2. Automatic Processes: Unconscious, involuntary, and effortless processes that do not require attention. Examples include habits, instincts, and conditioned responses. Consciousness and Attention Consciousness refers to the state of being aware of one's surroundings, thoughts, and feelings. Attention is a crucial aspect of consciousness that enables us to selectively concentrate on certain stimuli or tasks while ignoring others. Functions of Attention Attention has several functions that enable us to navigate our environment effectively: 1. Vigilance (Attentional Alertness): The ability to maintain a state of readiness to detect and respond to stimuli. 2. Selective Attention: The ability to focus on relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant information. 3. Divided Attention: The ability to process multiple sources of information simultaneously. 4. Sustained Attention (Concentration): The ability to maintain focus on a single task over a prolonged period. 5. Alternating Attention: The ability to switch between different tasks or mental sets. Physiological Basis of Attention Attention is supported by a network of brain regions and systems: 1. Brain Regions: - Prefrontal cortex (PFC): involved in executive control, decision-making, and working memory. - Posterior parietal cortex (PPC): involved in spatial attention and selection. - Temporal-parietal junction (TPJ): involved in attentional switching. - Thalamus: acts as a relay station for sensory information. 2. Neurotransmitters: - Dopamine: regulates attentional effort and reward. - Norepinephrine: regulates attentional alertness and arousal. - Acetylcholine: regulates attentional focus and cognitive flexibility. 3. Neural Networks: - Frontoparietal network (FPN): involved in executive control and attentional selection. - Default mode network (DMN): involved in mind-wandering and distraction. Theories of Attention 1. Filter Theory (Broadbent, 1958): proposes that attention acts as a filter to select relevant information. 2. Capacity Theory (Kahneman, 1973): proposes that attention is limited by cognitive capacity. 3. Resource Allocation Theory (Moran & Solomon, 2010): proposes that attention involves allocating resources to tasks. Clinical Implications Dysfunctions in attentional processes have been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric conditions, including: 1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 2. Schizophrenia 3. Alzheimer's disease 4. Traumatic brain injury 5. Stroke and cerebrovascular disease Assessment and Measurement Attention can be assessed using various behavioral and neurophysiological measures, including: 1. Attentional tasks (e.g., Stroop task, flanker task) 2. Event-related potentials (ERPs) 3. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 4. Electroencephalography (EEG) PERCEPTION The process of interpreting and organizing sensory information to understand the environment. Types: 1. Sensory Perception (e.g., visual, auditory, tactile) 2. Cognitive Perception (e.g., interpretation, recognition) Perceptual Organization -refers to the grouping of sensory stimuli into meaningful patterns. Laws of Perceptual Organization (Gestalt Principles): 1. Proximity (Nearness): Objects closer together are perceived as a unit. 2. Similarity: Objects sharing characteristics (shape, color, size) are grouped together. 3. Continuity: Patterns continue beyond occlusion. 4. Closure: Incomplete shapes are completed. 5. Figure-Ground: Objects distinguishable from background. 6. Symmetry: Symmetrical elements grouped together. 7. Past Experience: Familiar patterns influence perception. Perceptual Constancies-Perceptual constancies maintain perception despite changes in sensory input. 1. Shape Constancy: Maintaining shape perception despite orientation changes. 2. Size Constancy: Maintaining size perception despite distance changes. 3. Color Constancy: Maintaining color perception despite lighting changes. 4. Brightness Constancy: Maintaining brightness perception despite lighting changes. 5. Orientation Constancy: Maintaining orientation perception despite position changes. Depth Perception is the ability to perceive distance and three-dimensional space. Cues for Depth Perception Binocular Cues 1. Stereopsis (difference between images in each eye) 2. Convergence (eyes focusing on a point) Monocular Cues 1. Shading 2. Texture Gradient 3. Linear Perspective 4. Atmospheric Perspective 5. Motion Parallax (apparent movement of objects when moving) Bottom-Up and Top-Down Approaches Bottom-Up Approach sensory inputs are used to understand things 1. Data-driven processing (sensory information guides perception) 2. Feature extraction (basic features like lines, shapes, colors) 3. Hierarchical processing (simple to complex) Top-Down Approach - Analyzing the incidents and activities using previous experiences 1. Conceptually driven processing (prior knowledge guides perception) 2. Contextual influence (expectations, past experiences) 3. Feedback mechanisms (higher-level processing influences lower-level processing) Direct Perception (J.J. Gibson, 1979): 1. Direct interaction with environment 2. No intermediate representations 3. Perception is action-guided 4. Ecological approach (emphasis on environment-perceiver interaction) 5. Affordances (environmental opportunities for action) Theories and Models 1. Gestalt Theory: Emphasizes organization and global processing. 2. Feature Integration Theory (A. Treisman): Combines bottom-up and top-down processing. 3. Two-Stream Hypothesis (M. Goodale & A. Milner): Separate streams for perception and action. Key Researchers Important Terms 1. Hermann von Helmholtz 1. Perception 2. Kurt Koffka 2. Sensory input 3. J.J. Gibson 3. Cognitive processing 4. Anne Treisman 4. Ecological validity 5. David Marr 5. Affordances PERSONALITY Personality is the unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that characterizes an individual. It is shaped by genetic, environmental, social, and cultural factors. Understanding personality helps in predicting behavior and understanding individual differences. Perspective Theories and Main Points Founder Classical Unconscious mind, structure of personality (Id, ego, superego), Psycho sexual Psychoanalysis stages (oral,anal,phallic,latency), Defensive mechanisms - Freud Neo Analytic Carl Jung Collective consciousness, Archetypes(self,shadow,anima/animus, hero) Individuation, Personality types, synchronicity,personalitytypes (introverts, extroverts) Alfred Alder Inferiority complex, Lifestyle, creative self, community feeling, Holistic approach Karen Horney Feminine Psychology, psychological defense mechanism (towards people, against Psycho people, away from people), idealized self Dynamic Enrich Formm Escape from freedom(authoritarianism, destructiveness,conformity), freedom and alienation, character orientation Harry Stack Interpersonal theory, self esteem Sullivan  Erick Erickson Psychosocial stages of development (trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame/doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair) Margert Mahler Separation –individuation (autistic,symbiotic,sepr-indivtn), contribution to object relations theory John Bowlby Attachment theory (attachment styles- secure, anxious, avoidant) Dollard and Learning theory – learning is influenced by the interaction with envtl factors Miller Drive theory – learning and behavior is influenced by biological needs and reduction of the tension of the needs Social learning Theory – behavior is developed by the interaction with social contexts and consequences received. B F Skinner Operant conditioning – Reinforcement = Positive(adding a reward) and Negative (behavior is modified Behavioral or reinforced by removing an unpleasant) Perspective Punishment – consequences received after unwanted behavior Positive (giving averse stimulus –eg traffic rule violations) Negative (removing an unpleasant stimulus for unwanted behavior. Eg stopping videogames for late coming ) Schedules of reinforcement – Fixed ratio schedule(reward after fixed nos), variable ratio schedule(reinfmnt after variable number), Fixed ratio interval(after fixed time period), variable ratio interval (after variable time period) Alfred Bandura Social cognitive Learning Theory – Observation, motivation and modelling influence learning Self-efficacy- one’s ability to achieve goals Process involved in OL – Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation Reciprocal Determinism – behavior is influenced by interactions with envt personal factors and self, indi is shaped by envt and vice versa Observational learning – learning through observing actions of others and consequences received Trait Golden Allport Trait Theory – identifying and measuring personality traits Perspective Cardinal – rare and dominant trait shapes behavior Central – General characteristics form core of behavior Secondary – situational traits Raymond 16 personality factor model, surface (observable behavior) and source Cattell personality(deeper and represent underlying factors of personality) Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Cognitive Kert Lewin Field Theory -B=f(P,E), Life space – total psychological envt of individual and social cognitive George Kelly Personal Construct Theory – Individual develop a construct or mental perspective framework to interpret the world on past experiences, Role of anticipation- future behavior is anticipated by the past outcome Julian Rotter Locus of Control – External and Internal locus of control Alfred Bandura Social cognitive learning theory-Reciprocal determinism-observational learning Humanistic Carl Rogers Self-actualization, Client centered therapy, Conditions of worth Existential Victor Frankl Logo therapy- focus on finding meaning in life , Existential Vaccum- feeling of a approach meaningless life Roll May Existential Psychology – focus on individual existence, their freedom and choice and their life meaning, Anxiety Abraham Hierarchy of Needs- individuals satisfy lower level needs before satisfying higher Maslow needs., Self-actualization Eastern Yoga, Bhagavat Gita, Buddhism, Jainism, Sufism, Taoism  Elaborated notes 1. Psychodynamic Perspective The psychodynamic perspective of personality emphasizes unconscious thoughts, feelings, and experiences as shaping behavior and personality. Main Assumptions: 1. Unconscious motivations influence behavior. 2. Childhood experiences shape personality. 3. Conflict between conscious and unconscious forces. 4. Defense mechanisms protect against anxiety. A. Classical Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud - centers on the idea that human behavior is influenced by unconscious motives and conflicts.  Unconscious Mind: Freud posited that the unconscious holds repressed memories, desires, and experiences that shape behavior and personality without conscious awareness.  Structure of Personality Id, Ego, Superego: Id The Id is the most primitive part of the personality and operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic drives and desires (e.g., hunger, thirst, sex).  It is entirely unconscious and is present from birth. Characteristics:  Impulsive, instinctual, and unorganized.  Does not consider reality or social norms.  Driven by basic urges and needs. Example:  A hungry infant crying for food represents the Id's demands. The infant has no awareness of social norms and simply seeks to satisfy its hunger immediately.  An adult might experience an intense craving for dessert and, despite knowing they should stick to a healthy diet, decides to indulge anyway, acting on impulse. 2. Ego Description:  The Ego develops from the Id and operates on the reality principle. It mediates between the unrealistic demands of the Id and the external world.  The Ego is responsible for planning, decision-making, and realistic thinking. Characteristics:  Functions in both conscious and unconscious levels.  It seeks to fulfill the Id's desires in a socially acceptable manner.  Balances the demands of the Id, Superego, and reality. Example:  A person might experience the Id's desire for immediate pleasure (e.g., wanting to buy an expensive gadget) but the Ego recognizes they need to pay rent first. The Ego may compromise by suggesting saving for a few months before making the purchase.  In a heated discussion, the Ego might manage feelings of anger from the Id, allowing the individual to calmly express their opinion instead of shouting. 3. Superego Description:  The Superego represents the internalized moral standards and ideals acquired from parents and society. It develops around the age of 3 to 5 during the phallic stage of psychosexual development.  It operates on the morality principle, striving for perfection and ethical behavior. Characteristics:  Contains two parts: the conscience (which punishes through feelings of guilt) and the ideal self (which represents aspirations and standards).  It seeks to control the Id’s impulses, particularly those that society forbids. Example:  If someone feels guilty after lying to a friend, that guilt represents the action of the Superego, which imposes moral standards.  A person may resist the temptation to cheat on a test because the Superego instills a sense of duty and integrity, valuing honesty over immediate gratification. Interaction of Id, Ego, and Superego The interplay between these three components shapes behavior and personality:  Conflict: The Id’s desire for immediate pleasure can clash with the Superego’s moral standards, leading to internal conflict. The Ego must navigate this conflict, finding a balance that satisfies both the Id and the Superego while remaining realistic about what is achievable in the external world.  Example of Conflict: A student may feel an intense desire (Id) to skip studying for a crucial exam and go out with friends. However, their Superego tells them that they should study and be responsible. The Ego mediates this by suggesting a compromise: studying for a set time before going out. Summary  Id: Primitive, instinctual part that seeks immediate gratification (pleasure principle).  Ego: Rational mediator that balances the demands of the Id and Superego (reality principle).  Superego: Moral conscience that imposes ethical standards and ideals (morality principle)  Psychosexual Stages: o Oral Stage: (0-1 year) Pleasure centers on the mouth; fixation can lead to dependence issues. o Anal Stage: (1-3 years) Focus on bowel control; fixation can lead to anal-retentive or anal- expulsive personality. o Phallic Stage: (3-6 years) Oedipus/Electra complex arises; children identify with same-sex parent. o Latency Stage: (6-puberty) Sexual feelings are repressed, focusing on social skills and friendships. o Genital Stage: (puberty onward) mature sexual intimacy develops.  Defense Mechanisms: 1. Repression:-Unconsciously pushing unwanted memories or thoughts out of awareness. o Example: A person who has experienced a traumatic car accident might have no recollection of the event, even though it impacts their driving anxiety. 2. Regression:-Reverting to behaviors characteristic of an earlier developmental stage in response to stress. o Example: An adult might start sucking their thumb or throwing temper tantrums when they experience a significant life change, such as a divorce. 3. Rationalization:-Creating logical explanations for behaviors or feelings that are actually driven by emotional responses.  o Example: A student who fails a test might say the exam was unfair rather than acknowledging they didn’t study adequately. 4. Reaction Formation:-Expressing the opposite of one’s actual feelings to conceal unacceptable impulses. o Example: A person who is angry with a friend might behave overly friendly and accommodating instead. 5. Sublimation:-Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities. o Example: Someone with aggressive tendencies might take up boxing or join a competitive sports team. 6. Projection:-Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others. o Example: A person who is cheating on their partner might accuse their partner of infidelity. 7. Denial:-Refusing to accept reality or facts to avoid confronting uncomfortable truths. o Example: An individual might deny having a problem with alcohol despite frequent binge drinking and negative consequences. 8. Displacement:-Shifting emotional responses from a threatening object to a safer target. o Example: An employee frustrated by a critical boss might go home and yell at their spouse instead. 9. Intellectualization:-Focusing on the intellectual aspects of a situation while ignoring emotional responses. o Example: A person diagnosed with a serious illness might focus on researching treatment options while avoiding feelings of fear or sadness about the diagnosis. 10. Identification:-Adopting the traits or behaviors of someone else to cope with feelings of insecurity or inferiority. o Example: A young child who feels inadequate at school might start mimicking a popular classmate’s style and behaviors. Additional Mechanisms: 11. Compensation:-Overachieving in one area to offset perceived deficiencies in another. o Example: A person who feels insecure about their intelligence might focus heavily on physical fitness and become an athlete. 12. Fantasy:-Escaping reality by indulging in imaginary scenarios to fulfill unmet needs. o Example: A person dissatisfied with their job might frequently daydream about being a successful entrepreneur instead Neoanalytic Theories 1. CARL JUNG: Carl Jung's neoanalytic theory, often referred to as Analytical Psychology, expands on Freud's ideas while introducing several key concepts that focus on the collective unconscious, archetypes, and personality development. Here’s an overview of the main components: 1. The Collective Unconscious  Depth and Function: The collective unconscious is not just a repository of archetypes but also serves as a bridge to shared human experiences. Jung believed it is the source of creativity, myths, and cultural narratives. It contains the wisdom accumulated through generations.  Cultural Expression: Jung asserted that cultural phenomena, such as art, religion, and folklore, are manifestations of the collective unconscious. For instance, the prevalence of creation myths across cultures suggests common psychological themes that resonate universally. 2. Archetypes   Archetypes are the fundamental, universal symbols or patterns that reside in the collective unconscious. They manifest in dreams, myths, and art, influencing individual behavior and culture. Key Archetypes:  The Self: Represents the integration of the conscious and unconscious parts of the psyche.  The Shadow: Represents the repressed, darker aspects of oneself that one does not want to acknowledge.  The Anima/Animus: The feminine aspects of a man's psyche (Anima) and the masculine aspects of a woman's psyche (Animus).  The Hero: Represents the quest for self-discovery and overcoming challenges. Example:  In literature and film, the hero’s journey often reflects the archetype of the Hero, portraying the struggle against adversity and the quest for self-discovery 3. Individuation- Individuation is the process of integrating the various parts of the psyche (including the conscious, unconscious, and the archetypes) to achieve a harmonious and whole self. Jung believed that this process is essential for personal development.  Process and Stages: Individuation is an ongoing process, often requiring the integration of various parts of the psyche. It typically involves: o Confronting the Shadow: Recognizing and accepting the repressed aspects of oneself, leading to greater authenticity. o Embracing the Anima/Animus: Acknowledging and integrating one's opposite gender aspects can enhance relationships and self-understanding. o Realization of the Self: The culmination of individuation, where one achieves balance and harmony between different aspects of the psyche.  Personal Growth: The process of individuation is often viewed as a spiritual journey that enhances self-awareness and personal fulfillment. It encourages individuals to live authentically, aligned with their true self. 4. Personality Types  Introversion vs. Extraversion: o Introverts often recharge by spending time alone and may be more reflective and thoughtful. o Extraverts gain energy from social interactions and tend to be more action-oriented.  Cognitive Functions: Each personality type is characterized by a dominant function (Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, and Intuition) and an auxiliary function. This framework helps individuals understand their decision-making styles and how they relate to the world.  Application in MBTI: Jung's theory laid the groundwork for the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, widely used in personal development, career counseling, and organizational psychology. Understanding one's type can facilitate better communication and collaboration in group settings. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was developed by Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs. They based the MBTI on Carl Jung's theories of psychological types, aiming to create a tool that helps people understand their own personalities and the personalities of others. The MBTI categorizes individuals into 16  distinct personality types based on preferences in four pairs of opposing traits: Introversion/Extraversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving. 5. Dream Analysis  Symbolism: Jung emphasized that dreams use symbols that reflect the dreamer's personal and collective unconscious. Analyzing these symbols can reveal deeper meanings and insights into one's life and psyche.  Active Imagination: Jung developed a technique called "active imagination," where individuals engage with dream images and symbols to explore their meanings. This process can facilitate personal insight and emotional healing.  Dreams as Guides: Jung believed that dreams often provide guidance for the individual's life path, helping them navigate challenges and integrate different aspects of their personality. 6. Synchronicity  Concept: Jung introduced the idea of synchronicity, which refers to meaningful coincidences that occur with no apparent causal relationship but seem to be related by meaning.  Implications: Jung viewed synchronicity as evidence of the interconnectedness of the psyche and the universe, suggesting that these coincidences can provide insights into personal struggles and decisions. 7. Psychological Types and Therapy  Therapeutic Approach: Jung’s therapeutic methods often involved exploring the unconscious through dream analysis, art, and personal myth-making. He encouraged patients to express their inner world creatively.  Transference and Countertransference (was first observed by Freud): Jung recognized the importance of the therapist-patient relationship, emphasizing that understanding these dynamics could facilitate healing and insight. 8. Cultural and Spiritual Dimensions  Spirituality: Jung integrated spirituality into his understanding of psychology, recognizing that the search for meaning is a fundamental aspect of human existence. He believed that psychological growth often parallels spiritual development.  Cultural Archetypes: Jung emphasized the importance of cultural context in understanding individual behavior, arguing that each culture has its own set of archetypes that shape its values and narratives. Summary Carl Jung's neoanalytic theory offers a rich and nuanced understanding of the human psyche, emphasizing the interplay between personal experiences and universal themes. His concepts of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and individuation provide valuable frameworks for exploring personal identity, growth, and the deeper meanings behind human behavior. Jung's work continues to influence psychology, psychotherapy, art, and literature, inviting individuals to explore their inner worlds and connect with shared human experiences o. 2. Alfred Adler:  o Inferiority Complex: The feeling of inferiority arises from childhood experiences and motivates individuals to strive for success. o Social Interest: A key measure of mental health, indicating an individual’s sense of belonging and contribution to society. o Lifestyle: Unique ways individuals pursue their goals and navigate life challenges, developed early in childhood. o Creative self- which refers to an individual's ability to shape their own identity and destiny. The creative self plays a crucial role in personal growth and the development of a sense of purpose o Holistic Approach- This approach promotes a comprehensive view of psychological health, considering social factors, family dynamics, and personal goals. o Community feeling - Cultivating social interest and community feeling contributes to mental health and personal fulfillment. 3. Karen Horney: o Basic Anxiety: Arises from a child’s sense of helplessness; leads to neurotic needs (e.g., the need for affection or power). o Feminine Psychology: Critiques Freudian theory regarding women; emphasizes cultural and social factors affecting personality development. o Neurosis: Viewed as a maladaptive attempt to deal with anxiety and insecurity. o Idealized self – introduced the concept. Which refers to the unrealistic self-image that an individual want to attain o Psychological Defense mechanisms- 1. Moving towards people – seeking approval and affection to remove anxiety, 2. Moving against people – adapting aggressive behavior to counter react with vulnerability, 3. Moving away from people – withdrawing social interactions and connections to cope with anxiety 4. Erich Fromm: o Freedom and Alienation: Explores the paradox of modern freedom leading to feelings of isolation. o Human Needs: Differentiates between basic needs (like love and belonging) and the need for freedom, creativity, and transcendence. o Character Orientation - ways individuals relate to the world. He identified several orientations, including: 1. Receptive: Seeking to receive from others (e.g., dependent personalities). 2. Exploitative: Taking advantage of others to achieve goals. 3. Hoarding: Holding onto things and resisting change. 4. Marketing: Viewing oneself as a commodity and adapting to external demands. 5. Productive: Engaging in creative and meaningful work, fostering healthy relationships. o The Concept of Escape from the Freedom -  Authoritarianism: Some individuals may seek to submit to authority figures or ideologies to regain a sense of security.  Destructiveness: Others may resort to violence or destructive behaviors as a means of coping with their feelings of powerlessness.  Conformity: Many may choose to conform to societal norms and expectations to avoid the burden of choice and individuality. 5. Harry Stack Sullivan: o Interpersonal Theory: Emphasizes the role of interpersonal relationships in shaping personality; personality is defined through social interactions. o Self-System: Formed through social experiences; includes the perception of oneself in relation to others. 6. Erik Erikson: o Psychosocial Development: Proposes eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific crisis that must be resolved (e.g., Trust vs. Mistrust in infancy). Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development: Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1.5 years) Key Issues: Positive Outcome: Negative Outcome + Feeding and nurturing + Trust, faith, and hope +Mistrust, anxiety, and withdrawal + Responsiveness to needs + Sense of security and safety +Difficulty forming relationships + Consistency and predictability + Healthy attachment + Fear of abandonment Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood, 1.5-3 years) Key Issues: Positive Outcome: Negative Outcome + Toilet training +Autonomy, self-confidence, + Shame, doubt, and self-doubt + Exploration and boundaries and willpower + Fear of failure +Self-control and decision- + Sense of independence + Overdependence on others making + Healthy self-esteem Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood, 3-6 years) Key Issues: Positive Outcome: Negative Outcome + Play and exploration + Initiative, purpose, and direction + Guilt, anxiety, and inhibition +Social interaction and cooperation + Sense of responsibility + Fear of taking risks +Responsibility and accountability + Healthy assertiveness + Overly self-critical Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle Childhood, 6-12 years) Key Issues: Positive Outcome: Negative Outcome + Schooling and learning + Industry, competence, and + Inferiority, self-doubt, and + Social comparison and self-esteem inadequacy competition + Sense of accomplishment + Fear of failure + Skill development and mastery + Healthy confidence + Low self-esteem Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 years) Key Issues: Positive Outcome: Negative Outcome + Peer relationships and social + Identity, self-awareness, + Role confusion, identity diffusion, identity and direction and disorientation + Exploring values and beliefs + Sense of purpose + Uncertainty about future + Career and life goals + Healthy self-concept + Difficulty committing to relationships Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18-40 years) Key Issues: Positive Outcome: Negative Outcome + Romantic relationships and + Intimacy, commitment, + Isolation, loneliness, and partnerships and love disconnection + Friendships and social connections + Sense of belonging + Fear of intimacy  + Emotional intimacy and vulnerability + Healthy relationships + Difficulty forming meaningful relationships Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years) Key Issues: Positive Outcome: Negative Outcome + Career and professional growth + Generativity, productivity, + Stagnation, boredom, and + Family and parenting and contribution disengagement + Community involvement and + Sense of purpose + Feelings of emptiness social responsibility + Healthy self-esteem + Lack of fulfillment Sustainabilty Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years) Key Issues: Positive Outcome: Negative Outcome + Life review and reflection + Integrity, wisdom, and + Despair, regret, and bitterness + Legacy and impact acceptance + Fear of death + Acceptance and closure + Sense of completion + Difficulty letting go + Healthy self-acceptance 1. Margaret Mahler: o Separation-Individuation: A developmental process where children become independent from their primary caregiver. o Phases:  Normal Autistic Phase (0-1 month): Baby is focused on itself.  Normal Symbiotic Phase (1-5 months): Awareness of caregiver as part of self.  Separation-Individuation Phase (5-36 months): Exploration and development of self-identity. 2. John Bowlby: o Attachment Theory: Attachment is critical for survival; secure attachment leads to healthy relationships in adulthood. o Attachment Styles:  Secure: Healthy attachment; trusting relationships.  Anxious: High anxiety in relationships; fear of abandonment.  Avoidant: Difficulty with intimacy; emotional distance. 2. Behavioral Perspective 1. Dollard & Miller: o Learning Theory: Behavior is learned through interaction with the environment; emphasizes reinforcement and modeling. o Drive Theory: Suggests that behavior is driven by biological needs and the reduction of tension from those needs. o Social Learning theories - learning occurs in the social contexts where the individual observers others consequences. Social influences play significat role in personality and behavior 2. B.F. Skinner: o Operant Conditioning: The process by which behaviors are influenced by consequences; reinforcement increases behavior, while punishment decreases it. o Reinforcement – any consequences that increase the probalilty of repeating a behavior  1. Positive Reinforcement – providing a reward stimulus after getting a desired behavior eg- giving prasing or chocolate to a child after compeleting homework 2. Negative Reinforcement – occurs when a behavior is followed by removing an unpleasant stimulus or condition. Eg- student is study hard for not failing the exam, here the unpleasant situation is the stress or anxiety the child have. So removing the stress make child to get relax and perform well in exam o Punishment – is decrease the likelihood of behavior not being repeated. Used to remove or reduce unwanted behavior 1. Positive punishment – involves providing averse stimulus followed by an unwanted behavior. Eg – if a child misbehaves get spanking (beating with hand) 2. Negative punishment – removing pleasant stimulus from one after an unwanted behavior. Eg – banned watching films for a teenager under curfew o Schedules of Reinforcement:  Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (e.g., getting a reward after every five responses).  Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses (e.g., slot machines, which pay out after a random number of plays).  Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a fixed period of time (e.g., receiving a paycheck every two weeks). Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after varying intervals of time (e.g., checking for email rewards randomly) Ratio = fixed numbers, Interval = fixed time 3 Albert Bandura: observational learning (OL) o Social Learning Theory: Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling; emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes. o Self-Efficacy: Confidence in one’s ability to achieve goals; influences motivation, effort, and persistence. o Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation:- process involved in OL  Attention: The learner must pay attention to the model.  Retention: The learner must be able to remember the behavior observed.  Reproduction: The learner must be capable of reproducing the behavior.  Motivation: The learner must have a reason to imitate the behavior, often influenced by rewards or punishments o Reciprocal Determinism – behavior is influenced by interaction of personal factors, environment and behavior of self o Bobo Doll experiment - highlighted the power of observational learning and models 3. Trait Perspective 1. Gordon Allport: o Trait Theory: Focuses on identifying and measuring individual personality traits. o Types of Traits:  Cardinal Traits: Rare, dominant traits that shape a person’s behavior.  Central Traits: General characteristics that form the core of an individual’s  personality.  Secondary Traits: More situational traits that appear in specific contexts. 2. Raymond Cattell: o 16 Personality Factor Model: Identified 16 key traits through factor analysis; these traits can predict behavior across different situations. o Surface vs. Source Traits: Surface traits are observable behaviors; source traits are deeper and represent the underlying factors of personality. o Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence: Fluid Intelligence: The ability to solve new problems, think abstractly, and adapt to novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge. Crystallized Intelligence: The ability to use learned knowledge and experience, which tends to improve with age. 4. Cognitive and Social-Cognitive Perspective 1. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory: o B = f(P, E): Behavior is a function of the person and their environment; both personal characteristics and situational factors are critical in understanding behavior. o Life Space: The total psychological environment of an individual, including personal experiences and relationships. 2. George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory: o Cognitive Filters: Individuals develop personal constructs (mental frameworks) to interpret the world based on past experiences. o Role of Anticipation: Future behavior is influenced by anticipated outcomes based on past experiences. 3. Julian Rotter’s Locus of Control: o Internal Locus of Control: Belief that one has control over their life outcomes. o External Locus of Control: Belief that outcomes are determined by external forces, such as fate or luck. 4. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory: o Reciprocal Determinism: Interplay between personal factors, behaviors, and environmental influences; individuals shape their environments and vice versa. o Observational Learning: Learning that occurs through observing the actions of others and the consequences of those actions. 5. Humanistic-Existential Perspective 1. Carl Rogers: o Self-Actualization: The realization of one’s potential and capabilities; involves pursuing personal growth. o Conditions of Worth: The expectations and judgments imposed by others that can hinder self-actualization. o Client-Centered Therapy: Emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness in therapeutic relationships. 2. Rollo May: o Existential Psychology: Focuses on individual existence, freedom, and choice; emphasizes finding meaning in life experiences. o Anxiety: A natural part of existence; arises from the confrontation with freedom and the responsibilities it entails. 3. Victor Frankl:  oLogotherapy: A therapeutic approach focusing on finding meaning in life, even amid suffering; emphasizes that meaning can be found in any situation. o Existential Vacuum: A feeling of emptiness and lack of meaning in life, often leading to existential crises. 4. Abraham Maslow: o Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory proposing that individuals must satisfy lower- level needs (physiological, safety) before addressing higher-level needs (love, esteem, self- actualization). o Self-Actualization: The peak of the hierarchy, characterized by creativity, spontaneity, and acceptance of oneself and others. 6. Eastern Perspective  Yoga: o A spiritual and physical practice that emphasizes the integration of body, mind, and spirit through physical postures, breath control, and meditation. o Promotes self-awareness, mindfulness, and inner peace.  The Bhagavad Gita: o An ancient Indian text that presents philosophical and ethical dilemmas through the dialogue between Prince Arjuna and Krishna. o Discusses duty (dharma), righteousness, and the path to self-realization through action (karma yoga).  Sufism: o The mystical branch of Islam that emphasizes the inward search for God and the personal experience of the divine through practices like meditation and poetry. o Focuses on love, devotion, and the cultivation of a personal relationship with God.  Buddhism: o Centers on the Four Noble Truths: the existence of suffering, the cause of suffering (attachment), the cessation of suffering, and the path to liberation (the Eightfold Path).  The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Life is inherently filled with suffering, dissatisfaction, and impermanence. This includes not just physical pain but also emotional and existential struggles.  The Truth of the Cause of Suffering (Samudaya): The origin of suffering is attachment, desire, and craving. This can be a longing for sensory pleasures, material possessions, or even the desire for existence itself.  The Truth of the End of Suffering (Nirodha): It is possible to end suffering by overcoming attachment and desire. This state is known as Nirvana, which represents liberation and enlightenment.  The Truth of the Path to the End of Suffering (Magga): The way to achieve the cessation of suffering is through the Eightfold Path, which includes practices in ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom. o Emphasizes mindfulness, compassion, and the importance of understanding the nature of reality.  Jainism: o A religion that emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), and asceticism to achieve spiritual purity and liberation. o Advocates for compassion towards all living beings and the pursuit of self-discipline.  Taoism:  o A philosophical and religious tradition from China that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (the Way). o Advocates simplicity, humility, and the natural flow of life, emphasizing the importance of balance. NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of conditions that typically manifest during early development, often before the child enters grade school, and result in developmental deficits that produce impairments of personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning. 1. Intellectual Disabilities (ID)  Definition: Significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, affecting everyday social and practical skills.  Criteria: Typically diagnosed based on an IQ score below 70 and deficits in adaptive functioning.  Mild ID:  IQ 50-70.  May learn academic skills up to a sixth-grade level.  Can often live independently with minimal support.  Moderate ID:  IQ 35-49.  Can learn basic self-care and communication skills.  May require ongoing support in daily living.  Severe ID:  IQ 20-34.  May have limited speech and need significant assistance with daily activities.  Profound ID:  IQ below 20.  Often associated with other physical disabilities.  Requires extensive support for all aspects of daily living  Causes: Genetic factors (e.g., Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome), environmental influences (e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome), and complications during pregnancy or birth.  Severity Levels: Mild, moderate, severe, and profound, based on the level of support needed. 2. Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD)  Definition: A category of disorders characterized by delays in socialization and communication skills. Often seen as broad developmental issues. They will face Difficulties in Social Interactions, Communications and also shows repetitive behavior and restricted interests  Includes: o Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Encompasses a range of symptoms from mild to severe, focusing on social communication challenges and repetitive behaviors.  o Asperger’s Disorder: Previously considered a separate diagnosis; individuals have average or above-average intelligence with social difficulties. o Childhood Disintegrative Disorder: Rare condition involving regression in multiple areas after a period of normal development. o Rett Syndrome: A genetic disorder predominantly affecting females, characterized by loss of purposeful hand skills and speech. 3. Communication Disorders  Definition: Disorders that involve difficulties in speech and language development.  Types: 1. Language Disorders -Difficulties with understanding or using spoken or written language. o Expressive Language Disorder: Trouble expressing thoughts, ideas, or feelings. A child may have a limited vocabulary or difficulty constructing sentences. o Receptive Language Disorder: Difficulty understanding language, such as following directions or comprehending stories. 2. Speech Sound Disorder - Problems with the production of speech sounds that make speech difficult to understand. o Articulation Disorders: Errors in producing sounds (e.g., saying “wabbit” instead of “rabbit”). o Phonological Disorders: Patterns of sound errors (e.g., substituting “t” for “k” and saying “tar” instead of “car”). 3. Fluency Disorders -Disruptions in the flow of speech, often characterized by repetitions, prolongations, or blocks. o Stuttering: Involuntary repetitions of sounds or syllables (e.g., “I w-w-want to go”). o Cluttering: Rapid, disorganized speech that may be difficult to understand. 4. Voice Disorders -Abnormalities in pitch, volume, or quality of the voice that distract from communication. o Dysphonia: Difficulty producing vocal sounds due to issues with the vocal cords (e.g., hoarseness or breathiness). o Aphonia: Complete loss of voice. 5. Social Communication Disorder (Pragmatic Communication Disorder)- Difficulty with the social aspects of communication, including understanding and using verbal and non- verbal communication in social contexts.  Difficulty taking turns in conversation or understanding jokes and idioms.  Problems adjusting language based on the audience or context (e.g., speaking differently with friends versus adults). 4. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)  Definition: A range of complex neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, and communication.  Symptoms: according to DSM -5 (Diagnostic and statistical manual of MH disorder)  Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity (e.g., failure to initiate or respond to social interactions).  Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction (e.g., abnormalities in eye contact and body language). Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships (e.g., difficulty in making friends).  Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least two of the following: Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech. Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns of verbal or nonverbal behavior. Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus. Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual interest in sensory aspects of the environment.  Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period but may not become fully manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities.  Symptoms cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.  Diagnosis: Based on behavioral observations and standardized assessments; symptoms must be present from early childhood. 5. Specific Learning Disorders  Definition: Disorders that affect the ability to learn and use academic skills, impacting reading, writing, and mathematics.  Types: o Dyslexia: Difficulty with reading and decoding written language. o Dysgraphia: Difficulty with writing and fine motor skills. o Dyscalculia: Difficulty with mathematical concepts and calculations.  Diagnosis: Typically involves standardized testing to assess academic performance relative to age and intellectual ability. 6. Behavioral and Emotional Disorders with Onset in Childhood and Adolescence  Definition: Disorders characterized by significant behavioral or emotional difficulties that interfere with functioning.  Examples: o Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Involves inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. o Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): Pattern of angry, irritable mood, argumentative behavior, and defiance. o Conduct Disorder: More severe than ODD, involving violations of societal norms and rights of others. o Anxiety Disorders: Excessive anxiety that disrupts daily functioning.  Major Mental Disorders 1. Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders Schizophrenia  Definition: A chronic and severe mental disorder characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotions, language, and sense of self.  Symptoms: o Positive Symptoms: Hallucinations (often auditory), delusions (false beliefs), disorganized thinking, and speech. o Negative Symptoms: Affective flattening, anhedonia (lack of pleasure), avolition (lack of motivation), and social withdrawal. o Cognitive Symptoms: Impaired memory, attention deficits, and issues with executive functioning.  Diagnosis: Symptoms must persist for at least six months, including at least one month of active-phase symptoms (hallucinations, delusions).  Causes: Combination of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental factors.  Treatment: Antipsychotic medications, psychotherapy (cognitive behavioral therapy), and psychosocial interventions. Schizotypal Personality Disorder  Definition: A personality disorder characterized by pervasive social and interpersonal deficits, along with eccentric behavior and cognitive distortions.  Symptoms: o Odd beliefs or magical thinking. o Unusual perceptual experiences. o Paranoid ideation. o Inappropriate or constricted affect.  Diagnosis: Symptoms must be present in various contexts and lead to functional impairment. Delusional Disorder  Definition: Characterized by the presence of one or more delusions that persist for at least one month.  Types: o Erotomanic: Belief that another person is in love with the individual. o Grandiose: Belief in having exceptional abilities or fame. o Jealous: Belief that a partner is unfaithful. o Persecutory: Belief that one is being targeted or harassed.  Symptoms: Functioning is not markedly impaired outside of the delusion. Other Non-Psychotic Disorders  Brief Psychotic Disorder: Sudden onset of psychotic symptoms (delusions, hallucinations) lasting more than a day but less than a month, often triggered by stress.  Substance/Medication-Induced Psychotic Disorder: Psychotic symptoms resulting from substance use or withdrawal.  Psychotic Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition: Symptoms due to a medical condition (e.g., brain injury, infection). 2. Affective Disorders Bipolar Disorder  Definition: A mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of mania (or hypomania) and depression.  Types: o Bipolar I Disorder: At least one manic episode, which may be preceded or followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes. o Bipolar II Disorder: At least one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode, but no full manic episodes. o Cyclothymic Disorder: Numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms and periods of depressive symptoms lasting for at least two years.   Symptoms: o Manic Episode: Elevated mood, increased energy, grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, talkativeness, distractibility, and involvement in high-risk activities. o Depressive Episode: Persistent sadness, loss of interest, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, and suicidal thoughts.  Diagnosis: Based on clinical assessment and history of mood episodes. Depressive Disorders  Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): o Definition: A mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest or pleasure in activities. o Symptoms: Depressed mood, anhedonia, changes in appetite, sleep disturbances, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, difficulty concentrating, and suicidal thoughts. o Diagnosis: At least five symptoms must be present for a minimum of two weeks.  Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia): o Definition: A chronic form of depression lasting for at least two years (one year in children and adolescents). o Symptoms: Similar to MDD but generally less severe and more chronic.  Other Depressive Disorders: o Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): Depression that occurs at a specific time of year, usually in winter. o Postpartum Depression: Major depressive episode that occurs after childbirth. Treatment Approaches 1. Pharmacological Treatments: o Antipsychotics: Used primarily for schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. o Mood Stabilizers: Commonly used in bipolar disorder to manage mood swings. o Antidepressants: Often prescribed for depressive disorders. 2. Psychotherapy: o Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Effective for both affective disorders and psychotic disorders, helping patients manage symptoms and improve functioning. o Family Therapy: Involves family members in treatment to enhance support and communication. o Psychoeducation: Educating patients and families about the disorders to improve understanding and treatment adherence. 3. Psychosocial Interventions: o Social skills training, vocational rehabilitation, and support groups can enhance coping strategies and improve social functioning. PERSONALITY DISORDERS are a group of mental health conditions characterized by enduring patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience that differ significantly from cultural expectations. These patterns are pervasive, inflexible, and can lead to distress or impairment in personal, social, and occupational functioning. Types of Personality Disorders (DSM-5) Personality disorders are classified into three clusters: Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Disorders 1. Paranoid Personality Disorder: o Distrust and suspicion of others. o Interpretations of benign remarks as threatening. 2. Schizoid Personality Disorder: o Detachment from social relationships. o Limited range of emotional expression. 3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder: o Discomfort in close relationships.  o Cognitive or perceptual distortions (e.g., magical thinking). Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Disorders 1. Antisocial Personality Disorder: o Disregard for the rights of others. o Deceitfulness, impulsivity, and lack of remorse. 2. Borderline Personality Disorder: o Instability in relationships, self-image, and emotions. o Impulsive behavior and emotional dysregulation. 3. Histrionic Personality Disorder: o Excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior. o Often dramatic and theatrical in expression. 4. Narcissistic Personality Disorder: o Grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy. o Preoccupation with fantasies of success or power. Cluster C: Anxious or Fearful Disorders 1. Avoidant Personality Disorder: o Social inhibition and feelings of inadequacy. o Hypersensitivity to negative evaluation. 2. Dependent Personality Disorder: o Excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behaviors. o Difficulty making decisions without excessive reassurance. 3. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder: o Preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control. o Rigidity in relationships and tasks. Sexual Dysfunctions Sexual dysfunctions refer to a variety of problems that can affect sexual desire, arousal, or response. They can occur in both men and women and are often categorized into the following types: 1. Desire Disorders: o Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: A lack of sexual desire or interest in sexual activity. o Sexual Aversion Disorder: Intense aversion to sexual contact, often accompanied by anxiety or disgust. 2. Arousal Disorders: o Female Sexual Arousal Disorder: Difficulty in becoming sexually aroused or maintaining arousal during sexual activity. o Erectile Dysfunction: Inability to achieve or maintain an erection sufficient for sexual intercourse in men. 3. Orgasm Disorders: o Female Orgasmic Disorder: Difficulty experiencing orgasm after adequate sexual stimulation. o Delayed Ejaculation: A delay in ejaculation during sexual activity, causing distress. 4. Pain Disorders: o Dyspareunia: Recurrent or persistent genital pain associated with sexual intercourse. o Vaginismus: Involuntary contraction of pelvic floor muscles, leading to painful intercourse. Causes: Sexual dysfunctions can stem from various factors, including medical conditions, psychological issues (such as anxiety and depression), relationship problems, and certain medications. Treatment: Approaches may include psychotherapy (like cognitive-behavioral therapy), medication (like PDE5 inhibitors for erectile dysfunction), and lifestyle changes. Gender Dysphoria Gender dysphoria is the psychological distress that arises from an incongruence between an individual's experienced or expressed gender and their assigned gender at birth. It is characterized by: 1. Symptoms: o Persistent discomfort with one's assigned gender. o Strong desire to be treated as the opposite gender. o Significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning. 2. Diagnosis: o Diagnosis typically requires a comprehensive assessment by a mental health professional, including a history of gender identity and experiences. 3. Causes: o The exact causes of gender dysphoria are not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of biological, environmental, and cultural factors. 4. Treatment: o Treatment can include psychotherapy, hormone therapy, and gender-affirming surgeries. The goal is to alleviate distress and support the individual's gender identity. Mental and Behavioral Disorders Due to Psychoactive Substance Use Substance use can lead to various mental and behavioral disorders, classified under the category of substance use disorders (SUDs). Key points include: 1. Types of Disorders: o Substance Use Disorder: A problematic pattern of use leading to significant impairment or distress, characterized by increased tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, and unsuccessful efforts to cut down. o Substance-Induced Disorders: Includes intoxication, withdrawal, and other mental disorders (e.g., anxiety or depressive disorders) triggered by substance use. 2. Common Substances: o Alcohol o Cannabis o Opioids o Stimulants (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines) o Hallucinogens 3. Symptoms: o Impaired control over substance use. o Social impairment (e.g., failure to fulfill obligations).  oRisky use (e.g., using in hazardous situations). oPharmacological criteria (e.g., tolerance and withdrawal). 4. Treatment: o Treatment approaches include detoxification, psychotherapy (like cognitive- behavioral therapy), support groups (like Alcoholics Anonymous), and medication (such as methadone for opioid use disorder). HORMONES FOR CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND PREGNENCY Trimester Growth Stage Key Hormones Details FIRST Early Human Chorionic HCG maintains corpus luteum, TRIMESTER Development Gonadotropin (HCG) supporting early pregnancy. 1-12 WEEK Organogenesis Progesterone Progesterone helps maintain uterine 3-8 weeks lining and prevents contractions Formation of Estrogen promotes uterine growth major organs Estrogen and blood flow. and systems By the end of this trimester, the fetal 6-7 W- ultra sound heart begins to beat Heartbeat. 10-12 –Doppler device detection SECOND Rapid Growth Progesterone Continues to support pregnancy and TRIMESTER fetal growth. 13-26 WEEK Estrogen levels increase, supporting Development of Estrogen features (e.g., fetal organ development fingers, toes) Formation of Relaxin Relaxin helps the body adapt to distinct facial pregnancy and prepares for features childbirth. THIRD Final Growth Progesterone Continues to maintain pregnancy; TRIMESTER Phase prepares for labor. 27-40 WEEK Weight gain and Estrogen Estrogen supports the development fat accumulation of fetal organs and prepares the uterus for labor. Lung maturation Cortisol Cortisol aids in lung development and surfactant production. Preparation for Oxytocin Oxytocin plays a role in labor birth initiation and uterine contractions. Nutritional Needs during Pregnancy Pregnancy is a critical time for both the mother and the developing fetus, requiring specific nutritional considerations: 1. Caloric Needs   Increased Caloric Intake: o First Trimester (1-12 week): No significant increase 1,800-2,000 calories/day). o Second Trimester (13-26 week): Additional 340 calories/day.2200-2400 Cal/day o Third Trimester (27-40 week):: Additional 450 calories/day.2400-2800 Cal/day 3. Macronutrients Micronutrient Role Food Sources Essential for fetal growth and Leafy greens (spinach, kale), Folic Acid development, helps prevent neural tube legumes, fortified cereals, citrus defects. fruits, nuts. Supports increased blood volume and Red meat, poultry, fish, lentils, Iron prevents anemia; vital for fetal growth. beans, spinach, fortified cereals. Crucial for fetal bone and teeth Dairy products (milk, yogurt, Calcium development; supports maternal bone cheese), leafy greens, tofu, fortified health. plant milks. Aids calcium absorption; important for Fatty fish (salmon, mackerel), Vitamin D bone health. fortified dairy, egg yolks, sunlight. Important for thyroid function; supports Iodized salt, seafood, dairy Iodine fetal brain development. products, eggs. Necessary for red blood cell formation Animal products (meat, fish, eggs, Vitamin B12 and neurological function. dairy), fortified plant-based milks. Supports immune function and iron Citrus fruits (oranges, grapefruits), Vitamin C absorption; aids in collagen formation. strawberries, bell peppers, broccoli. Important for immune function, cell Meat, shellfish, legumes, seeds, Zinc division, and fetal growth. nuts, whole grains. Supports muscle and nerve function; Nuts, seeds, whole grains, leafy Magnesium important for fetal development. greens, legumes. Omega-3 Essential for fetal brain and eye Fatty fish (salmon, sardines), Fatty Acids development. flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts. 4. Hydration  Increased fluid intake is essential, aiming for at least 8-10 cups of water daily to support increased blood volume and amniotic fluid. 5. Foods to Avoid  Certain foods should be avoided due to the risk of foodborne illness or high mercury levels, including: o Raw or undercooked meats, eggs, and seafood. o Unpasteurized dairy products. o Certain fish high in mercury (e.g., shark, swordfish). Nutritional Needs during Lactation Lactation also has specific nutritional requirements to support milk production and maternal health: 1. Caloric Needs  Increased Caloric Intake: o Approximately 500 additional calories/day during breastfeeding, especially in the first six months. 2. Macronutrients  Proteins: o Continued need for protein (about 71 grams/day) for milk production.  Carbohydrates: o Similar recommendations (about 45-65% of total daily calories) as during pregnancy, emphasizing whole grains and fiber-rich foods.  Fats: o Healthy fats remain important, with a focus on omega-3 fatty acids for brain development in infants. 3. Micronutrients  Calcium: o Same recommendations as during pregnancy (1,000 mg/day).  Vitamin D: o Continued need for 600 IU/day.  Iron: o Needs may decrease slightly to about 9-10 mg/day for breastfeeding mothers.  Hydration: o Increased fluid intake is essential to support milk production; aim for at least 10-12 cups of water daily. 4. Dietary Considerations  A well-balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats is essential.  Avoid excessive caffeine and limit alcohol intake, as both can affect milk quality and infant health.