Treaty of Versailles With Germany PDF

2.8 THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES WITH GERMANY (a) The terms Germany had to lose territory in Europe: Alsace-Lorraine to France; Eupen, Moresnet and Malmedy to Belgium; North Schleswig to Denmark (after a plebiscite, i.e. a vote by the people); West Prussia and Posen to Poland, though Danzig (the...

2.8 THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES WITH GERMANY (a) The terms Germany had to lose territory in Europe: Alsace-Lorraine to France; Eupen, Moresnet and Malmedy to Belgium; North Schleswig to Denmark (after a plebiscite, i.e. a vote by the people); West Prussia and Posen to Poland, though Danzig (the main port of West Prussia) was to be a free city under League of Nations administration, because its population was wholly German. Memel was given to Lithuania. The area known as the Saar was to be administered by the League of Nations for 15 years, when the population would be allowed to vote on whether it should belong to France or Germany. In the meantime, France was to have the use of its coal mines. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which had been handed over to Germany by Russia by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, were taken away from Germany and set up as independent states. This was an example of self-determination being carried into practice. Union (Anschluss) between Germany and Austria was forbidden. 2 Germany's African colonies were taken away and became 'mandates' under League of Nations supervision: this meant that various member states of the League 'looked after' them. 3 German armaments were strictly limited to a maximum of 100 000 troops and no conscription (compulsory military service), no tanks, armoured cars, military aircraft or submarines, and only six battleships. The Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized. This meant that all German territory on the left bank of the Rhine, together with a SO-kilometre strip on the right bank, was to be closed to German troops and was to be occupied by Allied troops for at least ten years. 4 The War Guilt clause fixed the blame for the outbreak of the war solely on Germany and her allies and proposed that the ex-Kaiser should be put on trial for war crimes. 5 Germany was to pay reparations for damage done to the Allies; the actual amount was not decided at Versailles, but it was announced later (1921), after much argument and haggling, as £6600 million. 6 A League of Nations was formed; its aims and organization were set out in the League Covenant (see Chapter 3). The Germans had little choice but to sign the treaty, though they objected strongly. The signing ceremony took place in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, where the German Empire had been proclaimed less than 50 years earlier. (b) Why did the Germans object, and how far were their objections justified? J It was a dictated peace The Germans were not allowed into the discussions at Versailles; they were simply presented with the terms and told to sign. Although they were allowed to criticize the 34 PART I WAR AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS treaty in writing, all their criticisms were ignored except one (see Point 3 below). Some historians feel that the Germans were justified in objecting, and that it would have been reasonable to allow them to take part in the discussions. This might have led to a toningdown of some of the harsher terms. It would certainly have deprived the Germans of the argument much used by Hitler, that because the peace was a 'Diktat', it should not be morally binding. On the other hand, it is possible to argue that the Germans could scarcely have expected any better treatment after the harsh way they had dealt with the Russians at Brest-Litovsk - also a 'Diktat' (see Section 16.3(b)). 2 Many provisions were not based on the 14 Points The Germans claimed that they had been promised terms based on Wilson's 14 Points, and that many of the provisions were not based on the 14 Points, and were therefore a swindle. This is probably not a valid objection: the 14 Points had never been accepted as official by any of the states involved, and the Germans themselves had ignored them in January 1918, when there still seemed a chance of outright German victory. By November, German tactics (Brest-Litovsk, the destruction of mines, factories and public buildings during their retreat through France and Belgium) had hardened the Allied attitude and led Wilson to add two further points: Germany should pay for the damage to civilian population and property, and should be reduced to 'virtual impotence'; in other words, Germany should be disarmed. The Germans were aware of this when they accepted the armistice, and, in fact, most of the terms did comply with the 14 Points and the additions. There were also objections on specific points: 3 Loss of territory in Europe This included Alsace-Lorraine and especially West Prussia, which gave Poland access to the sea. However, both were mentioned in the 14 Points. Originally Upper Silesia, an industrial region with a mixed population of Poles and Germans, was to be given to Poland, but this was the one concession made to the German written objections: after a vote among the population, Germany was allowed to keep about two-thirds of the area. In fact most of the German losses could be justified on grounds of nationality (Map 2.5). Where the Germans did have genuine cause for protest was on the question of national self-determination. Right from the start of the peace conference the Allies had emphasized that all nationalities should have the right to choose which country they wanted to belong to. This principle had been applied in the case of non-Germans; but the settlement left around a million Germans under Polish rule, and almost three million i.n the Sudetenland controlled by the new state of Czechoslovakia. In addition, Austria was a completely German state with a population of some seven million. All these Germans wanted to become part of Germany, but the unification of Germany and Austria was specifically forbidden in the agreement, probably because that would have made Germany larger and more powerful even than in 1914. 4 Loss of Gennany's African colonies The Germans probably had good grounds for objection to the loss of their African colonies, which was hardly an 'impartial adjustment'. The mandate system allowed Britain to take over German East Africa (Tanganyika) and parts of Togoland and the Cameroons, France to take most of Togoland and the Cameroons, and South Africa to acquire German South West Africa (now known as Namibia); but this was really a device by which the Allies seized the colonies without actually admitting that they were being annexed (Map 2.6). 5 The disannament clauses were deeply resented The Germans claimed that 100 000 troops were not enough to keep law and order at a time of political unrest. Perhaps the German objection was justified to some extent, though the THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH 35 I) Narvicl< ,,... ( : \. j NORWAY ,:._ ') FINL!,t;ND SWEDEN 0 Stavanger U.S.S.R. Berl.in GERMANY Weimar Buchare.st ,.. ,"'-.. _ \ I '-... --..... -..... -..,I' Serbia \ BULGARIA :::r - \/' 0 ITALY Territory lost by Germany -Former territory of tsarist Russia ·............ Curzon Line - proposed by Britain (Dec. 1919) as Poland's eastern frontier. Russian territory east of the line wos seized by Poland in 1920 Austria-Hungary un'til1918 Map 2.5 European frontiers after the First World War and the Peace Treaties 36 PART I WAR AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS BRITISH SOMALI LAND FRENCH SOMALI LAND \ ERITREA BECHUANALAND - (British) UNION OF ---SOUTH AFRICA MADAGASCAR (French) - German colonies taken away as mandates by the = Versailles Treaty, 1919 Map 2.6 Africa and the Peace Treaties French desire for a weak Germany was understandable. The Germans became more aggrieved later, as it became clear that none of the other powers intended to disarm, even though Wilson's Point 4 mentioned 'all-round reduction of armaments'. However, disarmament of Germany was impossible to enforce fully, because the Germans were determined to exploit every loophole. 6 'The War Guilt' clause (Article 231) The Germans objected to being saddled with the entire blame for the outbreak of war. There are some grounds for objection here, because although later research seems to indicate Germany's guilt, it was hardly possible to arrive at that conclusion in the space of six weeks during 1919, which is what the Special Commission on War Responsibility did. However, the Allies wanted the Germans to admit responsibility so that they would be liable to pay reparations. THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH 37 7 Reparations Reparations were the final humiliation for the Germans. Though there could be little valid objection to the general principle of reparations, many historians now agree that the actual amount decided on was far too high at £6600 million. Some people thought so at the time, including J. M. Keynes, who was an economic adviser to the British delegation at the conference. He urged the Allies to take £2000 million, which he said was a more reasonable amount, which Germany would be able to afford. The figure of £6600 million enabled the Germans to protest that it was impossible to pay, and they soon began to default (fail to pay) on their annual instalments. This caused resentment among the Allies, who were relying on German cash to help them pay their own war debts to the USA. There was international tension when France tried to force the Germans to pay (see Sec6on 4.2(c)). Eventually the Allies admitted their mistake and reduced the amount to £2000 million (Young Plan, 1929), but not before reparations had proved disastrous, both economically and politically. The Germans clearly did have some grounds for complaint, but it is worth pointing out that the treaty could have been even more harsh. If Clemenceau had had his way, the Rhineland would have become an independent state, and France would have annexed the Saar. 2.9 THE PEACE TREATIES WITH AUSTRIA-HUNGARY When Austria was on the verge of defeat in the war, the Habsburg Empire disintegrated as the various nationalities declared themselves independent. Austria and Hungary separated and declared themselves republics. Many important decisions therefore had already been taken before the peace conference met. However, the situation was chaotic, and the task of the conference was to formalize and recognize what had taken place. (a) The Treaty of St Germain (1919), dealing with Austria By this treaty Austria lost: Bohemia and Moravia (wealthy industrial provinces with a population of 10 million) to the new state of Czechoslovakia; Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia, which, with Montenegro, now became known as Yugoslavia; Bukovina to Romania; Galicia to the reconstituted state of Poland; the South Tyrol (as far as the Brenner Pass), Trentino, !stria and Trieste to Italy. (b) The Treaty of Trianon (1920), dealing with Hungary This treaty was not signed until 1920 because of political uncertainties in Budapest (the capital); the Communists, led by Bela Kun, seized power but were later overthrown. Slovakia and Ruthenia were given to Czechoslovakia; Croatia and Slovenia to Yugoslavia; Transylvania and the Banat of Temesvar to Romania. Both treaties contained the League of Nations Covenant. 38 PART I WAR AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS These settlements may seem harsh, but it has to be remembered that much of what was agreed had already happened; on the whole they did keep to the spirit of self-determination. More people were placed under governments of their own nationality than ever before in Europe, though they were not always as democratic as Wilson would have liked (especially in Hungary and Poland). However, there were some deviations from the pattern; for example the three million Germans (in the Sudetenland) who now found themselves in Czechoslovakia, and the million Germans who were placed under Polish rule. The Allies justified this on the grounds that the new states needed them in order to be economically viable. It was unfortunate that both these cases gave Hitler an excuse to begin territorial demands on these countries. The treaties left both Austria and Hungary with serious economic problems Austria was a small republic, its population reduced from 22 million to 6.5 million; most of its industrial wealth had been lost to Czechoslovakia and Poland. Vienna, once the capital of the huge Habsburg Empire, was left high and dry, surrounded by farming land which could hardly support it. Not surprisingly, Austria was soon facing a severe economic crisis and was constantly having to be helped out by loans from the League of Nations. Hungary was just as badly affected, her population reduced from 21 million to 7.5 million, and some of her richest corn land lost to Romania. Matters were further complicated when all the new states quickly introduced tariffs (import and export duties). These hampered the flow of trade through the whole Danube area and made the industrial recovery of Austria particularly difficult. In fact there was an excellent economic case to support a union between Austria and Germany. 2.10 THE SETTLEMENT WITH TURKEY AND BULGARIA (a) The Treaty of Sevres (1920), dealing with Turkey Turkey was to lose Eastern Thrace, many Aegean islands and Smyrna to Greece; Adalia and Rhodes to Italy; the Straits (the exit from the Black Sea) were to be permanently open; Syria became a French mandate, and Palestine, Iraq and Transjordan British mandates. However, the loss of so much territory to Greece, especially Smyrna on the Turkish mainland, outraged Turkish national feeling (self-determination was being ignored in this case). Led by Mustafa Kemal, the Turks rejected the treaty and chased the Greeks out of Smyrna. The Italians and French withdrew their occupying forces from the Straits area, leaving only British troops at Chanak. Eventually a compromise was reached and the settlement was revised by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), by which Turkey regained Eastern Thrace including Constantinople, and Smyrna (Map 2.7). Turkey was therefore the first state to challenge the Paris settlement successfully. One legacy of the Treaty of Sevres which was to cause problems later was the situation in the mandates. These were peopled largely by Arabs, who had been hoping for independence as a reward after their brave struggle, led by an English officer, T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), against the Turks. Nor were the Arabs happy about the talk of establishing a Jewish 'national home' in Palestine (see Section l 1.2(a)). (b) The Treaty of Neuilly (1919), dealing with Bulgaria Bulgaria lost territory to Greece, depriving her of her Aegean coastline, and also to Yugoslavia and Romania. She could claim, with some justification, that at least a million Bulgars were under foreign governments as a result of the Treaty of Neuilly. THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH 39 PERSIA (IRAN) - c ""'-'9TI [. \ r- · -.. ·· ---- - -.,...,,. """ '·-· - me /,.Dead s_/., /....... Lost by 8ulgru,o ,n Troo fy "'... ,,. mm 11[".,_, \ l'.... \,.._ _ _ ____ / \ -C: --- - -··' - C.,,J \ ( '· ,_ S, M ) \ I """" \ D ,_ '...,,,. '""'..... :::. ,_ ,, -.. ,=vl'M (1920) )., Ii " --·· "" ' X: 11·-.... / SAUDI ARABIA D ,n TrN.ty cf L -· S,m