Comparative Politics Unit 4 PDF

# UNIT 4 - COMPARATIVE POLITICS ## Approaches To Comparative Politics - (i) Institutional Approach - Definition: It is an approach to the study of Comparative politics and government that focuses on the structure and dynamics of the working institutions. - Early Period: Origins of Inst...

# UNIT 4 - COMPARATIVE POLITICS ## Approaches To Comparative Politics - (i) Institutional Approach - Definition: It is an approach to the study of Comparative politics and government that focuses on the structure and dynamics of the working institutions. - Early Period: Origins of Institutional Approach - Aristotle: Was first who conducted the oldest comparative study of governments. - Aristotle compared Constitutions and Practices in Greek city-states vs the politics in the so-called 'Barbarian' states. - Aristotle compared total = 158 constitutions. - 19th and 20th Century: Comparative Government Approach: In the late 19th century and early 20th century - thinkers like Bryce, Lowell and Ostrogorski's works changed the scope and approach of Institutional approach. - Jean Blondel: Bryce and Lowell were the True founders of Comparative Government Approach. - Main Points: Comparative Govt. approach focused on Study of Formal Institutional structures with emphasis on their legal powers and functions. - Main Thinkers of Comparative Government Approach: - Thinker | Books - -------- | -------- - Bryce | The American Commonwealth (1888) - Lowell | Modern Democracies (1921) - Ostrogorski | Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (1896) - Herman Finer | Public Opinion and Popular Government (1913) - Carl Friedrich | Democracy and The Organisation of Political Parties (1902) - Carl Friedrich | Theory and Practice of Modern Government (1932) - Carl Friedrich | Constitutional Government and Democracy (1932) - Criticism of Institutional Approach: - It is Ethnocentric (concentrated on European democracies) - It is Prescriptive and Normative in nature - It is Historical without being analytical - (ii) Neo-institutionalism - Definition: It is a revival of institutionalism that goes beyond the limits of previous theory. - Focus on: Neo-institutionalism goes beyond the formal study of institutions and government - it focuses on how both Institutions and Individual actors shape political decisions - When and Where did Neo-institutionalism originate from? - In the 1980s from USA. - Who are the thinkers of Neo-institutional approach? - James G March and Johann P Olsen - What are the Books written by March and Olsen? - The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life (1984) - Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (1989) - Democratic Governance (1995) - How many branches of Neo-institutionalism is there? - Three Branches: - Historical Institutionalism - Sociological Institutionalism - Rational Choice Approach - (iii) Political Economy Approach - Definition: Pol Economy Approach refers to understanding our social and political phenomenon where - economics and politics are not seen as separate domains. - Focus on: The way to Political 'Development' is the key common problem. This approach looks at how economic forces combine with polity - and how this creates a hierarchy of nations at the world level. ## Main Thinkers - who contributed to Political Economy's Evolution: - Adam Smith - considered as the father of Modern Political Economy. - Book: "Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776). - He gave Labour Theory of Value, - He gave Theory of Invisible Hand - Supply and Demand. - David Ricardo: - Ricardo gave the theory Comparative Advantage. - Karl Marx - Karl Marx never defined Political Economy but Engels did. - Karl Marx himself never developed a theory on Political Economy, but he wrote "Critique of Political Economy" where he criticized Adam Smith. - Lenin: - Lenin regarded Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism. - Imperialism for Lenin was synonymous with Monopoly Capitalism. ## Main Subjects- where Impact of Pol Economy is studied in Comparative Politics - - (1). Impact of Modernization Theory - - Focus of Modernization Theory was to bring the newly independent 'Third-world' states to 'First-world' standards. - The tool of Modernization for them was through 'Political Development.' - Main Thinker: Modernization Theory - W.W. Rostow → - Book - The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (1960) - 5 Stages of Economic Growth by W.W. Rostow = - Traditional stage - Precondition for take-off - Take-off - Drive to Maturity - High Mass Consumption - (2). Impact of Dependency Theory - - Focus of Dependency Theory as a critique of Modernization Theory. - Main Thinkers of Dependency Theory is - AG Frank, Prebisch, Singer, Samir Amin, Paul Baran, Paul Sweezy, Cardoso, Furtado, Sunkel, Dos Santos. - AG Frank - concept - Development As Underdevelopment. - Samir Amin - concept - Theory of Unequal Exchange. - Dos Santos - concept - New Dependency. - Cardoso - Dependency and Development. - Paul Baran and Paul Sweezy - Dependency and Imperialism. - Singer and Prebisch - Terms-of-Trade (ToT) Thesis. - Immanuel Wallerstein - World Systems Theory. ## (iv) Political Culture - Definition - Political Culture is a set of beliefs, values, norms and assumptions concerning the ways on how government, politics and economic life is being carried out or should to be carried out. - Focus on: Political beliefs and values, Political Symbols, Political Action, Orientations etc. - Main Thinkers - - Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba in 1963 defined Pol. Culture as "Political Orientations and Attitudes towards the Political System." - Almond and Verba in 1963 identified 5 important dimension of Pol. Culture: - A sense of National identity - Attitude towards one's-self as a participant in political life - Attitude towards one's - fellow citizens - Attitudes and Expectations from government output and performance - Attitudes towards Knowledge about Political process of decision making - Book - The Civic Culture (1963) - by Almond and Verba. - Almond and Verba conducted a survey of 5 countries during 1959-60: USA, United Kingdom, West Germany, Italy, and Mexico. - There are Three Broad Types of Political Culture acc. To Almond & Verba: - Parochial Culture = 0% participation - Subject Culture = 50% participation - Participant Culture = 100% participation - Participatory Culture: USA, Switzerland; Scandinavian countries like Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark etc. - Subject Culture: China. - Parochial Culture: Uganda, Cuba, Libya, North Korea. - Homogenous Culture: United Kingdom. - Subject Participatory Culture: Erstwhile Communist Countries of USSR. - Elite Mass Culture: India - Acc. to Almond & Powell: - There are 3 types of Political Orientation - Cognitive Orientation - Affective Orientation - Evaluative Orientation ## David Easton - Systems Approach - System Analysis approach started in the 1950s. - David Easton in his book - The Political System (1953) defined Political System. - Who inspired David Easton? - Ludwig von Bertalanffy - General Systems Theory inspired David Easton's System Theory. - What is Political System? - A Political system is that system of interaction in any society through which binding or authoritative allocations are made. - David Easton's - Systems Approach - - Main Points: - It has two main components - Inputs and Outputs - Input consists of - Demand and Support - the Needs (demands are the needs that are brought by citizens infront of their government and support is the belief system citizens have towards the political system). - It has a Political System - which acts as a "Gatekeeper" - it filters out what are valid demands and what are invalid demands made by citizens. - Output consists of - Decisions and Actions - the Policies (the laws, the rules and regulations that the government brings out as a result of these inputs result into policies as outputs). - This whole process goes on in a loop, as demand comes in the form of Input - goes into the Political System, gets filtered -> Output is generated as policies -> this generates a positive/negative Feedback which goes into the "Environment" -> this feedback system connects the Output to Input and then a new set of demands generate in as a result of this process. Hence, it is also called "Cyclic-model". ## Almond & Powell - Structural Functionalism - Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powell introduced Structural Functional approach. - They argued in order to understand a political system it is necessary to understand not only the institutions, the structures but also their respective functions. - Who inspired Almond? - Max Weber and Talcott Parson inspired Gabriel Almond - Gabriel Almond in his book "The Politics of Developing Areas" (1960) defined Structural-functional approach: - All political systems have a structure, and these structures perform their respective functions, with different degrees in different political systems. - Almond includes 4 Input functions and 3 output functions: - Input Functions: - Political Socialisation and Recruitment (through Family, Peer Groups) - Interest Articulation (through Interest Groups) - Interest Aggregation (through Political Parties) - Political Communication (through Media) - Output Functions: - Rule Making (Legislature) - Rule Application (Executive) - Rule Adjudication (Judiciary) - Almond's Structural-functional Model is also Cyclic, Open and Continuous. - MAJOR DIFFERENCE between Easton and Almond's Model is: - There is NO FEEDBACK in Almond's Structural-Functional Model. ## Pressure Groups, Interest Groups - What is a Pressure Group? - Pressure Group is are forms of organisations, which exert pressure on the political or administrative system of a country to extract benefits out of it and to advance their own interests. - Examples of Pressure Group - RSS, Jamaat-e-Islami, VHP, Indian Medical Association (IMA), Bar Council of India (BCI), CII, FICCI, Bharatiya Kisan Union, All India Kisan Sabha etc. - Finer has characterized Pressure Groups as an "Anonymous Empire". - Richard D Lambert views Pressure Groups as the "Unofficial Govt". - What is an Interest Group? - Interest Groups: bodies which aims to influence policy from outside the formal structures of government. They do this with a combination of direct pressure on government and direct pressure via. Media and public opinion. - Examples of Interest Group - Amnesty International, Organization for Women (NOW), National Rifle Association (NRA) etc. - Neumann has pointed out DIFFERENCE between Pressure Groups vs Political Parties: - Pressure Groups | Political Parties - -------- | -------- - HOMOGENEOUS INTERESTS. | HETEROGENOUS INTERESTS. - Pressure Groups seek for - Influence. | Political Parties seek for - Power. - Pressure Groups have - Short-term interests. | Political Parties have - Long-term interests. - Who said about Pseudo - Pressure Groups? - Maurice Duverger said on Pseudo Pressure Groups. - According to Duverger, MEDIA is example of Pseudo-Pressure Group. - Duverger's classification of 3 Types of Pressure Groups - Exclusive Groups: those who put pressure on political system - Partial Groups: those who promote their interests but do not put pressure tactics as their method - Pseudo pressure groups: like Media who put pressure politics not for themselves but for others with a Monetary motive in consideration - Jean Blondel's classification of 2 Types of Interest Groups - Community Interest Groups - Associational Interest Groups - Almond and Powell's Four Types of Interest Groups: - Institutional Interest Groups: like UPSC) - Associational Interest Groups: like AITUC, Indian Chamber of Commerce) - Anomic Interest Groups: (Riots, Demonstrations) - Non-Associational Interest Groups: (Family, Religious Heads, Caste Groups) - Correct Order: Institutional → Associational → Anomic → Non-Associational (IAAN). - What is Lobbying? - Practice of members of certain pressure groups who loiter outside in the lobbies of Legislatures in order to influence Lawmakers to further their interests - While Pressure Groups are organized groups, Lobbying is just a influencing process. - Pressure Groups and Lobbying is not the same thing. - The process of Revolving Door Lobbying is seen in USA politics. - What is Protective Group? - An Interest Group that seeks selective benefits for its own members. Its membership is restricted and enjoys insider status with relevant govt. departments - What is Promotional Group? - An Interest Group that promotes wider issues and promotes a certain cause. Its membership is open to public and its benefits go for both members and non-members. - What is Peak Association? - An umbrella organization representing the interests of a business group or labour group infront of the government. For example - the Federal Organization of German Employers, Confederation of British Industry in UK are peak associations - What is Think-tank? - A type of Interest group that conducts Research into a given area of policy with the goal of engaging that issue into a public debate and bring political change. - For example – ORF, IDSA, CPPR, NITI AAYOG etc. # 3 Waves of Democratization by Huntington - What is Democratization? - Samuel P. Huntington gave this idea in his book 'Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century' (1991). - "A wave of democratization is a group of transitions from nondemocratic to democratic regimes that occur within a specified period of time and that significantly outnumber transitions in the opposite directions during that period of time" - 3 Waves of Democratization: - First Wave (1828-1926): - Gradual emergence of liberal democracies in 1st world - Industrial Revolution, modernization and rise of nation state - North America, UK and Western Europe - 29 Democracies - Ended with rise of fascism in 1920s - Reverse wave: fascism, great depression, WWII - Only 12 democracies left by 1942 - Second Wave (1943-1962): - Post-WWII era, restoration of democracies in defeated dictatorship: West Germany, Japan and Italy - In many European countries democracies were introduced by Allied powers led by USA (Marshall Plan) - Decolonialization produced many democracies: India, Sri-Lanka, Ghana and Indonesia - Ended during 1960s: Many nations revered to authoritarian rule - Greece, Latin America: Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Mexico - Also in several new democracies, single party rule dominated national politics. - For example: Congress in India, Christian democrats in Italy, LDP in Japan and Labour in Israel - Third Wave (1974-2000): - Main elements: - The end of rightwing dictatorships in South Europe (Greece, Portugal and Spain) in the 1970s - The retreat of generals in much of Latin America in the 1980s - Collapse of USSR at the end of 1980s - Started in 1974 in Portugal, followed in Greece and Spain, spread to Eastern Europe, then to Latin America, Africa and Asia - 28% (1974) to 61% (1998) nations adopted democracy # Colonialism, Imperialism, De-colonization, Neo-Colonialism, Post-Colonialism. - What is Colonialism? - Colonialism is a practice of Domination - which involves the subjugation of one people to another. - Colonialism involves the Transfer of Population to a new territory, where the arrival of this new population is as a Permanent Settler - while still maintaining allegiance (loyalty) to their country of origin. - For example - the British Permanent Settlers who came to colonize India were still loyal to the Crown and their country of origin. - Difference between Imperialism and Colonialism: - Colonialism | Imperialism - -------- | -------- - Here, there is Geographical Control (Rule). | Here, there is No Geographical Control. - In Colonialism, focus is Physical Takeover of Nations and their Resources. | In Imperialism, focus is on Power Projection and not on Physical Takeover of resources. - Permanent Settlement of people is involved. | Economic & Political domination from afar. - Examples of Colonialism are the takeover of India, Australia, Southern, and Central Africa by the British; and Western and North Africa by the French. | Examples of Imperialism are The Scramble for Africa in the 19th Century by the European Powers of Belgium, Britain, France, Germany etc. - What is Anti-Colonialism? - Anticolonialism is a term used to describe the various resistance movements directed against colonial and imperial powers. - The ideas associated with anticolonialism are Justice, Equality, and Self-determination. - 3 Stages of Anti-Colonialism - Proto-Nationalism → Rise of New Leadership → Mass Movements - Proto-Nationalism (phase of Anti-colonial struggle during Bankim Chandra, Dadabhai Naoroji, Gokhale, Ranade). - Rise of New Leadership - (phase of Anti-colonial struggle during Aurobindo, Bhagat Singh, Netaji, Savarkar). - Mass Movements - (phase of Anti-colonial struggle during Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, Quit India Movement led by Gandhi). - What is De-colonization? - De-colonization is a process by which colonies become independent of the colonizing country. - The League of Nations was the first international body to take steps on Decolonization. - Example - In 1776, the 13 colonies of British America declared their independence and later formed the United States of America. In 1947, The British Raj leaves and India gains Independence. - What is Neo-colonialism? - Neo-colonialism is the control of less-developed countries by the developed countries through indirect means such as economic exploitation and promotion of capitalism. - Economic Exploitation through - MNCs from Developed Countries who exploit cheap labour and raw materials from the Least Developed Countries. - Dependency on Developed countries - Developing nations are dependent on foreign aid by the developed nations. - This is highlighted by Dependency School thinkers - Core economies exploiting Periphery economies. - Main Thinker: Kwame Nkrumah - Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Capitalism - What is Post-Colonialism? - Post-colonialism is the phase of Aftermath of Western Colonialism. - Post-colonialism refers to reclaiming, rethinking and overcoming colonialism. - The field of Postcolonial studies was influenced by Edward Said's book Orientalism. - Main Thinker: Post-colonialism - Edward Said. - Books - Orientalism (1978), Culture and Imperialism (1993) by Edward Said. # Nationalism - What is Nationalism? - Definition Nationalism can be defined as sense of commonality i.e., a sense of having common language, common culture, common religion, common history, common homeland and common ancestors. - THEORIES OF NATIONALISM AND ITS MAIN THINKERS: - 1. Tom Nairn and 'Uneven Development': - He explains in his book The Break-up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism (1981) how nationalism emerges in colonial societies - He was inspired from dependency theory thinkers like Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin and Immanuel Wallerstein. - He points out that capitalism was supposed to bring progress in world - But capitalist development was uneven at world level - Some industrialized countries grew at such level that they dominated other backward countries - Elite leaders of backward countries convinced masses that such dominance in name of progress need to be tackled - Leaders told their masses, even they wanted school, factories, parliament, so they had to copy their ruler but they had to rejected the direct intervention and dominance - In short, according to Nairn nationalism emerged in the form of anti-imperialist struggle which was a result of uneven development - 2. Paul R. Brass and Instrumentalism: - Instrumentalists hold that ethnic and national identities are convenient tools at the hands of competing elite groups for generating mass support in the universal struggle for wealth, power and prestige - Paul R. Brass in his book Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and comparison (1991) - Brass was against the idea that rise of ethnic identities are inevitable which ultimately transform into nationalism - He asserts that ethnic identities are manipulated and created by Political elites of country - Ethnic conflict does not arise because of cultural differences but because of political and economic conditions - Such conditions lead to competition between elite groups for power and prestige - This competition defines and redefines the relevant ethnic group and its persistence - Two separate nations state in the Indian subcontinent was result of this elite competition - 3. Eric J. Hobsbawm and 'Invention of Traditions': - He is a Marxist historian, writes his famous book The Invention of Tradition (1983) - Nation and nationalism: product of social engineering - Hobsbawm argued that governments for inculcating the sense of national identity innovate tradition which is actually had a relatively shallow history. - Earlier people were loyal to the ruler/ monarchy, but since the emergence of mass politics particularly from the period of 1870 to 1914 - The new rulers found it difficult to maintain the obedience, loyalty and cooperation of subjects (citizen) - Invention of tradition was the strategy adopted by ruling elites to counter the threat posed by mass democracy - Three major innovations: development of primary education, the invention of public ceremonies and the mass production of public monuments - 4. Ernest Gellner and 'High Culture': - He gives the idea of nationalism in his book Nation and Nationalism (1983) - Previous societies, Agro-literate societies, were based on culture diversity. - There was no need of culture homogenization for ruler to control his subject and thus there was no nation - In industrial societies, shared culture plays very important role. - This shared culture is defined as 'high culture' by Gellner - To run the industrial societies, high culture is needed. Specialized knowledge and skills are needed, such societies can't survive on manual labor - This is why such societies develop high culture, a culture of merit, equality and mobility. - Nationalism is nothing but imposition of this high culture on society - 5. Benedict Anderson and 'Imagined Communities': - He describes nation as 'imagined communities' in his popular book Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983) - A nation 'is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion' creation of imagined communities became possible because of 'print capitalism'. - Capitalist entrepreneurs printed their books and media in the vernacular (instead of exclusive script languages, such as Latin) in order to maximize circulation. - 6. Partha Chatterjee and 'Derivative discourse' - He gave the idea of nationalism in his book - Nationalist Thought and Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse (1986) - He argues that India after 1947, kept British ideologies and practices unbroken - It is because Indian nationalist thought was borrowed from western ideas - Nationalism in India was a 'derivative discourse' from the west i.e., taken from west - Even he questions the idea of imagined community in case of postcolonial societies - In his essay Whose Imagined Community (1996), he explains how west had been defining the character of our anticolonial struggle. Even our imagination is colonized. # Party Systems - Party system is a system of system, it not only emphasizes upon the motives, agendas and interest of the Political Parties but it also highlights the relation of people towards political parties and their set of interests. - A Party system represents the whole political spectrum in which the present configuration of political parties are the constituent units. - There are Five Major types of Party System which have significant variations in the arrangement, characteristics and way of representation: - No. | Type of Party System | Features and Examples of Party System - -------- | -------- | -------- - 1 | No-Party System | Party system where there is no legal framework for party functioning. Parties in this system have no authority to compete. Examples - Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia. - 2 | Single-Party System | Allows a Single Party to hold power Leadership of a single existing party isdominant. Examples - N.Korea, China, Vietnam, Cuba - 3 | Dominant PartySystem | Different parties exist but only one party hasthe capability to rule. Other parties have rare chances to come topower. Examples - India (Congress DominantSystem till 1967) South Africa (African National Congress) Hungary (Fidesz) - 4 | Two-Party System | The Two Crucial Political Parties compete to gain power. Constant Competition between two parties. Examples - Australia, UK, USA - 5 | Multi-Party System | Multiple parties with its unique ideology, beliefs, & objectives. Role of Coalition governments plays a major role in this party system. Examples - Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, India, New Zealand ## Major Contributions Given by Thinkers on Party System: - Thinker | Classification of Party System - -------- | -------- - Gabriel Almond | Almond has classified Party Systems into four types: (i) Authoritarian party system (ii) Dominant non-authoritarian party system (iii) Competitive two-party system (iv) Competitive multi-party system The Competitive Party system can be further divided into • Turnover and Hegemonic • Ideological and Pragmatic When One Party hegemonizes political power for a long period of time it is called a hegemonic party system. For example - the Congress System in India (Rajni Kothari). - Maurice Duverger | Duverger classified Party Systems on the basis of - Number of Parties. He has classified Party Systems into two broad categories: (a) One Party System. (b) Pluralist Party System. The One-Party System is further divided into two types - (i) one-party system & (ii) dominant party system. The Pluralist Party System is further divided into two types - (i) two-party system & (ii) multi-party system. - Jean Blondel | Blondel has classified Party Systems on the basis of - Share of Votes. He has classified Party Systems into three categories: (i) Two Party System (ii) Two-and-a-half Party System (iii) Multi-party System with a predominant party (iv) Multi-party System without a predominant party ## Elite Theory - Main Thinkers of Elite Theory: - 1. Vilfredo Pareto: - He gave his theory in his famous work 'The Mind and Society' (1916) - Inequality is inevitable in society - Some individuals are superior in their attributes than other on the basis of their knowledge, talents etc. - Society consists of two classes: - Higher Stratum: governing and non-governing elite - Lower Stratum: non-elite (masses) - Circulation of Elite: - 'History is a graveyard of aristocracies' - Circulation of elite is a process in which individuals circulate between elite and non-elite strata - It also refers to a process where one elite replaces another elite - Why Circulation Happens? - When there is imbalance in 'residues' & 'derivatives. - Residues are Logical actions & Derivatives are non-logical actions. - Logical actions are those that achieve an end - Non-Logical actions are those that have no purpose and are based on sentiments - Residues: - Pareto locates total Six Residues, which means the major motivation of action: - Combination: tendency to invent - Persistence: tendency to consolidate - Expressiveness: tendency to express feelings - Sociability: tendency to affiliate with others - Integration: tendency to maintain a good self-image - Sex: tendency to see social events in erotic terms - 2. Gaetano Mosca: - He developed his theory of elites in his work 'The Ruling Class' (1939) - Mosca gave the 'Political Formula'. - In every society there are two classes exist: - A Class that rules: Ruling class - A class that is ruled: Ruled class - Ruling class is always in minority, performs all political functions & monopolizes power - While ruled class is directed and controlled by ruling class - Circulation of elites happens when ruling class lose command and political control. And When they fail to provide valuable services to masses. - 3. Robert Michels: - He is known for 'Iron Law of Oligarchy' - His main work is 'Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy' (1911). - All organizations, including those committed to democratic ideals and practices, will inevitably succumb to rule by an elite few (an oligarchy). - Majority of human beings are apathetic, indolent and slavish, incapable of self- government - Therefore, they are depended on leaders and submit themselves to oligarchy. - 4. James Burnham: - In his book 'The Managerial Revolution' (1931), he explains his elite theory from Marxist perspective - According to him capitalism originally were managers and owners of their business - When their business grew, they left it to professional managers - Thus, capitalist ruled class displaced by managerial elite - Similarly in government, executive becomes more imp than legislation Bureaucrats backed by executives run the country - 5. C. Wright Mills: - In his book 'The Power Elite' (1959), he explains distribution of power in U.S.A - C. Wright Mills focuses on 'The Economic Elite'. - He does not believe elite rules because of their superior traits - They rule on society because they hold key institutional positions - The corporation, the military, the federal government are three institutions constitute three elites - In American society, these three elites decide all important issues and matter - They skillfully control the masses through mass media and manipulation - Theory of Democratic Elitism - This theory does not believe, like classical elitist theorists, that 'democracy is a myth'. Elites protects the democracy - Political parties compete for masses' votes - Elites are relatively 'open' and recruited on the basis of merit - Mass is able to participate in ruling the society - By exercise choice between the rival elites - 1. Karl Manheim: - He is famous for his work 'Ideology and Utopia' (1929) - According to him, if elites take major decision on policy, it does not mean society is not democratic - In Mass democracy, all individuals can't participate in forming a government or to take decision - But they can force their leaders to take decision in their interests or else they will remove them - Same is not possible in despotic society - 2. Joseph Schumpeter: - His Famous work is 'Capitalism, Socialism & Democracy' (1942). - He points out that people's role in democratic society is not govern or take major decision - Their role is to produce a government - Thus, people do not decide political issues in democracy or nor they choose leaders to take decision - Rather, they choose leaders to take decisions for them - He called it a 'democratic method'. # Old Social Movements vs New-Social Movements - Difference between Old Social Movement and New Social Movements: - Old Social Movement (OSM)| New Social Movement (NSM) - -------- | -------- - 19th and 20th Century Movements. | Emerged in the later half of 20th Century. - OSM Focus is on ideology, class distinction based, Marxian idea of economy-based movements. | NSM Focus is non-materialistic in nature, NSMs goes beyond class, boundary, borders, state and culture. - OSM are centralized around particular leaders. | Instead of economy, focus of NSM are on issues of culture, symbolic identities-based movements. - OSM is Centered on Materialistic Goals like improving the standard of living of a particular social class. | NSM are diffused and decentralized. NSM are mainly Non-violent in nature. - Examples of OSM: Workers Movements Peasant Movements | NSM is Centered on Certain Societal Goals which needs to meet the present generation's needs. Examples of NSM: Students Movements Civil Rights Movements - Women's' Movements - Environmental Movements - Peace Movements - Anti-Racist Movements - Movements for the Rights of Indigenous Peoples' - 'Anti-Political' Movements ## Major Theories of Social Movements and Thinkers - - Relative Deprivation Theory - Robert Merton, Runciman, Marx, Ted Gurr, MSA Rao - Resource Mobilization Theory - Charles Tilly, Douglas McAdam - New Social Movement Theory - Alain Touraine, Claus Offe, Jurgen Habermas - Post-materialism - Ronald Inglehart ## Four Stages of Social Movements by Bloomer and Tilly - 1. Emergence → 2. Coalescence → 3. Bureaucratization → 4. Decline # Political Development - What is Political Development? - Development is a process of continuous growth. It has its origin in the western framework of thinking. - Political Development tries to explain the Political changes in the Developing world. - Thinkers of Political Development - Lucian Pye, Fred W Riggs, Edward Shills, Huntington, Almond and Powell. - Important Concepts of Development and Thinkers - Modernization Approach - W.W. Rostow, AFK Organski, Samuel Huntington - Political Development and Political Decay Model - Samuel Huntington - Centre-Periphery Model of Development - Rajni Kothari and AG Frank - Functional Model - Gabriel Almond - Change Model - Leonard Binder - Environmental Model - F.W. Riggs - Developmental Syndrome - Lucian Pye - Market-Society Model - WW Rostow, Organski, Almond and Coleman. - Political Man - S.M. Lipset - Third World - Alfred Sauvy - What the 4 stages of David Apter's Political Modernization? - Contact and Control - Reaction and Counter-reaction - Contradiction and Reaction - Search for new generative solution - What are the 5 Types of Political Systems acc. to Edward Shills? - Political Democracy (USA, UK, India) - Tutelary Democracy - Modernizing Oligarchy (Pakistan) - Totalitarian Oligarchy (Nazi Germany, Stalin USSR) - Traditional Oligarchy (Saudi Arabia) - Acc to Edward Shills, Political Democracy is the BEST type and Traditional Oligarchy is the WORST. - What are the 3 Aspects of Political Development acc to Lucian Pye? - ECD - Equality, Capacity, Differentiation - What are the 6 Crisis of Political Development acc to Lucian Pye? - Identity Crisis - Legitimacy Crisis - Penetration Crisis - Participation Crisis - Unification Crisis - Distribution Crisis - In which country did Pye mention about his Crisis of Pol Development in 1966? - United Kingdom, 1966 - in his book, "Aspects of Political Development (1966)". - Who has criticized Lucian Pye's theory of Political Development? - Fred W. Riggs - What is the difference between Lucian Pye and Fred W. Riggs? - For Pye - ECD, three factors - For Riggs - EC, two factors - Riggs mentions that the degree of Differentiation is directly related to the level of development of a country. - Who gave the concept of Development Trap? - Fred W. Riggs - Development Trap - Who gave the concept of Political Decay? - Samuel P. Huntington - Political Decay - Huntington mentions in his book, "Political Development and Political Decay" (1965). - When Political Institutionalization is HIGHER than Political Mobilization = Political Development - When Political Institutionalization is LOWER than Political Mob