Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Theory PDF

Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Theory  Rogers realized that his theories would be different 10 or 20 years hence but never systematically reformulated his theory of Overview of Client-Ce...

Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Theory  Rogers realized that his theories would be different 10 or 20 years hence but never systematically reformulated his theory of Overview of Client-Centered Theory personality.  Carl Rogers is best known as the founder of client-centered  His final theory of personality rests on the original foundation therapy. spelled out in the Koch series.  Rogers developed a humanistic theory of personality that grew Biography of Carl Rogers out of his experiences as a practicing psychotherapist. Carl Ransom Rogers was born on January 8, 1902, in Oak Park, Illinois,  Unlike Freud, who was primarily a theorist and secondarily a to devoutly religious parents, inheriting their strong work ethic. Initially therapist, Rogers was a consummate therapist but only a pursuing agriculture at the University of Wisconsin, he shifted to religion reluctant theorist. and later psychology, influenced by a transformative trip to China and studies at Teachers College, Columbia University. After earning a PhD in  He was more concerned with helping people than with clinical and educational psychology in 1931, Rogers worked with the discovering why they behaved as they did. Rochester Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, where Otto  Rogers was more likely to ask “How can I help this person grow Rank’s ideas on emotional growth shaped his approach to therapy. His and develop?” than to ponder the question “What caused this client-centered theory emerged from these experiences, emphasizing person to develop in this manner?” empathic listening and unconditional acceptance, and was formalized in Counseling and Psychotherapy (1942), later refined in Client-Centered  Rogers built his theory on the scaffold provided by experiences Therapy (1951). His presidency of the APA (1946–1947) and contributions as a therapist. to psychotherapy research brought him significant recognition, including the APA’s first Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1956.  Rogers continually called for empirical research to support both Expanding his work to education and international politics, Rogers his personality theory and his therapeutic approach. continued advocating for psychological growth through genuine relationships. Married to Helen Elliott in 1924, with two children, he openly  Rogers advocated a balance between tender-minded and addressed personal challenges, including marital difficulties and struggles hardheaded studies that would expand knowledge of how with drinking. Rogers remained a central figure in humanistic psychology humans feel and think. until his death on February 4, 1987.  Even though he formulated a rigorous, internally consistent Person-Centered Theory - Carl Rogers theory of personality, Rogers did not feel comfortable with the notion of theory. Theory Development  Rogers felt theories made things too cold and external and  Although Rogers’ concept of humanity remained basically worried that his theory might imply a measure of finality. unchanged from the early 1940s until his death in 1987, his  During the 1950s, Rogers was invited to write what was then therapy and theory underwent several changes in name. called the “client-centered” theory of personality, found in  During the early years, his approach was known as Volume 3 of Sigmund Koch’s Psychology: A Study of a Science. “nondirective,” an unfortunate term that remained associated with his name for far too long.   Later, his approach was variously termed “client-centered,” 2. Actualizing Tendency “person-centered,” “student-centered,” “group-centered,” and “person to person.” o An interrelated and more pertinent assumption is the actualizing tendency, or the tendency within all  The label "client-centered" refers to Rogers’ therapy, and the humans (and other animals and plants) to move more inclusive term "person-centered" refers to Rogerian toward completion or fulfillment of potentials (Rogers, personality theory. 1959, 1980).  Rogers’ person-centered theory comes closest to meeting the o This tendency is the only motive people possess. standard of clearly formulated theories often stated in an if- then framework. o Examples of actualization include: the need to satisfy one’s hunger drive, to express deep emotions when o An example is: If certain conditions exist, then a they are felt, and to accept one’s self. process will occur; if this process occurs, then certain outcomes can be expected. o Because each person operates as one complete organism, actualization involves the whole person— o A specific example in therapy: If the therapist is physiological and intellectual, rational and emotional, congruent and communicates unconditional positive conscious and unconscious. regard and accurate empathy to the client, then therapeutic change will occur; if therapeutic change Maintenance and Enhancement (UNDER ACTUALIZING occurs, then the client will experience more self- TENDENCY) acceptance, greater trust of self, and so on. Maintenance: Basic Assumptions o Similar to the lower steps on Maslow’s hierarchy of 1. Formative Tendency needs, maintenance includes basic needs such as food, air, and safety. o Rogers (1978, 1980) believed that there is a tendency for all matter, both organic and inorganic, to evolve o It also includes the tendency to resist change and to from simpler to more complex forms. seek the status quo. o For the entire universe, a creative process, rather o Expressed in people’s desire to protect their current, than a disintegrative one, is in operation. comfortable self-concept, people may fight against new ideas, distort experiences that don’t fit, and find o Examples from nature: complex galaxies of stars form change painful. from a less well-organized mass; crystals such as snowflakes emerge from formless vapor; complex organisms develop from single cells; and human consciousness evolves from primitive unconsciousness to a highly organized awareness. Enhancement: The Self and Self-Actualization o People are willing to learn and change, to develop and Development of the Self achieve growth.  Infants begin to develop a vague concept of self when a o Even when faced with discomfort, they are motivated portion of their experience becomes personalized and by the need to become more and to reach their differentiated in awareness as “I” or “me” experiences. potential.  Infants gradually become aware of their own identity as they o Enhancement is expressed in curiosity, playfulness, learn what tastes good and what tastes bad, what feels self-exploration, friendship, and confidence in one’s pleasant and what does not. ability to achieve psychological growth.  They then begin to evaluate experiences as positive or o Rogers’ position is that people are willing to face negative, using as a criterion the actualizing tendency. threat and pain because of a biologically based tendency for the organism to fulfill its basic nature. o They value food and devalue hunger. 3. Human Uniqueness o They also value sleep, fresh air, physical contact, and health because each of these is needed for o The actualizing tendency is shared with other animals actualization. and plants. However, only humans have a concept of self and thus a potential for self-actualization. Self-Actualization Conditions for Actualization  Self-actualization is a subset of the actualization tendency and is therefore not synonymous with it.  The actualization tendency is realized only under certain conditions. People must be involved in a relationship with a o The actualization tendency refers to organismic partner who is congruent (authentic), who demonstrates experiences of the individual, i.e., it refers to the empathy, and who provides unconditional positive regard. whole person—conscious and unconscious, physiological and cognitive.  Rogers (1961) emphasized that having a partner who possesses these three qualities does not cause people to o Self-actualization is the tendency to actualize the self move toward constructive personal change, but it permits as perceived in awareness. them to actualize their innate tendency toward self-fulfillment.  When the organism and the perceived self are in harmony,  Rogers contended that whenever congruence, unconditional the two actualization tendencies are nearly identical. positive regard, and empathy are present in a relationship,  When people’s organismic experiences are not in harmony psychological growth will invariably occur. with their view of self, a discrepancy exists between the  He regarded these three conditions as both necessary and actualization tendency and the self-actualization tendency. sufficient for becoming a fully functioning or self-actualizing o Example: If a man’s organismic experience is one of person. anger toward his wife, and if anger toward spouse is  contrary to his perception of self, then his 2. The Ideal Self actualization tendency and his self-actualization are incongruent and he will experience conflict and inner o The ideal self is defined as one’s view of self as one tension. wishes to be. Self-Concept and Ideal Self o The ideal self contains all those attributes, usually positive, that people aspire to possess. 1. The Self-Concept o A wide gap between the ideal self and the self- o The self-concept includes all those aspects of one’s concept indicates incongruence and an unhealthy being and one’s experiences that are perceived in personality. awareness (though not always accurately) by the individual. o Psychologically healthy individuals perceive little discrepancy between their self-concept and what they o The self-concept is not identical with the organismic ideally would like to be. self. Awareness and Levels of Awareness  Portions of the organismic self may be beyond a person’s awareness or simply not  Awareness owned by that person. o Rogers (1959) defined awareness as “the symbolic  Example: The stomach is part of the representation (not necessarily in verbal symbols) of organismic self, but unless it malfunctions some portion of our experience” (p. 198). and causes concern, it is not likely to be part o He used the term synonymously with both of one’s self-concept. consciousness and symbolization.  People can disown certain aspects of their 1. Levels of Awareness selves, such as experiences of dishonesty, when such experiences are not consistent o First level: Some events are experienced below the with their self-concept. threshold of awareness and are either ignored or denied. o Once people form their self-concept, they find change and significant learnings quite difficult.  Example: A woman walking down a busy street, an activity that presents many  Experiences that are inconsistent with their potential stimuli, particularly of sight and self-concept usually are either denied or sound. Many remain ignored. accepted only in distorted forms.  Example: A mother who never wanted o Change most readily occurs in an atmosphere of children, but out of guilt becomes overly acceptance by others, which allows a person to solicitous to them. Her anger and resentment reduce anxiety and threat and to take ownership of toward her children may be hidden to her for previously rejected experiences.  years, coloring her conscious behavior  A compliment from another also implies the toward them. right of that person to criticize or condemn, and thus the compliment carries an implied o Second level: Some experiences are accurately threat (Rogers, 1961). symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure. Becoming a Person  These experiences are nonthreatening and consistent with the existing self-concept.  Rogers (1959) discussed the processes necessary to becoming a person.  Example: A pianist with full confidence in his piano-playing ability may accurately o First, an individual must make contact—positive or symbolize and admit compliments to his self- negative—with another person. This contact is the concept. minimum experience necessary for becoming a person. o Third level: Some experiences are perceived in a distorted form. o As children (or adults) become aware that another person has some measure of regard for them, they  Example: A gifted pianist who receives begin to value positive regard and devalue negative compliments from a distrusted competitor regard. might distort them due to feeling threatened. He may question the motives behind the o Positive regard: The need to be loved, liked, or compliment and reshape it to fit his existing accepted by another person. self-concept.  If we perceive that others, especially 2. Denial of Positive Experiences significant others, care for, prize, or value us, our need for positive regard is at least o Compliments, even those genuinely dispensed, partially satisfied. seldom have a positive influence on the self-concept of the recipient. o Positive regard is a prerequisite for positive self- regard, defined as the experience of prizing or  Example: A student who feels inadequate valuing one’s self. despite a superior grade might say, “I know this grade should be evidence of my  Receiving positive regard from others is scholastic ability, but somehow I just don’t necessary for positive self-regard, but once feel that way.” positive self-regard is established, it becomes independent of the continual need for love  Compliments may be distorted because the and approval from others. person distrusts the giver or they may be denied because the recipient does not feel  This concept is quite similar to Maslow’s deserving of them. notion that we must satisfy our love and belongingness needs before self-esteem  needs can become active. Once self-regard is o Eventually, we may come to believe those appraisals achieved, it no longer requires constant of others that are consistent with our negative view replenishing. of self, ignore our own sensory and visceral o Once positive self-regard is established, it becomes perceptions, and gradually become estranged from autonomous and self-perpetuating. our real or organismic self.  As Rogers (1959) stated: “The person then  From early childhood forward, most of us learn to disregard ‘becomes in a sense his [or her] own our own organismic valuations and to look beyond ourselves significant social other’” (p. 224). for direction and guidance. To the degree that we introject Barriers to Psychological Health the values of others, that is, accept conditions of worth, we tend to be incongruent or out of balance. Conditions of Worth o Other people’s values can be assimilated only in  Instead of receiving unconditional positive regard, most distorted fashion or at the risk of creating people receive conditions of worth; that is, they perceive disequilibrium and conflict within the self. that their parents, peers, or partners love and accept them only if they meet those people’s expectations and approval.  External evaluations (the perceptions of others’ views of us) do not foster psychological health but instead prevent us o “A condition of worth arises when the positive regard from being completely open to our own experiences. of a significant other is conditional, when the individual feels that in some respects he [or she] is o For example, we may reject pleasurable experiences prized and in others not” (Rogers, 1959, p. 209). because we believe that other people do not approve of them.  Conditions of worth become the criterion by which individuals accept or reject their experiences. o When our own experiences are distrusted, we distort our awareness of them, thus solidifying the o People gradually assimilate into their self-structure discrepancy between our organismic evaluation and the attitudes they perceive others expressing toward the values we have introjected from others. This leads them, and in time, they begin to evaluate experiences to incongruence. on this basis. Incongruence o If we see that others accept us regardless of our actions, then we come to believe that we are prized  We have seen that the organism and the self are two separate unconditionally. But if we perceive that some of our entities that may or may not be congruent with one another. behaviors are approved and others disapproved, then o Actualization refers to the organism’s tendency to we see that our worth is conditional. move toward fulfillment, while self-actualization is the  desire of the perceived self to reach fulfillment. These o Rogers (1959) believed that people are vulnerable two tendencies may be at variance with one another. when they are unaware of the discrepancy between their organismic self and their significant experience.  Psychological disequilibrium begins when we fail to recognize our organismic experiences as self-experiences: o Lacking awareness of their incongruence, vulnerable that is, when we do not accurately symbolize organismic people often behave in ways that are experiences into awareness because they appear inconsistent incomprehensible not only to others but also to with our emerging self-concept. themselves. o This incongruence between our self-concept and our Anxiety and Threat organismic experience is the source of psychological  Anxiety is defined as “a state of uneasiness or tension whose disorders. cause is unknown” (Rogers, 1959, p. 204).  Conditions of worth that we received during early o Threat is experienced as we gain awareness of the childhood lead to a somewhat false self-concept, one based incongruence between our organismic experience and on distortions and denials. self-concept. o The self-concept that emerges includes vague o When we become dimly aware that the discrepancy perceptions that are not in harmony with our between our organismic experience and our self- organismic experiences, and this incongruence concept may become conscious, we feel anxious. between self and experience leads to discrepant and seemingly inconsistent behaviors. o As we become more aware of the incongruence between our organismic experience and our o Sometimes we behave in ways that maintain or perception of self, our anxiety begins to evolve into enhance our actualizing tendency, and at other times, threat: an awareness that our self is no longer whole we may behave in a manner designed to maintain or or congruent. enhance a self-concept founded on other people’s expectations and evaluations of us. o Anxiety and threat can represent steps toward psychological health because they signal to us that Vulnerability our organismic experience is inconsistent with our  The greater the incongruence between our perceived self self-concept. (self-concept) and our organismic experience, the more o Nevertheless, they are not pleasant or comfortable vulnerable we are. feelings. Defensiveness o Both distortion and denial serve the same purpose: they keep our perception of our organismic  In order to prevent this inconsistency between our organismic experiences consistent with our self-concept, thus experience and our perceived self, we react in a defensive allowing us to ignore or block out experiences that manner. would otherwise cause unpleasant anxiety or threat. o Defensiveness is the protection of the self-concept Disorganization against anxiety and threat by the denial or distortion of experiences inconsistent with it (Rogers, 1959).  Most people engage in defensive behavior, but sometimes defenses fail, and behavior becomes disorganized or o Because the self-concept consists of many self- psychotic. descriptive statements, it is a many-faceted phenomenon. o But why would defenses fail to function? o When one of our experiences is inconsistent with one o To answer this question, we must trace the course of part of our self-concept, we will behave in a defensive disorganized behavior, which has the same origins manner in order to protect the current structure of as normal defensive behavior, namely a discrepancy our self-concept. between people’s organismic experience and their view of self. o The two chief defenses are distortion and denial: o Denial and distortion are adequate to keep normal  Distortion involves misinterpreting an people from recognizing this discrepancy, but when experience in order to fit it into some aspect the incongruence between people’s perceived self of our self-concept. We perceive the and their organismic experience is either too obvious experience in awareness but fail to or occurs too suddenly to be denied or distorted, their understand its true meaning. behavior becomes disorganized.  Denial involves refusing to perceive an o Disorganization can occur suddenly, or it can take experience in awareness, or at least keeping place gradually over a long period of time. some aspect of it from reaching symbolization. o Ironically, people are particularly vulnerable to disorganization during therapy, especially if a o Denial is not as common as distortion because most therapist accurately interprets their actions and also experiences can be twisted or reshaped to fit the insists that they face the experience prematurely current self-concept. (Rogers, 1959).  o In a state of disorganization, people sometimes the slightest discrepancy between self and experience behave consistently with their organismic experience to the most incongruent. and sometimes in accordance with their shattered self-concept.  Example 1: A previously prudish and proper woman who suddenly begins to use language explicitly sexual and scatological.  Example 2: A man who, because his self- concept is no longer a gestalt or unified whole, begins to behave in a confused, inconsistent, and totally unpredictable manner. o In both cases, behavior is still consistent with the self- concept, but the self-concept has been broken, and thus the behavior appears bizarre and confusing.  Although Rogers was even more tentative than usual when he first put forth his views of disorganized behavior in 1959, he made no important revisions in this portion of his theory. o He never wavered in his disdain for using diagnostic labels to describe people. Traditional classifications such as those found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) have never been part of the vocabulary of person-centered theory. o Rogers always remained uncomfortable with the term’s “neurotic” and “psychotic,” preferring instead to speak of defensive and disorganized behaviors, terms that more accurately convey the idea that psychological maladjustment is on a continuum from Psychotherapy: Client-Centered Therapy o Next, the client must perceive these characteristics in the therapist.  Client-centered therapy is deceptively simple in statement but decidedly difficult in practice. o Finally, the contact between client and therapist must be of some duration.  The client-centered approach holds that in order for vulnerable or anxious people to grow psychologically, they Significance of Rogerian Hypothesis must come into contact with a therapist who is congruent and  The significance of the Rogerian hypothesis is revolutionary. whom they perceive as providing an atmosphere of unconditional acceptance and accurate empathy.  With nearly any psychotherapy, the first and third conditions are present; that is, the client, or patient, is motivated by  But therein lies the difficulty. The qualities of congruence, some sort of tension to seek help, and the relationship unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding between the client and the therapist will last for some period are not easy for a counselor to attain. of time. If-Then Framework  Client-centered therapy is unique in its insistence that the  Like person-centered theory, the client-centered counseling conditions of counselor congruence, unconditional approach can be stated in an if-then fashion. positive regard, and empathic listening are both necessary and sufficient (Rogers, 1957).  If the conditions of therapist congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathic listening are present in a client- Importance of Congruence counselor relationship, then the process of therapy will  Even though all three conditions are necessary for transpire. psychological growth, Rogers (1980) believed that  If the process of therapy takes place, then certain outcomes congruence is more basic than either unconditional positive can be predicted. regard or empathic listening. Conditions, Process, and Outcomes  Congruence is a general quality possessed by the therapist, whereas the other two conditions are specific feelings or  Rogers (1959) postulated that in order for therapeutic growth attitudes that the therapist has for an individual client. to take place, the following conditions are necessary and sufficient. The First Necessary and Sufficient Condition: Counselor Congruence o First, an anxious or vulnerable client must come into contact with a congruent therapist who also  The first necessary and sufficient condition for therapeutic possesses empathy and unconditional positive regard change is a congruent therapist. for that client.   Congruence exists when a person’s organismic experiences  They wear no mask, do not attempt to fake a pleasant facade, are matched by an awareness of them and by an ability and and avoid any pretense of friendliness and affection when willingness to openly express these feelings (Rogers, 1980). these emotions are not truly felt.  To be congruent means to be real or genuine, to be whole or  Also, they do not fake anger, toughness, or ignorance, nor do integrated, to be what one truly is. they cover up feelings of joy, elation, or happiness. Rogers on Congruence  In addition, they are able to match feelings with awareness and both with honest expression.  "In my relationships with persons I have found that it does not help, in the long run, to act as though I were something Components of Congruence that I am not.... It does not help to act calm and pleasant  Because congruence involves (1) feelings, (2) awareness, and when actually I am angry and critical. It does not help to act (3) expression, incongruence can arise from either of as though I were permissive when I am really feeling that I the two points dividing these three experiences. would like to set limits.... It does not help to act as though I were acceptant of another person when underneath that Sources of Incongruence exterior I feel rejection." (Rogers, 1995, p. 9)  First, there can be a breakdown between feelings and Qualities of a Congruent Counselor awareness. A person may be feeling angry, and the anger may be obvious to others; but the angry person is unaware of the  A congruent counselor, then, is not simply a kind and friendly feeling. “I’m not angry. How dare you say I’m angry!” person but rather a complete human being with feelings of joy, anger, frustration, confusion, and so on.  The second source of incongruence is a discrepancy between awareness of an experience and the ability or willingness to  When these feelings are experienced, they are neither denied express it to another. “I know I’m feeling bored by what is nor distorted but flow easily into awareness and are freely being said, but I don’t dare verbalize my disinterest because expressed. my client will think that I am not a good therapist.”  A congruent therapist, therefore, is not passive, not aloof, and Importance of Communicating Genuine Feelings definitely not “nondirective.”  Rogers (1961) stated that therapists will be more effective if  Congruent therapists are not static. Like most other people, they communicate genuine feelings, even when those feelings they are constantly exposed to new organismic experiences, are negative or threatening. but unlike most people, they accept these experiences into awareness, which contributes to their psychological growth.  To do otherwise would be dishonest, and clients will detect— though not necessarily consciously—any significant indicators of incongruence. Degrees of Congruence Characteristics of Unconditional Positive Regard  Although congruence is a necessary ingredient in successful  A therapist with unconditional positive regard toward a client therapy, Rogers (1980) did not believe that it is necessary for will show a nonpossessive warmth and acceptance, not an a therapist to be congruent in all relationships outside the effusive, effervescent persona. therapeutic process.  To have nonpossessive warmth means to care about another  One can be less than perfect and yet become an effective without smothering or owning that person. psychotherapist.  It includes the attitude:  Also, a therapist need not be absolutely congruent in order to o “Because I care about you, I can permit you to be facilitate some growth within a client. autonomous and independent of my evaluations and  As with unconditional positive regard and empathic listening, restrictions. different degrees of congruence exist. o You are a separate person with your own feelings and  The more the client perceives each of these qualities as opinions regarding what is right or wrong. characterizing the therapist, the more successful will be the o The fact that I care for you does not mean that I must therapeutic process. guide you in making choices, but that I can allow you Unconditional Positive Regard to be yourself and to decide what is best for you.”  Positive regard is the need to be liked, prized, or accepted by Misconceptions of Unconditional Positive Regard another person. When this need exists without any conditions  This kind of permissive attitude earned for Rogers the or qualifications, unconditional positive regard occurs undeserved reputation of being passive or nondirective in (Rogers, 1980). therapy, but a client-centered therapist must be actively  Therapists have unconditional positive regard when they are involved in a relationship with the client. “experiencing a warm, positive and accepting attitude toward Acceptance and Consistency what is the client” (Rogers, 1961, p. 62).  Unconditional positive regard means that therapists accept  The attitude is without possessiveness, without evaluations, and prize their clients without any restrictions or reservations and without reservations. and without regard to the clients’ behavior.  Although therapists may value some client behaviors more than others, their positive regard remains constant and unwavering.   Unconditional positive regard also means that therapists do  Empathy does not involve interpreting clients’ meanings or not evaluate clients, nor do they accept one action and reject uncovering their unconscious feelings, procedures that would another. entail an external frame of reference and a threat to clients. External Evaluation  In contrast, empathy suggests that a therapist sees things from the client’s point of view and that the client feels safe  External evaluation, whether positive or negative, leads to and unthreatened. clients’ defensiveness and prevents psychological growth. Checking the Accuracy of Empathy Importance of the Term  Client-centered therapists do not take empathy for granted;  Although unconditional positive regard is a somewhat they check the accuracy of their sensings by trying them out awkward term, all three words are important: on the client. o “Regard” means that there is a close relationship and  “You seem to be telling me that you feel a great deal of that the therapist sees the client as an important resentment toward your father.” person.  Valid empathic understanding is often followed by an o “Positive” indicates that the direction of the exclamation from the client along these lines: “Yes, that’s it relationship is toward warm and caring feelings. exactly! I really do feel resentful.” o “Unconditional” suggests that the positive regard is Role of Empathy in Psychological Growth no longer dependent on specific client behaviors and does not have to be continually earned.  Empathic listening is a powerful tool, which along with genuineness and caring, facilitates personal growth within the Empathic Listening client.  The third necessary and sufficient condition of psychological  Rogers (1980) stated: “When persons are perceptively growth is empathic listening. understood, they find themselves coming in closer touch with  Empathy exists when therapists accurately sense the feelings a wider range of their experiencing. This gives them an of their clients and are able to communicate these perceptions expanded referent to which they can turn for guidance in so that clients know that another person has entered their understanding themselves and directing their behavior. If the world of feelings without prejudice, projection, or evaluation. empathy has been accurate and deep, they may also be able to unblock a flow of experiencing and permit it to run its  To Rogers (1980), empathy “means temporarily living in the uninhibited course.” (p. 156) other’s life, moving about in it delicately without making judgments” (p. 142).   Empathy is effective because it enables clients to listen to Process themselves and, in effect, become their own therapists. If the conditions of therapist congruence, unconditional positive Empathy vs. Sympathy regard, and empathy are present, then the process of therapeutic change will be set in motion.  Empathy should not be confused with sympathy.  each person seeking psychotherapy is unique, Rogers (1959)  The latter term (sympathy) suggests a feeling for a client, believed that a certain lawfulness characterizes the process of whereas empathy connotes a feeling with a client. therapy.  Sympathy is never therapeutic, because it stems from external Stages of Therapeutic Change evaluation and usually leads to clients’ feeling sorry for themselves.  The process of constructive personality change can be placed on a continuum from most defensive to most integrated.  Self-pity is a deleterious attitude that threatens a positive self- Rogers (1961) arbitrarily divided this continuum into seven concept and creates disequilibrium within the self-structure. stages. Therapist’s Role in Empathy Stage 1:  Also, empathy does not mean that a therapist has the same  Characterized by an unwillingness to communicate anything feelings as the client. about oneself.  A therapist does not feel anger, frustration, confusion,  People at this stage ordinarily do not seek help, but if for some resentment, or sexual attraction at the same time a client reason they come to therapy, they are extremely rigid and experiences them. resistant to change.  Rather, a therapist is experiencing the depth of the client’s  They do not recognize any problems and refuse to own any feeling while permitting the client to be a separate person. personal feelings or emotions.  A therapist has an emotional as well as a cognitive reaction to Stage 2: a client’s feelings, but the feelings belong to the client, not the therapist.  Clients become slightly less rigid.  A therapist does not take ownership of a client’s experiences  They discuss external events and other people, but they still but is able to convey to the client an understanding of what it disown or fail to recognize their own feelings. means to be the client at that particular moment (Rogers,  However, they may talk about personal feelings as if such 1961). feelings were objective phenomena. Stage 3:  Clients have begun to undergo significant change and growth.  Clients more freely talk about self, although still as an object.  They can express feelings in the present, although they have not yet accurately symbolized those feelings.  "I’m doing the best I can at work, but my boss still doesn’t like me."  They are beginning to rely on an internal locus of evaluation for their feelings and to make fresh and new discoveries about  Clients talk about feelings and emotions in the past or future themselves. tense and avoid present feelings.  They also experience a greater differentiation of feelings and  They refuse to accept their emotions, keep personal feelings develop more appreciation for nuances among them. at a distance from the here-and-now situation, only vaguely perceive that they can make personal choices, and deny  In addition, they begin to make their own decisions and to individual responsibility for most of their decisions. accept responsibility for their choices. Stage 4: Stage 6:  Clients begin to talk of deep feelings but not ones presently  People experience dramatic growth and an irreversible felt. movement toward becoming fully functioning or self- actualizing.  "I was really burned up when my teacher accused me of cheating."  They freely allow into awareness those experiences that they had previously denied or distorted.  When clients do express present feelings, they are usually surprised by this expression. They deny or distort experiences,  They become more congruent and are able to match their although they may have some dim recognition that they are present experiences with awareness and with open capable of feeling emotions in the present. expression.  They begin to question some values that have been  They no longer evaluate their own behavior from an external introjected from others, and they start to see the viewpoint but rely on their organismic self as the criterion for incongruence between their perceived self and their evaluating experiences. organismic experience.  They begin to develop unconditional self-regard, which means  They accept more freedom and responsibility than they did in that they have a feeling of genuine caring and affection for Stage 3 and begin to tentatively allow themselves to become the person they are becoming. involved in a relationship with the therapist.  An interesting concomitant to this stage is a physiological Stage 5: loosening. These people experience their whole organismic  self, as their muscles relax, tears flow, circulation improves, Theoretical Explanation for Therapeutic Change and physical symptoms disappear.  When persons come to experience themselves as prized and  In many ways, Stage 6 signals an end to therapy. Indeed, if unconditionally accepted, they realize, perhaps for the first therapy were to be terminated at this point, clients would still time, that they are lovable. progress to the next level.  The example of the therapist enables them to prize and accept Stage 7: themselves, to have unconditional positive self-regard.  Can occur outside the therapeutic encounter, because growth  As clients perceive that they are empathically understood, at Stage 6 seems to be irreversible. they are freed to listen to themselves more accurately, to have empathy for their own feelings.  Clients who reach Stage 7 become fully functioning “persons of tomorrow” (a concept more fully explained in the section  As a consequence, when these persons come to prize titled The Person of Tomorrow). themselves and to accurately understand themselves, their perceived self becomes more congruent with their organismic  They are able to generalize their in-therapy experiences to experiences. their world beyond therapy.  They now possess the same three therapeutic characteristics  They possess the confidence to be themselves at all times, to as any effective helper, and in effect, they become their own own and to feel deeply the totality of their experiences, and therapist. to live those experiences in the present. Outcomes  Their organismic self, now unified with the self-concept, becomes the locus for evaluating their experiences.  The most basic outcome of successful client-centered therapy is a congruent client who is less defensive and more open to  People at Stage 7 receive pleasure in knowing that these experience. evaluations are fluid and that change and growth will continue.  As a result of being more congruent and less defensive, clients have a clearer picture of themselves and a more realistic view  In addition, they become congruent, possess unconditional of the world. positive self-regard, and are able to be loving and empathic toward others.  They are better able to assimilate experiences into the self on the symbolic level; they are more effective in solving problems; and they have a higher level of positive self-regard.  Being realistic, they have a more accurate view of their  They are also perceived by others as being more mature, potentials, which permits them to narrow the gap between more likable, and more socialized. self-ideal and real self.  Their genuineness, positive self-regard, and empathic  Typically, this gap is narrowed because both the ideal self and understanding are extended beyond therapy, and they the true self show some movement. become better able to participate in other growth-facilitating relationships.  Because clients are more realistic, they lower their expectations of what they should be or would like to be; and because they have an increase in positive self-regard, they raise their view of what they really are.  Because their ideal self and their real self are more congruent, clients experience less physiological and psychological tension, are less vulnerable to threat, and have less anxiety.  They are less likely to look to others for direction and less likely to use others’ opinions and values as the criteria for evaluating their own experiences.  Instead, they become more self-directed and more likely to perceive that the locus of evaluation resides within themselves.  They no longer feel compelled to please other people and to meet external expectations. The Person of Tomorrow  They feel sufficiently safe to take ownership of an increasing number of their experiences and comfortable enough with  The interest shown by Rogers in the psychologically healthy themselves to lessen their need for denial and distortion. individual is rivaled only by that of Maslow (see Chapter 9).  Their relationships with others are also changed. They o Whereas Maslow was primarily a researcher, Rogers become more accepting of others, make fewer demands, and was first of all a psychotherapist whose concern with simply allow others to be themselves. psychologically healthy people grew out of his general theory of therapy.  Because they have less need to distort reality, they have less desire to force others to meet their expectations.  o In 1951, Rogers first briefly put forward his o For people who are open to experience, all stimuli, “characteristics of the altered personality”; then he whether stemming from within the organism or from enlarged on the concept of the fully functioning the external environment, are freely received by the person in an unpublished paper self. o In 1959, his theory of the healthy personality was o Persons of tomorrow would listen to themselves and expounded in the Koch series, and he returned to this hear their joy, anger, discouragement, fear, and topic frequently during the early 1960s tenderness. o Somewhat later, he described both the world of  A related characteristic of persons of tomorrow would be a tomorrow and the person of tomorrow trust in their organismic selves.  If the three necessary and sufficient therapeutic conditions of o These fully functioning people would not depend on congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy are others for guidance because they would realize that optimal, then what kind of person would emerge? their own experiences are the best criteria for making choices; they would do what feels right for them o Rogers listed several possible characteristics. because they would trust their own inner feelings more than the pontifications of parents or the rigid rules of society. Characteristics of the Person of Tomorrow o However, they would also perceive clearly the rights  First, psychologically healthy people would be more and feelings of other people, which they would take adaptable. into consideration when making decisions. o Thus, from an evolutionary viewpoint, they would be  A third characteristic of persons of tomorrow would be a more likely to survive—hence the title “persons of tendency to live fully in the moment. tomorrow.” o Because these people would be open to their o They would not merely adjust to a static environment experiences, they would experience a constant state but would realize that conformity and adjustment to of fluidity and change. a fixed condition have little long-term survival value. o What they experience in each moment would be new  Second, persons of tomorrow would be open to their and unique, something never before experienced by experiences, accurately symbolizing them in awareness rather their evolving self. than denying or distorting them. o They would see each experience with a new freshness and appreciate it fully in the present moment.  o Rogers (1961) referred to this tendency to live in the  Fifth, persons of tomorrow would be more integrated, more moment as existential living. whole, with no artificial boundary between conscious processes and unconscious ones. o Persons of tomorrow would have no need to deceive themselves and no reason to impress others. o Because they would be able to accurately symbolize all their experiences in awareness, they would see o They would be young in mind and spirit, with no clearly the difference between what is and what preconceptions about how the world should be. should be. o They would discover what an experience means to o Because they would use their organismic feelings as them by living that experience without the prejudice criteria for evaluating their experiences, they would of prior expectations. bridge the gap between their real self and their ideal  Fourth, persons of tomorrow would remain confident of their self. own ability to experience harmonious relations with others. o Because they would have no need to defend their o They would feel no need to be liked or loved by self-importance, they would present no facades to everyone, because they would know that they are other people; and because they would have unconditionally prized and accepted by someone. confidence in who they are, they could openly express whatever feelings they are experiencing. o They would seek intimacy with another person who is probably equally healthy, and such a relationship  Sixth, persons of tomorrow would have a basic trust of itself would contribute to the continual growth of each human nature. partner. o They would not harm others merely for personal gain; o Persons of tomorrow would be authentic in their they would care about others and be ready to help relations with others. when needed; they would experience anger but could be trusted not to strike out unreasonably against o They would be what they appear to be, without deceit others; they would feel aggression but would channel or fraud, without defenses and facades, without it in appropriate directions. hypocrisy and sham.  Finally, seventh, because persons of tomorrow are open to o They would care about others, but in a all their experiences, they would enjoy a greater richness in nonjudgmental manner. life than do other people. o They would seek meaning beyond themselves and o They would neither distort internal stimuli nor buffer would yearn for the spiritual life and inner peace. their emotions.  o Consequently, they would feel more deeply than  Science begins when an intuitive scientist starts to perceive others. patterns among phenomena. o They would live in the present and thus participate o At first, these dimly seen relationships may be too more richly in the ongoing moment. vague to be communicated to others, but they are nourished by a caring scientist until eventually they Philosophy of Science can be formulated into testable hypotheses.  Rogers was first a scientist; second, a therapist; and third, a o These hypotheses, then, are the consequence of an personality theorist. open-minded scientist and not the result of o Because his scientific attitude permeates both his preexisting stereotypical thought. therapy and his theory of personality, we look briefly  At this point, methodology enters the picture. at his philosophy of science. o Although the creativity of a scientist may yield  According to Rogers (1968), science begins and ends with the innovative methods of research, these procedures subjective experience, although everything in between must themselves must be rigorously controlled, empirical, be objective and empirical. and objective. o Scientists must have many of the characteristics of o Precise methods prevent the scientist from self- the person of tomorrow; that is, they must be inclined deception and from intentionally or unintentionally to look within, to be in tune with internal feelings and manipulating the observations. values, to be intuitive and creative, to be open to experiences, to welcome change, to have a fresh o But this precision should not be confused with outlook, and to possess a solid trust in themselves. science. It is only the method of science that is precise and objective.  Rogers (1968) believed that scientists should be completely involved in the phenomena being studied.  The scientist then communicates findings from that method to others, but the communication itself is subjective. o For example, people who conduct research on psychotherapy must first have had long careers as o The people receiving the communication bring their therapists. own degrees of open-mindedness or defensiveness into this process. o Scientists must care about and care for newly born ideas and nurture them lovingly through their fragile o They have varying levels of readiness to receive the infancy. findings, depending on the prevailing climate of  scientific thought and the personal subjective active or latent, for self-understanding as well as the capacity experiences of each individual. and tendency to move in the direction of self-actualization and maturity. The Chicago Studies  This tendency will become realized provided the therapist Research Approach creates the proper psychological atmosphere.  Rogers did not permit methodology to dictate the nature of  Rogers hypothesized that during therapy, clients would his research. assimilate into their self-concepts those feelings and  They did not formulate hypotheses simply because the tools experiences previously denied to awareness. for testing them were readily available.  He also predicted that during and after therapy the  They began by sensing vague impressions from clinical discrepancy between real self and ideal self would diminish experience and gradually forming these into testable and that the observed behavior of clients would become more hypotheses. socialized, more self-accepting, and more accepting of others.  It was only then that Rogers and his colleagues dealt with the  These hypotheses, in turn, became the foundation for several task of finding or inventing instruments by which these more specific hypotheses, which were operationally stated hypotheses could be tested. and then tested. Purpose Method  The purpose of the Chicago Studies was to investigate both Measuring Instruments the process and the outcomes of client-centered therapy.  Because the hypotheses of the study dictated that subtle  The therapists were of a "journeyman" level. They included subjective personality changes be measured in an objective Rogers and other faculty members, but graduate students fashion, the selection of measuring instruments was a difficult also served as therapists. one.  Though they ranged widely in experience and ability, all were  To assess change from an external viewpoint, the researchers basically client-centered in approach. used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Self-Other Attitude Scale (S-O Scale), and the Willoughby Emotional Hypotheses Maturity Scale (E-M Scale).  Research at the University of Chicago Counseling Center was  The TAT, a projective personality test developed by Henry built around the basic client-centered hypothesis, which states Murray, was used to test hypotheses that called for a standard that all persons have within themselves the capacity, either clinical diagnosis.   The S-O Scale, an instrument compiled at the Counseling 1. They asked half the people in the therapy group to wait 60 Center from several earlier sources, measures antidemocratic days before they would receive therapy. trends and ethnocentrism. o These participants, known as the own-control or wait  The E-M Scale was used to compare descriptions of clients’ group, were required to wait before receiving therapy behavior and emotional maturity as seen by two close friends in order to determine if motivation to change rather and by the clients themselves. than the therapy itself might cause people to get better.  To measure change from the client’s point of view, the researchers relied on the Q sort technique developed by o The other half of the therapy group, called the no- William Stephenson of the University of Chicago. wait group, received therapy immediately.  The Q sort technique begins with a universe of 100 self- 2. The second control consisted of a separate group of referent statements printed on 3-by-5 cards, which "normals," who had volunteered to serve as participants in a participants are requested to sort into nine piles from "most "research on personality" study. like me" to "least like me." o This comparison group allowed researchers to  At various points throughout the study, participants were determine the effects of such variables as passage of requested to sort the cards to describe their self, their ideal time, knowledge that one is part of an experiment self, and the ordinary person. (the placebo effect), and the impact of repeated testing. Participants o The participants in this control group were divided  Participants for the study were 18 men and 11 women who into a wait group and a no-wait group, which had sought therapy at the Counseling Center. corresponded to the wait and no-wait therapy groups.  More than half were university students and the others were  Researchers tested both the therapy wait group and the from the surrounding community. control wait group four times: at the beginning of the 60-day  These clients—called the experimental or therapy group— wait period, prior to therapy, immediately after therapy, and received at least six therapeutic interviews, and each session after a 6- to 12-month follow-up period. was electronically recorded and transcribed, a procedure  They administered the no-wait groups the same tests on the Rogers had pioneered as early as 1938. same occasions, except, of course, prior to the wait period. Control Methods  The researchers used two different methods of control. Findings friends, whereas those rated as least improved received lower scores from their friends. Discrepancy Between Self and Ideal Self  Before therapy, clients typically rated themselves less mature  The researchers found that the therapy group showed less than their friends rated them, but as therapy progressed, they discrepancy between self and ideal self after therapy than began to rate themselves higher and, therefore, more in before, and they retained almost all those gains throughout agreement with their friends’ ratings. the follow-up period.  Participants in the control group showed no changes  As expected, the "normal" controls had a higher level of throughout the study in emotional maturity as judged by congruence than the therapy group at the beginning of the friends. study, but in contrast to the therapy group, they showed almost no change in congruence between self and self-ideal Summary of Results from the initial testing until the final follow-up.  The Chicago Studies demonstrated that people receiving Self-Concept vs. Perception of Others client-centered therapy generally showed some growth or improvement.  The therapy group changed their self-concept more than they changed their perception of the ordinary person.  The therapy group began treatment as less healthy than the control group, showed growth during therapy, and retained  This finding suggests that, although clients showed little most of that improvement throughout the follow-up period. change in their notion of what the average person was like, they manifested marked change in their perceptions of self.  However, they never attained the level of psychological health demonstrated by "normal" people in the control group.  In other words, intellectual insight does not result in psychological growth.  Looking at these outcomes another way, the typical person receiving client-centered therapy probably never approaches Behavioral Changes Perceived by Friends Stage 7 hypothesized by Rogers.  In general, the friends reported no significant behavioral  A more realistic expectation might be for clients to advance to changes in the clients from the pretherapy period to Stage 3 or 4. posttherapy.  Client-centered therapy is effective, but it does not result in  However, this global rating of no change was due to a the fully functioning person. counterbalancing effect.  Clients judged by their therapists as being most improved received higher posttherapy maturity scores from their Critique of Rogers o Rogers’ theory serves as a valuable model for future theorists in constructing a personality theory. Evaluation Against the Six Criteria of a Useful Theory 6. Parsimony 1. Generates Research and Testable Hypotheses o The theory is clear and economical overall but includes some o Rogerian theory has produced significant research in concepts—such as "organismic experiencing" and "fully psychotherapy and classroom learning. functioning"—that are broad and imprecise, slightly detracting from its parsimony. o Outside these areas, its productivity has been moderate, leading to an average rating for sparking research in the general field of Concept of Humanity personality. 1. Free Will and Determinism 2. Falsifiability o Rogers believed humans have some degree of free choice and o Rated high for falsifiability due to its formulation in an if-then capacity for self-direction, though he acknowledged that some framework, which allows for confirmation or disconfirmation. behaviors are controlled and predictable. o Rogers’ precise language supported research efforts that exposed 2. Optimism and Realism his theory of therapy to falsification, although subsequent followers have tested it less rigorously. o Rogers maintained a realistically optimistic view, recognizing human capacity for evil while emphasizing a fundamental tendency 3. Organizes Knowledge toward growth and self-actualization. o While much of the research is limited to interpersonal relations, 3. Innate Growth Tendency Rogerian theory can extend to diverse aspects of human personality. o Argued that humans, like other organisms, have an innate drive toward growth, with self-awareness distinguishing them from o Rogers’ work spanned group dynamics, classroom learning, social plants and animals. problems, and international relations, earning the theory a high rating for explaining known human behavior. o Proper conditions facilitate self-actualization, moving individuals toward being fully functioning. 4. Guides the Solution of Practical Problems 4. Teleology o Provides clear guidance for therapists to foster personality change through congruence, empathic understanding, and unconditional o Rogers viewed humans as purpose-driven, consciously striving positive regard. toward self-defined goals under appropriate therapeutic conditions. o Rogers asserted these three conditions are both necessary and 5. Individual Differences sufficient for growth in any interpersonal relationship. o Emphasize