Medicinal Plants Lecture 10 PDF

Medicinal plants 2024/2025 Lecture 10 Dr. Amal F. Soliman Associate Professors of Pharmacognosy  ‫أجزاء المنهج‬ ❑ Anatomy (Lectures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6) ❑ Dusting powders (Lecture 7) ❑ Taxonomy (Lecture 8) ❑ Physiology (Lecture 9) ❑ Introduction to Pharmacognosy...

Medicinal plants 2024/2025 Lecture 10 Dr. Amal F. Soliman Associate Professors of Pharmacognosy  ‫أجزاء المنهج‬ ❑ Anatomy (Lectures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6) ❑ Dusting powders (Lecture 7) ❑ Taxonomy (Lecture 8) ❑ Physiology (Lecture 9) ❑ Introduction to Pharmacognosy (Lecture 10, 11) Introduction to Pharmacognosy ‫مقدمة لعمل العقاقري‬ Pharmacognosy: means the knowledge of drugs. ✓ This word is derived from the Greek words: Pharmakon: which means drug. gnosis: which means knowledge of. ✓ This science is related to “the study of the structural, chemical and sensory characters of crude drugs of vegetable, mineral and animal origin”. ✓ It includes also their cultivation, collection, preservation, preparation for the market as well as their evaluation. ❑ Crude drug means the “collected and usually dried or fresh plant or animal product of medicinal use without any further processing” (such as extraction or any modification). ❑ Source of Crude (Natural) Drugs ✓ Mineral: Sulfur – Kaolin – Prepared chalk ✓ Plant: Senna – Henbane – Opium ✓ Animal: Cod liver oil – Beeswax – Musk – Venom ❑ Official and unofficial drug: An official drug is that which is described in the pharmacopoeia (a book recognized by the government as a legal authority for standards).  History of Pharmacognosy and folk medicine ▪ In the earliest times, man studied the plants and animals as a source of food. ▪ In the meantime, by observation, trial and error, man was able to distinguish between poisonous and non-poisonous plants and to discover the healing properties of some of them. ▪ The collective data about the therapeutically used plants forms the well-known “Folk Medicine”.  The ancient people described hundreds of herbs besides drugs of animal and mineral origin, which are used as remedies for many diseases as shown by ancient documents.  Ancient Egyptians ▪ Reported some medicinal plants and animal products: ✓ Papaver (as sedative) ✓ Colocynth (as purgative) ✓ Henbane, datura (as antispasmodic) ✓ Fenugreek (as lactagogue) Babylonians Made clay models of human body and their early writing indicates they were aware of the medicinal effects of several plants.  Old Indian Medicine Early text of Ayurveda (knowledge of long life) was compiled around 1000 BC. Plants described by Indian Ayurveda like: - Sandal wood, Clove, Caraway and Cannabis Chinese medicine - Around 400 BC - For every disease there must be a drug curing it, provided by nature. Greeks - Hippocrates (father of medicine) - Aristotle Arab scientists - Ibn Sina (Canon or Al Qanon Fi Al Tibb) - Ibn Al-Bitar - Gaber Ibn Hayan - Abu Baker El-Razi Nowadays, there is a strong tendency to return to nature to replace the Synthetic drugs by the natural products for both: safety and efficiency.  Production of Crude Drugs ❑ Cultivation of medicinal plants. ❑ Collection. ❑ Drying. ❑ Storage  1- Cultivation of medicinal plants Medicinal plants are either grown wildly or cultivated. ✓ Plants growing in their native land are said to be indigenous to this land, e.g., Aconitum napellus indigenous to the mountainous regions of Europe. ✓ When plants grow in a foreign land or in a locality other than their nature home, they are said to be naturalized, e.g., Datura stramonium was introduced into and naturalized in U.S.A. from Europe. ▪ Many crude drugs are collected from wild plants (Gentian), others are collected entirely from cultivated plants (Cinnamon), but sometimes, a crude drug is obtained from both wild and cultivated sources (Senna leaves). The collection of wild plants for medicinal use is frequently accompanied by several disadvantages: ✓ Wild plants are found in sparse ‫ متفرقة‬distributions over unlimited areas. ✓ Difficulty in collection and transport because they are mostly growing in deserts, or forests far from any means of transport. ✓ Continuous extensive collection may lead to extinction or a serious plant deficiency. ✓ Collection of crude drugs from wild sources may lead to adulteration due to ignorance of collectors who may collect the desired plant with others, Undesirable organ of the desired plant, The desired plant at improper time. ✓ The collected amounts of wild plants may be insufficient for the market needs and may lead to monopoly. Advantages of cultivation of medicinal plants:- ✓ Concentration of the plants in a small area and therefore simplifying collection. ✓ Control of the purity of the product. ✓ Improvement of the drug by controlling certain factors in cultivation as: ▪ Treatment of seeds before sowing to ensure germination, e.g., soaking Hyoscyamus seeds in sulfuric acid fastens germination and their treatment with colchicine increases the alkaloid content of crop. ▪ The use of fertilizers which increase the active constituents of the plants, by providing the essential elements for plants nutrition such as N, K and P. ▪ Controlling insect infestation. ✓ Cultivation assures a regular and constant supply and helps to break down monopolies such as in cases of Cinchona, Cloves and Nutmeg. ✓ Cultivation of drugs in proximity to the factory is an advantage for making fresh green extracts. ✓ Cultivation helps study of the constituents of plants grown under controlled conditions. Disadvantages of cultivation ▪ The high cost of production except when carried on large scale. ▪ Some medicinal plants require imitation to particular habitat, e.g., - Cannabis requires tropical climate for production of narcotic resin. - Cinchona requires damp hot weather. - Aloes requires a heavy rain fall. ▪ Cultivation may modify the morphological as well as the anatomical characters of the wild plant so that the identification of the plant becomes difficult.  2- Collection ▪ In order to ensure maximum quality and quantity of their active constituents, medicinal plants must be collected 1- at the proper time. 2- at the proper stage of development. 1- Time of collection: a- Time of the year ▪ The nature and the level of active constituents varies through out the year. ▪ Rhubarb and Rumex contain no anthraquinones in winter, but instead they contain anthranols which are converted to anthraquinone compounds in summer. b- Time of the day: The time of the day would affect the active constituents of drugs, e.g.: 1- Digitalis leaves collected in the afternoon contain more cardiac glycosides than those collected in the morning. 2- Solanaceous leaves have higher alkaloid content in the morning than those collected in the afternoon. 2- Stage of the development of the plant ▪ The percentage of active principles depends on the stage of maturity and age of the plants collected. Examples: ✓ Solanaceous leaves contain the maximum percentage of alkaloids at the flowering stage. ✓ Santonica flowers ‫الش يح اخلراساىن‬ are rich in the bitter principle santonin when they are non-expanded and show sharp depression in it upon expansion. Collection of Flowers ✓ It must be carried out in fine dry weather in order to fix the color of the product. ✓ Cloves and Santonica are collected in bud stage (before expansion). ✓ Chamomile flowers are collected just after full expansion. Collection of Barks ▪ It is usually done in the spring or in early summer when the cambium is active, and the bark can be easily stripped off from the trunk and branches Decortication ▪ The removal of outer unrequired tissues by (decortication). ▪ Example:- decortication process is made for the following reasons:- ✓ Lack or low percentage of active principles in the outer parts. ✓ Presence of unrequired constituents in the outer tissues. ✓ Acquire a good appearance. Liquorice (Licorice) Cinnamon Cassia ‫العرق سوس‬ ‫قرش الرضسيىن‬ ‫قرش القرفه‬  Production of Crude Drugs ❑ Cultivation of medicinal plants. ❑ Collection. ❑ Drying. ❑ Storage  3- Drying of Crude Drugs ▪ Fresh plants usually contain high percentage of moisture (up to 80 or 90%). ▪ Drying is the removal of water or most of it from fresh living tissues. The duration of drying process varies from a few hours to many weeks. ▪ Moisture must be removed in order to:- ✓ Stop the enzymatic action that might change the active constituents, i.e., to fix the active constituents. ✓ Avoid deterioration upon storage by preventing the growth of micro-organisms (bacteria and fungi). ✓ Facilitate packing and storage. ✓ Lower the transportation cost as the weight of the drug is greatly reduced. ✓ Facilitate grinding of drug. ▪ The most important factors in drying process are temperature and time:- ✓ To use as low temperature as possible. ✓ To carry out the operation as rapid as possible. ▪ There is an optimum combination of temperature and time factor for each drug. ▪ If an enzymatic reaction is required, the drying process is carried out slowly as in case of Vanilla pods to release vanillin to be less bitter. ▪ If the enzymatic hydrolysis is not desired, drying must be carried as quickly as possible as in case of digitalis and drugs containing volatile oils. Vanilla pods  Methods of drying I) Natural drying:- (Use of climatic heat) Sun drying. Shade drying. II) Artificial drying:- Direct fire. Stoves. Drying chambers. Vacuum drying. Freeze drying or lyophilization.  I) Natural drying:- (Use of climatic heat) ▪ Generally, the drug is spread and turned over from time to time and protected from rain and moisture by covering at night. 1- Sun drying: It can be used for drugs which are not affected by direct exposure to sun heat and light e.g., Senna leaves. 2- Shade drying: It is a frequently used method at air temperature in shade, e.g., flowers whose colors are destroyed by direct exposure to sunlight.  II) Artificial drying ▪ It is suitable method in countries (as west Africa) where weather does not fit the natural drying due to very high humidity. ▪ The temp. must be adjusted not to destroy the active constituents (usually not exceeding 60oC). ▪ Advantages: ✓ Immediately stops the enzymatic action. ✓ More rapid drying. ▪ Methods Direct fire. Stoves. Drying chambers. Vacuum drying. Freeze drying or lyophilization. (1) Direct fire ✓ It imparts smoky odor to the drugs and produces gelatinization of starch. (2) Stoves (ovens) ✓ It must be done carefully to prevent damage or burning of the drug. (3) Drying chambers ✓ It is a controlled and most preferable method where drugs are put on shelves in chambers having openings to allow entrance of a warm steam of air through an inlet near the floor and the exit of the moist warm air through an outlet near the roof. (4) Vacuum drying ✓ It is used for the drugs sensitive to high temp. The chambers are airtight and connected to an efficient vacuum pump. As the pressure is lowered, the water content of the drug is removed at higher rate and at lower temp. e.g., Digitalis leaves. 5) Freeze drying or lyophilization ✓This method is generally used for drying the extremely delicate products such as serum and for food stuffs such as orange juice and coffee extracts. ✓The principle of this process is the removal of water content of the drug when present in the frozen state under vacuum at which it sublimes into vapors directly without passing through the liquid state.  Effects of drying on Crude Drugs 1-Odor: Change of the natural odor of drugs may occur on drying. ✓ Digitalis and Hyoscyamus lose their bad odor when dried. ✓ Fresh vanilla pods are odorless and on drying they get a fragrant aromatic odor due to liberation of vanillin. Hyoscyamus muticus ‫السكران املرصى‬ 2-Taste: The taste of the drug may be altered on drying e.g., gentian is very bitter when fresh, becoming pleasant on drying. 3- Constituents ✓ During drying, enzymatic action changes the constituents of some drugs. These changes may be desirable or undesirable. ✓ Desirable changes: e.g., Vanilla pods. The drying process is carried out slowly to allow optimum hydrolysis of glucoside, glucovanillin, to vanillin. ✓ Undesirable changes: e.g., Digitalis leaves. The changes of active constituents are not required, thus drying must be carried out quickly to prevent the enzymatic hydrolysis. Rapid drying prevent the decomposition of active principles. Therefore, the best method is vacuum drying. 4- Texture: Drugs become harder on drying. 5- Color: Generally, drugs become darker, in some cases the color usually changes completely. ✓ Tea leaves changes from the green to dark brown, almost black. ✓ Flowers also lose their color especially when red or blue due to destruction of anthocyanin pigment. 4- Storage of drugs  Factors affecting deterioration of crude drugs during storage ▪ Physicochemical factors ▪ Biological factors 1. Moisture 1. Bacteria & Fungi 2. Temperature 2. Mites & Nematodes 3. Light 3. Rodents 4. Air 4. Insects  Physicochemical factors 1. Moisture ▪ Dried drugs stored in the usual containers reabsorb about 10% or more of moisture & are termed air dried. ▪ Moisture may cause: ✓ Hydrolysis of active constituents by enzymes (any amount over 5% activates hydrolysis of active principles of Digitalis). ✓ The growth of bacteria & fungi. Stabilization of drug against moisture ✓ Temporary stabilization: by storing the drug in containers enclosing dehydrating agent such as quick lime or calcium chloride. ✓ Complete stabilization: by destroying enzyme by subjecting the fresh drug to alcohol vapor or immersing in alcohol. 2. Temperature ▪ The rate of biological processes are accelerated by raising the temperature. Therefore, a slight rise in temperature above the normal will activate the enzymatic action or induce molecular rearrangements. ▪ Drugs directly affected with rise of temperature are those containing volatile oils such as buchu, cloves & chamomile. 3. Light ▪ Light may affect delicate-colored drugs, e.g.: ✓ Rose petals are red when fresh & changing to brown on exposure to light. ✓ Digitalis leaves lose its activity more rapidly in sun light. ▪ To avoid the effects of light, most drugs should be stored in the dark or using opaque or amber-colored glass containers. 4. Air ▪ Oxygen of air has a definite oxidation effect on the active constituents of some drugs such as colophony & linseed oil leading to lowering the product quality. ▪ In some cases, oxidative changes are required, e.g., Frangula bark. ▪ Powdered drugs are more liable to oxidative effects than entire drugs as diffusion of oxygen is faster. Oxidative changes are preferable  Biological factors 1. Bacteria & Fungi ▪ Sufficient moisture content is essential for bacterial of fungal infestation. ▪ Fungi usually attack drugs rich in nutritive substances such as bulbs, corms, roots & rhizomes if they are not stored properly. ▪ Bacterial & fungal infestation may change physical properties of the drug such as color & texture. ▪ Presence of fungi is indicated by their hyphae. Hyphae of fungi 2. Mites & Nematodes ▪ Mites ✓ Belong to the spider group. ✓ Can be recognized under microscope by having four pairs of legs & their oval body. ✓ They are visible by the naked eye. ▪ Nematodes ✓ Belong to the group of round worms. ✓ Mites & nematodes may attack the wheat flour & belladonna stems. 3. Rodents ▪ They cause spoilage of crude drugs during storage if the drugs are store in paper, cloth, cardboard or wooden containers. ▪ Packing & storing the drugs in glass or metal containers may eliminate the danger of rodents. ▪ Presence of hairs & excreta causes rejection of many drugs. ▪ Rodenticides (e.g., α-naphthylthiourea) may be used to eliminate rats & mice. 4. Insects Methods for Insects destruction before storage 1. Heat treatment by exposure to 60-65 ᴼC ✓ It is effective for insects' eggs that isn’t easily penetrated by insecticides. ✓ This method is unsuitable if heating affects the active constituents of the drug. 2. Fumigation using volatile insecticidal agents in closed area ✓ Using carbon tetrachloride, carbon bisulfide or T-gas (a mixture of 90% ethylene oxide and carbon 10% dioxide). ✓ Most fumigants do not kill the eggs of insects, and therefore it is common to repeat fumigation at intervals of two weeks, to give better chance of eliminating all insects, since time is permitted for eggs to hatch, and larvae are killed. o Stored drugs that are susceptible to insect attacks should be fumigated routinely every 3 or 4 months. 3. Liming, a procedure used for a few drugs e.g., ginger, nutmeg ✓ The drug is dipped in freshly slaked lime or sprinkled with quick lime to coat it with a fine powder which clogs the breathing tubes of larva and adult insects. 4. Exposure to alternate periods of low and high temperature frequently Choose * Plants growing in their native lands are classified as: 1- Indigenous 2- Introduced 3- Cultivated 4- Germinated * In binomial nomenclature system of the plants, the first name denotes: 1- Species 2- Genus 3- Author 4- None of the previous * The standard ending of the family name in the new system is: 1- 2- 3- 4- * Which of the following can be used for tapeworm infestation: 1- Lycopodium 2- China clay 3- Chalk 4- Kamala 1 ▪ Is it a dicot or monocot stem? Please explain your answer. ▪ What is the type of vascular bundle in the shown diagram? ▪ What is the function of pith? 2 ▪ Mention the three types of calcium oxalate crystals shown in the previous figure. ▪ In general, how do plants accumulate calcium oxalate crystals? 3 ▪ Mention the name of the cell content in the figure. ▪ How can you confirm the content by a chemical test?  Medicinal plants 2024/2025 Lecture 11 Dr. Amal F. Soliman Associate Professors of Pharmacognosy  ‫أجزاء المنهج‬ ❑ Anatomy (Lectures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6) ❑ Dusting powders (Lecture 7) ❑ Taxonomy (Lecture 9) ❑ Physiology (Lecture 9) ❑ Introduction to Pharmacognosy (Lectures 10, 11)  Adulteration ‫الغش‬ ❑ Adulteration occurs when the drug is scarce drug or expensive. It occurs intentionally or due to ignorance and carelessness. ❑ The adulterate is usually a cheap material and is available in large amount. ❑ Adulteration with worthless material will lower the quality and the efficacy of the drug. Adulteration with poisonous material will affect also, the safety of the drug. So, the adulteration should be identified.  Types of Adulteration 1. Sophistication (Drug+ Adulterant) (true adulteration) ▪ It is the addition of an inferior material to the drug intentionally. ▪ Examples: The addition of saw dust to ginger powder or hazelnut shell to cinnamon or rhubarb powder.  2. Substitution (Adulterant only) ▪ It is the use of an entirely different article in place of the true drug. (i.e., none of the true drug is present). ▪ Types of substitution: Substitution by an inferior variety of the drug, (dog senna instead of the true senna). Substitution by a morphologically similar but completely different drug, (Phytolacca decandra leaves for Atropa belladonna leaves). Substitution of ginger with mixture of maize starch to give bulk of powder with enough capsicum to restore the pungency and curcuma to restore the color. Substitution by an exhausted drug. The residue remains very similar to the original material, so used as substituents (Exhausted tea, exhausted liquorice). Atropa belladonna Phytolacca decandra  3. Admixture ▪ The addition of one article to another through accident, ignorance or carelessness. Admixture may occur through faulty collection. ▪ Collection of another part of the same plant, e.g., stems, stalks and aerial parts with leaf drugs. ▪ Collection of other plants by mistake or ignorance of collectors.  4. Inferiority ▪ This means the use of a substandard drug i.e., inferior to the true one (containing less amounts of active constituents). ▪ It may occur as a result of collecting the drug in the wrong time. 5. Deterioration (Spoilage) ▪ In this type, an impairment of the quality of the drug occurs as a result of either aging or improper storage or destruction by fungi or insects. ▪ All these factors results in lowering or destruction of the active constituents of the drug.  6. Addition of worthless heavy material ▪ Stones were found in the center of Liquorice bales. ▪ Pieces of lead shots were found in opium.  Evaluation of crude drugs ▪ Evaluation of a drug means its identification and determination of its quality and purity. ▪ We use several methods: 1. Organoleptic methods 2. Microscopical methods 3. Biological methods 4. Chemical methods 5. Physical methods 6. Chromatographic methods 1. Organoleptic methods ▪ Organoleptic refers to evaluation of drugs by means of the organs of sense. ▪ This includes the macroscopic appearance of the drug (shape, size, color, external marking, and fracture), taste, and the feel of the drug to touch. 2. Microscopic methods ▪ The microscopic examination of the entire and powdered drugs is essential for their investigation and detection of adulteration. ▪ We can use different mounting media, one can study the different elements and the cell contents, e.g. ✓ Water: to examine starch. ✓ Phloroglucinol-hydrochloric acid: to examine lignified elements. ✓ Chloral hydrate: to examine calcium oxalate, trichomes, epidermal cell and others. 3. Biological methods ▪ The pharmacological activity of certain drugs (e.g., antibiotics, hormones, vaccines, and some other drugs) has been applied to their evaluation and standardization. ▪ Assays on living animals or on organs often indicates the strength of the drug or its preparation. 4. Chemical methods ▪ Chemical tests for the chief active constituents are employed to identify certain crude drugs. ▪ Examples are the color reaction of alkaloids with alkaloid reagents and the reducing effect of sugars with the Molisch's, Fehling, and Barfoed's reagents. 5. Physical methods ▪ Physical constants such as solubility, specific gravity, optical rotation, refractive index and melting point are extensively determined for the active principles of drugs. ▪ Examples: ✓ In case of clove and galls when sink in water, they are of good quality. ✓ UV examination is applied in case of certain drugs such as Rhubarb (to detect any adulteration with the blue fluorescent (Rhapontic rhubarb) and in case of some alkaloids such as quinine (blue), and emetine (orange). ‫القرنفل‬ 6. Chromatographic methods ▪ Chromatography refers to a number of sensitive techniques for the separation & identification of drugs. ▪ For each drug extract, there is a chromatographic fingerprint that can be used for its identification by comparing with authentic one. HPLC Chromatogram TLC  Chemistry of Crude drugs I- Food storage substances ▪ Starch ▪ Protein ▪ Fixed oils and Fats II- By-products of metabolism 1. Crystals (Oxalate, Carbonate, Silica) 2. Gum, Mucilage and Pectin 3. Resin and Resin combinations 4. Tannins 5. Volatile oils 6. Alkaloids 7. Glycosides I- Food storage substances ▪ Starch Gives blue color with Iodine solution. Stained red with Millon reagent, yellowish brown with iodine ▪ Protein solution and yellow with picric acid. ▪ Fixed oils and Fats ✓ They are greasy and non-volatile. ✓ They give permanent stain on paper. ✓ They are hydrolyzed by alkali giving soaps and glycerin. ✓ They are stained red with Sudan III and Alkanna tincture. II- By-products of metabolism 1. Crystals (Oxalate, Carbonate, Silica) a- Calcium oxalate ▪ It is a very common cell content in plant kingdom. ▪ It is formed in the cell as a product of metabolism; as a result of the reaction of the calcium salt absorbed from the soil and oxalic acid produced in the plant from the metabolic process. ▪ It crystallizes when the cell sap is super saturated with the salt in different shapes and sizes characteristic for each plant. Forms of Ca Oxalate crystals Prisms Clusters Acicular or Needle Micro crystals or shaped crystals sandy crystals b- Calcium carbonate ▪ They are found embedded in the cell walls, or in outgrowths of it e.g., hairs (Cystolith) as in leaves of Cannabis sativa. ▪ Calcium carbonate can be identified by dissolving in dilute acids with effervescence. c- Silica ▪ Silica forms the skeleton of diatoms (kieselguhr) and occur in the cell walls of some plants or as masses in the interior of the cells e.g., sclerenchymatous layer of cardamom seed. N.B. ✓Diatoms are single-celled organisms. ✓The skeleton of a diatom, is made of very pure silica coated with a layer of organic material. ▪ Silica is insoluble in all acids except hydrofluoric acid. 2. Gum, Mucilage and Pectin ▪ These are polysaccharide complexes formed from sugar and uronic acid units. ▪ Mucilage are two types: ✓ Pectose type (e.g., Senna leaves). It is stained red with Rhuthenium red. ✓ Callose type (e.g., Fenugreek seeds). It is stained red with Coralline soda. Gums Corchorus olitorius ‫امللوخية‬ 3. Resin and Resin combinations ▪ Resins are formed in plants as amorphous masses of different chemical structure. ▪ They may be secreted into secretory ducts or cavities. Rosin (Colophony) Frankincense (Olibanum) ‫قلفونيه‬ ‫اللبان ادلكر‬ 4. Tannins ▪ They are phenolic substances. ▪ Tannins have astringent effect. ▪ There are classified into two main groups: ✓ Pyrogallol tannins (Hydrolysable tannins) gives bluish black color with FeCl3. ✓ Catechol tannins (Condensed tannins) gives greenish black color with FeCl3. 5. Volatile oils ▪ Chemically: they are mixtures of hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds derived from these hydrocarbons. ▪ Give temporary stain on filter paper. ▪ They give red color with Sudan III and Alkanna tincture. ▪ Secreted in: ✓ Oil cells (Cinnamon). ✓ Oil glands (Eucalyptus, Clove). ✓ Glandular trichomes (Mentha). ✓ Secretory ducts (Anise, Cumin). ▪ Some are medicinally important: ✓ Buchu oil (Urinary tract infections). ✓ Eucalyptus oil (antirheumatic). 6. Alkaloids ▪ Basic nitrogenous compounds of natural origin. ▪ Having different structural nuclei. ▪ Mostly bitter in taste. ▪ Mostly, Alkaloids gives with Mayer’s Reagent, a yellowish white ppt and gives with Dragendorff’s Reagent, an orange-red color. ▪ They have variable therapeutic uses, e.g.: ✓ Quinine (Anti-malarial) ✓ Morphine (Analgesic, pain killer) Positive Dragendorff’s test 7. Glycosides ▪ Natural organic compounds composed of sugar part (glycone) and non-sugar part (aglycone). ▪ The aglycones of the glycosides differ in their chemical structure. Accordingly, glycosides are classified to several groups: ✓ Flavonoid glycosides. ✓ Anthraquinone glycosides ✓ Cardiac glycosides ✓ Saponin glycosides ✓ Cyanogenic glycosides ‫جشرة الصفصاف‬ From these types of adulteration (Sophistication, Substitution, Admixture, Inferiority, Deterioration, Addition of worthless heavy material), determine which type of adulteration exists in the following sentences. Each word can be used more than one time or not used at all: ✓ Addition of sawdust to ginger powder. ✓ The use of exhausted Liquorice instead of genuine Liquorice. ✓ Use of Phytolacca decandra leaves instead of Atropa belladonna leaves. ✓ Collection of Clove stalks with Clove buds by ignorance. ✓ Use of a mixture of maize starch with capsicum and curcuma instead of ginger. ✓ Addition of stones to Liquorice bales accidently. ✓ Addition of hazelnut shells to Cinnamon powder. ❑ How can you differentiate between each pair of the following items: ✓ Pyrogallol tannins and catechol tannins ✓ Volatile oils and fixed oils ✓ Pectose mucilage and callose mucilage ❑ How can you: ✓ Check the presence of alkaloids in a plant sample. ✓ Control the insects and ensure its destruction during and before storage. ✓ Ensure the good quality of Clove using a simple test. ✓ Check the presence of lignified elements in a plant sample. ✓ Ensure the stabilization of crude drugs against moisture. ✓ Check the presence of starch in a plant sample. We hope you enjoyed studying this course!