Exam Study Sheet - American Party System PDF

1 EXAM STUDY SHEET CHAPTER 12 – PARTIES AND ELECTIONS AMERICAN PARTY SYSTEM v US political system is dominated by two parties Ø republican Ø democratic v Two-party dominance is fundamentally due to the American single member plurality electoral system that does not reward votes for minor pa...

1 EXAM STUDY SHEET CHAPTER 12 – PARTIES AND ELECTIONS AMERICAN PARTY SYSTEM v US political system is dominated by two parties Ø republican Ø democratic v Two-party dominance is fundamentally due to the American single member plurality electoral system that does not reward votes for minor parties and their candidates v Third-party or independent candidates for the presidency have seldom received more than a fraction of the popular vote and, since the early 20th century, have held few seats in Congress Ø Exceptions: 1912, 1968, 1992 v A Gallup study shows that within the last few months there’s been a rise from 40-63 % Americans views for a third party versus and downshift of 57-34 % of Americans thinking two party system does an adequate job v George Washington warned against dangers of factionalism believing political parties would prioritise their own interest over national unity v anti federalist and federalists’ parties evolved into todays democratic and republican party v its rare that a third party has lasting influence but can affect policies like Ø George Wallace and ross Perot PARTY REALIGNMENT HISTORY v 1860 Ø slavery divided parties (north republican , south democratic ) v 1896 Ø republicans representing industry and urban centers while democrats represented rural and agrarian interests Ø republican party § under candidate William McKinley seen as party of industry, business , money , protectionism and the cities Ø democratic party § under leader William Jennings brown stood for southern interest and great plains farm state v 1932 Ø new deal united urban workers and Minorites under democrats, republicans remained conservative Ø urban workers, blacks, jews and Catholics created a powerful political alliance , known as the New Deal Coalition, which helped sweep Franklin D. Roosevelt  2 into the White House and gave Democrats firm control of both houses of Congress for most of the next half-century v 1980 Ø conservative shift for both parties marked by Reagans presidency , democrats adopting more fiscally conservative policies Ø many white southern voters left the democratic party , American culture has shifted to the right TWO PARTY CRITICISM v critics argue that the two-party system Ø limits representation and supresses alternative voices Ø money plays too large of a role Ø campaign and fundraising never ends Ø advertising demeans the democratic process Ø the electoral college is undemocratic anachronism v Ralph Nader (green party) argued that the corporate influence dominates the us governance making the democratic and republican party one corporate party Ø "Argues that lobbyists and corporate PACs make politicians prioritize corporate interests over public welfare due to donor influence v critics overlooked the existence of caucuses which can operate as the equivalent of a multi party system Ø for example the Congressional Hispanic Caucus, can sometimes have more influence on policy than party leaders DIVIDED ELECTORAL v Recent election years have suggested increased voter polarization rather than a right ward shift in public opinion v Gallup study shows difference in party ideology Ø Us political ideology identification in 1992-2023 § upward shift for liberal and downward shift for conservative Ø US Identification as politically liberal by gender/age 2001-2024 § rise in women 18-29 from 28%-40% § no change in men 18-29 ( 25%) § rise in women 30+ from 20%-27% § rise in men 30+ from 15%-20% Ø us political party identification from 1988-2023 § rise for independent 33%-43% § downward for republican 31-27% § downward for democratic 36-27% Ø US political preferences from 1991-2023 § stayed the same for republican leaning 48%-45% § stayed the same for democratic leaning 44%-43% but was much higher during Obamas presidency  3 CANDIDATE SELECTION PROCESS v The process of selecting candidates for office is decentralized, meaning each political party chooses its candidates in different ways, often at the state or local level Ø increases lawmakers’ independence and permits the possibility of greater ranges on interests and ideological views will be represented within each party in congress Ø decreases party’s establishments influence on candidate selection Ø increases candidates’ dependency on campaign and voter mobilization v The US uses primaries which are elections where voters select a party's candidate for the general election, there exist two primaries Ø open primaries § allows any registered voter to participate in either party’s primary Ø closed primaries § restricted to voters registered with a specific party Ø some states use semi- closed systems, allowing unaffiliated voters to participate CAMPAIGN FUNDING (CAMPAIGNING I) v The US relies on private contributions but impose limits on donations Ø European models rely more on public money and funding v key funding sources include Ø PACs political action committees § like phrma and nra § leadership PACS , controlled by members of congress allows members to influence their colleagues and fast track their political careers v examples of spending in campaigns Ø 2022 375+ million in one senate race in Pennsylvania Ø Hillary Clintons 2000 senate race over 41 million dollars Ø Obamas record breaking in 2008 730 million Ø 2002 midterm election democrats had 2 billion dollars spent v The total cost of election’s from 1998-2024 increased from 1 billion to over 15 billion dollars MONEY REGULATIONS (CAMPAIGNING I) v Cases that created regulations include Ø Buckley v Valeo ( 1976) § upheld spending limits on “ hard money” (direct contributions) but protected political expenditures as free speech Ø Bipartisan campaign reform act 2002 BCRA § Restricted “ soft money” donations and implements the 30/600-day “ blackout” rule for electioneering communication § required candidate’s to “ stand by their ads” and disclose funding sources  4 Ø citizens united v FEC 2010 § allowed unlimited corporate and union spending , leading to the rise of super PACs can raise and spend unlimited money on ads but cannot directly donate to candidates Ø contribution limits § individuals 2500 to candidate per election 30800 to political party annually 5000 to a PAC per year 111700 total per election cycle to all entities combines § PACs 5000 to candidate per election 15000 to pollical party annually 5000 to another PAC per year MEDIAS ROLE IN ELECTIONS ( CAPAIGNING II) v Types of medias Ø old § dominated by tv networks , abc ,cbs , nbc and newspapers § remains central to campaign with 2.4 billion spent on ads in 2010 Ø new § website, blogs , social media § Howard deans 2004 campaign demonstrated the potential of internet for fundraising § shifted political discourse from centralized to decentralised networking v music can also be used and associated with a candidate Ø high hopes jfk 1960 Ø yes we can Obama 2008 Ø lose yourself Biden 2020 Ø por , Spanish song trump 2020 v celebrity endorsements also find their way in campaigning which can influence voter turnout and public perception Ø studies suggest that people might adopt non celebrity opinion more on complex issues like foreign policy v Influencers also paly a role in campaign media Ø raises concerns about transparency and political elite-controlled propaganda Ø micro influencers were deemed more effective in 2020 than Beyonce and the rock in influencing behaviour due to trustworthiness v there also exist lots of media bias in elections Ø critics argue that certain media outlets favour a political party § new York times Washington post, cnn lean liberal § fox news , republic leaning Ø historically in the 19th century newspapers were openly partisan but by 1940 half of us newspapers claimed to be neutral Ø studies suggest that journalists lean liberal  5 Ø viewers seek news that align with their ideological views POLITICAL ADS (CAPAIGNING II) v heavily influence voter perception but often oversimplify issues Ø for example short ads like the daisy ad in 1964 focused on emotional manipulation , exploiting visual imagery over substantive debate v negative ads are known too Ø be manipulative Ø target emotions Ø lacks substance Ø relies on irrational appeals Ø most likely to sway less educated and more poorly informed voters § examples include anti-Thomas Jefferson attack ad from the 1800 presidential campaign v study shows that the share of 2020 political campaign ad spending was Ø 6.7% radio Ø 20 %digital Ø 20 %cable tv Ø 53.3 %broadcast tv v online political ad spending in 2026 shows Ø 8.8% radio Ø 10% cable Ø 7.7% online Ø 7.1 %newspaper Ø 52.6% broadcast tv Ø 13.8% other MOBILIZATION (CAPAIGNING III) v Successful campaigns depend heavily on strong organization and targeted voter mobilization strategies along side party activists Ø seen in the 2004 and 2008 elections § voter registration and turnout increased in both election’s registration rose from 69.5 in 200 to 72.1 in 2008 turnout increased from 59 in 2000 to 64 in 2008 v Party activists tend to pull the party and its choice of presidential candidate in the direction of the party’s more extreme ideological elements because activist are more likely to participate in the party’s caucuses or vote in the primaries Ø republicans activist lean conservative reinforcing the party’s base Ø democratic activist lean more progressive pulling the party leftward v there exist a u shape political activism Ø higher at ideological extremes and lower in the center v faith and flag conservative , progressive left turned out to vote at higher rates than other typology groups  6 HOW AMERICANS VOTE v since 1992 voting by mail rose from 5% to 46 % and voting on election day dropped from 90% to 28% v early voting regulations differ by state Ø most of the us allows voting either in person or by mail without needing to provide excuse – most of the western northern states , central America and part of the east Ø a quarter of the us only allow early in person not by mail without excuse – lower central America and parts of central east Ø states like Atlanta, Mississippi , new Hampshire and Connecticut only allow in person voting and must provide excuse for mail voting v in terms of id most of the US require id , some requiring photo and some only by request v untied states turnout rates from 1789 to now rose Ø presidential below 25 % to 65 % Ø midterm from below 25% to 50%  7 CHAPTER 7 – RACIAL INEQUALITY HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND STATISTICS v Tocqueville said that there is a contradiction to American democratic values given the denial of rights to black Americans v Gunnar Myrdal argued that the unequal status and treatment of black Americans was the major failure of American democracy v racial inequality has been central to American political debates since before the revolution, when the quackers and others called for the abolition of slavery v there exist two stories about race Ø continuing inequality and de facto segregation Ø emphasizes the undeniable progress made since the 1960s v In a Gallup study subjective measures showed Ø relations between black and white Americans from 2001-2021 § very/somewhat good went from 63-42 § very/somewhat bad went from 35-57 Ø in a study of objective measure showed § real median household income by race and Hispanic origin from 1967-2021 grew the most among white, non-Hispanic and Asian and the least for Hispanic and black CASES IN RACE RELATIONS v emancipation proclamation January 1863 Ø executive order by President Abraham Lincoln during the civil war, declared freedom of all enslaved people in confederate state still in rebellion v Plessy v Ferguson 1896 Ø upheld racial segregation under the “separate but equal “doctrine reinforcing systemic inequality Ø chief justice earl warren highlighted that segregation generated a sense of inferiority among black children affecting their mental ad emotional well being v Brown b board of education 1954 Ø overturned Plessy ruling that segregation in public education was unconstitutional, marking a critical step toward dismantling racial segregation Ø before the brown ruling § map showing educational segregation prior to the brown ruling indicates the southern states requiring separate schools while northern states are forbidden, and western states are no legislation or optional Ø almost 70 years after this decision us public school student tend to go to schools where their classmates share their racial and ethnic background according to pew research 2018-19 v Browder v Gayle November 1956 Ø Supreme Court ruled bus segregation unconstitutional, ending the Montgomery Bus Boycott  8 MILESTONES IN RACE RELATIONS v reconstruction amendments Ø 13th amendment 1865 § abolished slavery throughout the US Ø 14th amendment 1868 § granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all Ø 15th amendment 1870 § prohibited denying a citizen the right to vote based on race color or previous condition of servitude v reconstruction era Ø 1865-1877 aimed to rebuild the south and integrate freed African Americans into society will full civil rights § groups like the kkk emerged during this time v civil rights act 1964 and voting rights act 1965 Ø ended segregation in public spaces and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race. ,color, sex , national origin , religion Ø ended Jim crows laws § laws that mandated sperate facilities for black and white people like , upheld by Plessy v Ferguson schools transportation public spaces Ø eliminated barriers like literacy test and poll taxes used to disenfranchise African Americans, allowed greater access to the electoral process v court ordered busing Ø implemented as desegregation strategy in school requiring students to be bused to schools outside their neighbourhoods to achieve racial balance § Swann v charlotte Mecklenburg 1971 upheld busing as a constitutional method for addressing racial segregation in schools § Boston 1974 effort to desegregate schools through busing led to significant social unrest and protests, program ended in 1999 SEGREGATION IN HOUSING AND RELIGION v Federal policies like redlining and exclusion zoning reinforced racial segregation v practices like Levittown housing developments excluded African Americans v despite housing segregation declining cities like Detroit Miami , Chicago , Cleveland have remained among the most segregated in the US v Sunday morning segregation , described by martin Luther king at 10 am as the most segregated hour in America , referring to the stark racial divides within church congregations  9 RACIAL GAPS v wealth gap Ø Brookings institution study shows that the median net worth by race from 1989- 2016 § stays the same for Hispanics and blacks § rises significantly with a huge upward shift in 2007 for white families Ø black Americans face income and wealth gaps § 2020 white house hold income was 7x higher than blacks § black women earn 78.7 % of white women and 94.6 of what black men earn Ø studies show that poverty persisted much longer in black families than white families Ø the brooking institution in a study of share of each race in the upper middle class since 1980 – 2016 shows that § whites occupy 22 % § blacks fluctuating between 7-12 % Ø pew research study shows that middle income black and Hispanic adults are more likely to move down to lower income tier than up § those who moved up is 15% white 10% black 8% Hispanic 18% Asian § those who moved down 14% white 21% black 21% Hispanic 14 % Asian v Age , population and family gaps Ø African Americans are more likely to die at an early age from all causes § largest due too high blood pressure § least due to stroke Ø the precent of births occurring to unmarried women has grown , from 1990-2016 § most rapidly among white and Hispanic women , § overall 40% higher in black women compared to white in an updated version we see a rapid growth in the black population going from 20% in 1940 too 70% in 2020 showing a 50% increase compared too a 30 % increase by whites THEORY EXPLANATIONS FOR RACIAL INEQUALITY v family structure theory Ø by : Daniel Patrick Moynihan in a study in 1965 § argued that the breakdown of African American family strictures was a central cause of racial inequality § highlighted higher rates of single parent households within black communities, suggesting this contributed to poverty and systemic challenges  10 v mismatch theory Ø by : William Julius Wilson in his “more than just race “ § argued that structural economic shifts displaced jobs from urban centers creating a mismatch between where black communities lived and where jobs were available § says wealthier segments of black America often experience improved outcomes , while poorer segments face persistent barriers v culture explanations Ø By: Micheal eric Dyson § explores how systemic racism and historical injustices shape contemporary attitudes and opportunities for African Americans § often revolve around how media and society perpetuate stereotypes INDIVIDUALS EXPLANATIONS FOR RACIAL INEQUALITY v Shelby Steele perspective Ø critique’s identity politics arguing that emphasizing racial victimhood can hinder progress by overshadowing individual accountability and broader systemic solutions v Glenn Loury on ideology, race and policy Ø delves into the persistence of racial inequality despite civil rights advancements Ø questions policy decisions and societal attitudes that fail to address underlying structural issues v henry louis gates Ø offers insights into the historical and cultural dimensions of racial inequality, emphasizing the role of systemic barriers and the need for inclusive policy solution AFFIRMATIVE ACTION v affirmative action are policies that aim to increase representation of minorities I education and employment v In a study of affirmative action , it shows Americans are divided Ø showing more supportive when it is framed as compensatory action or redress for past injustices Ø less supportive when it is framed as preferential treatment v the is a growing support for affirmative action for racial minority according to a Gallup study showing , since 2001 it rose 47- 62% in 2021 Ø 69-69 among black adults Ø 64-79 among Hispanic adults Ø 44-57 among non Hispanic white adults v pew study on American views on affirmative action for college admission based on major minor or not a consideration among races show Ø white 4 major 17 minor 79 not Ø black 15 major 24 minor 59 not Ø Hispanic 12 major 19 minor 68 not v Gallup study on if American think the supreme courts ruling to end race/ethnicity in admissions decisions for colleges was a good thing or bad thing show  11 Ø black 52 good 48 bad Ø Hispanic 68 good 32 bad Ø white 72 good 28 bad Ø aisan 63 good 38 bad CASES ON AFFIRMATIVE ACTION v regents of the university of Cali v Bakke 1978 Ø race could be a factor in admission but not the sole criterion v Grutter v Bollinger and Gratz v Bollinger 2003 Ø upheld affirmative action in university admissions as constitutional Ø involving university of Michigan Ø gutter law schools affirmative action policy was upheld Ø Gratz undergraduate admission policy was deemed not be “narrowly tailored” v fisher v university of Texas 2013 Ø The Supreme Court ruled that affirmative action policies in college admissions must be subjected to "strict scrutiny" to ensure they are narrowly tailored to achieve diversity without violating the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment v students for fair admissions v Harvard 2023 Ø race based admission found unconstitutional under the 14th amendment RACE PERCEPTIONS v Impact of slavery Ø black Americans most likely to say legacy of slavery affect black people in the us at least a fair amount § black 13 not much 85 fair § white 48 not much 50 fair § Hispanic 33 not much 64 fair § Asian 20 not much 80 fair v reparations Ø black Americans are most likely to support reparations for descendants of enslaved people § black 17 no 77 yes § white 80 no 18 yes § Hispanic 58 no 39 yes § Asian 65 no 33 yes v Obamas perspective Ø acknowledged that reparations are “justified” Ø emphasized that political reparation often lack widespread public support Ø suggested focussing on broader policies that address systemic inequalities such as healthcare, education and job creation v pew research centers study on perception of how blacks are treated in the US vary widely by race Ø percentage of blacks are treated less fairly than whites was highest on dealing with the police with 50% white and 84$% black Ø least with voting in elections with 20% white and 43% black  12 v in a Gallup study shows black adults are least likely to report fair treatment from police Ø between 68-75 treated fairly among blacks Ø between 82-90 being treated fairly among whites v pew research center shows black Americans more likely than other adults to say structural sources of racism are bigger problem than individual ones Ø white 18% in law 65% people Ø black 52% in law 43% people OBAMAS PRESIDENCY v Obamas announcement of candidacy in 2007 symbolized a major milestone for racial progress Ø cornel west critiqued Obamas presidency arguing that it did not sufficiently address systemic issues affecting black Americans § believed that Obamas policies and leadership style often leaned toward appeasing corporate interests and mainstream political establishments rather than focusing on grassroots issues and systemic racial justice Ø Micheal eric Dyson acknowledges the challenges Obama faced navigating racial dynamics as the first black president in a divided political climate § argues Obamas approach to race relations was strategic balancing his identity as a black leader while leading a diverse nation § critiques those who dismiss Obamas efforts emphasising the broader constraints and systemic barriers he had to content with BLACK REPRESENTATION IN POLITICS v today the ratio of Americas governors Ø 46 non Hispanic white Ø 2 Hispanic Ø 1 native American Ø 1 black v in congress Ø 74 white Ø 11 black Ø 10 Hispanic Ø 3 Asian Ø 1 native American v people of colour make up 40 % of the us population but only 11 of all senate personal office top staffers v black CEO representation on the fortune 500 is so that this years 1.6 is a near record high  13 CHAPTER 12 – CLASS INEQUALITY FOUNDATIONS OF INEQUALITY AND HISTORY v Alan Wolfe says if anything is a truism in American politics it’s that people do not care about income inequality v Politicians like john Edwards have critiqued America saying there’s two Americas Ø one affluent with access to opportunities Ø other struggling without health insurance o education access v the Bernie factor in 2016 and 2020 which energized a large portion of younger voters and sparked conversations about socialism and progressive reforms in mainstream American politics emphasized Ø wealth inequality Ø universal healthcare Ø free public college tuition Ø addressing corporate influence in politics v the great recession of 2008 highlighted significant disparities in income and wealth distribution v there’s been protest against economic inequality , wealth disparity and corporate greed like the occupy wall street movement in 2011 Ø brought attention to issues like student debt, unemployment and lack of accountability for financial intuitions PERCEPTION OF INEQUALITY v chart showing the perception , reality and ideal distribution of wealth in America shows that Ø the actual distribution of wealth shows § top 20% have 85% § middle only about 15 % § bottom 1