Human Body Anatomy and Physiology PDF
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Brandeis University
2021
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This document is a chapter on human anatomy and physiology. It covers introductory concepts such as different body planes and systems. The chapter includes detailed diagrams of the human body's essential structures.
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CHAPTER 6 The Human Body Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com. National EMS Education Standard Competencies (1 of 3) Preparatory...
CHAPTER 6 The Human Body Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com. National EMS Education Standard Competencies (1 of 3) Preparatory Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Applies fundamental knowledge of the emergency medical services (EMS) system, safety/well-being of the emergency medical technician (EMT), medical/legal and ethical issues to the provision of emergency care. National EMS Education Standard Competencies (2 of 3) Anatomy and Physiology Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Applies fundamental knowledge of the anatomy and function of all human systems to the practice of EMS. National EMS Education Standard Competencies (3 of 3) Pathophysiology Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Applies fundamental knowledge of the pathophysiology of respiration and perfusion to patient assessment and management. Introduction A working knowledge of anatomy is important. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Terminology: Anatomy Physiology Pathophysiology Topographic Anatomy Topographic anatomy applies to a body in the anatomic position. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Patient stands facing you, arms at side, palms forward. Planes of the Body (1 of 2) Imaginary straight lines that divide the body Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Three main areas Coronal (frontal) plane: divides the body front/back Sagittal (lateral) plane: divides the body left/right Midsagittal (midline) plane: divides the body into equal left and right halves Transverse (axial) plane: divides the body top/bottom Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-1 Anatomic planes of the body. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Planes of the Body (2 of 2) Cells to Systems Cells: foundation of the human body Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Tissues: cells that share a common function Organs: groups of tissues that perform similar or interrelated jobs Body systems: organs with similar function working together The Skeletal System: Anatomy The skeleton gives us our recognizable human form. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Composed of 206 bones Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton Pelvis The Axial Skeleton Foundation to which the arms and legs are attached Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Includes: Skull Facial bones Thoracic cage Vertebral column Joints (1 of 2) Occur wherever bones come in contact Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Consist of the ends of the bones and the connecting and supporting tissues Two types of joints: Ball-and-socket joint Allows rotation and bending Hinge joint Motion restricted to flexion and extension Joints (2 of 2) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-4 The shoulder is an FIGURE 6-5 The elbow joints are example of a hinge joints, which allow motion in ball-and-socket © Jones & Bartlett Learning. joint. only one plane (flexion and extension). © Jones & Bartlett Learning. The Axial Skeleton (1 of 3) Skull Cranium: made Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com up of 4 bones Face: made up of 14 bones FIGURE 6-6 The skull. A. Anterior view. B. Inferior view. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. The Axial Skeleton (2 of 3) Spinal column Composed of 33 Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com bones (vertebrae) Divided into 5 sections: Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Sacrum Coccyx FIGURE 6-7 The vertebral column is composed of 33 bones divided into five sections. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. The Axial Skeleton (3 of 3) Thorax Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Formed by of 12 thoracic vertebrae and 12 pairs of ribs Thoracic cavity contains: Heart Lungs Esophagus Great vessels FIGURE 6-8 The thorax. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. The Appendicular Skeleton Arms, legs, their connection points, and pelvis Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Includes: Joints Upper extremities Pelvis Lower extremities Upper Extremities (1 of 4) Upper extremity extends from pectoral girdle to fingertips Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Composed of arms, forearms, hands, and fingers Upper Extremities (2 of 4) Shoulder girdle: three Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com bones come together Clavicle Scapula Humerus FIGURE 6-9 The bones of the shoulder girdle include the clavicle and © Jones & Bartlett scapula. Learning. Upper Extremities (3 of 4) Arm Humerus is the supporting bone Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Forearm consists of the radius and ulna Radius on lateral side Ulna on medial side Upper Extremities (4 of 4) Wrist and hand Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Ball-and-socket joint Principal bones Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges FIGURE 6-10 The major bones in the wrist and hand include the © Jones & Bartlett carpals, the metacarpals, and the Learning. The Pelvis (1 of 2) The pelvic girdle consists of: Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Two coxae (hip bones) Sacrum Coccyx Each pelvic bone is formed by fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The Pelvis (2 of 2) Posteriorly, the ilium, ischium, Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com and pubis bones are joined by the sacrum. Anteriorly, the pubic symphysis is where the right and left pubis are joined. FIGURE 6-11 The pelvis is a closed, bony ring that consists of the sacrum, ilium, ischium, pubis, acetabulum, and pubic symphysis. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Lower Extremities (1 of 4) Femur Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Longest bone in body Connects into the acetabulum (pelvic girdle) by a ball-and-socket joint The greater and lesser trochanter are where the major muscles of the thigh connect to the femur. Lower Extremities (2 of 4) Knee connects the upper leg to the lower leg Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Kneecap (patella) Lower leg Tibia (shinbone) Anterior of leg Fibula Lateral side of leg Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Allows flexion/extension of foot Lower Extremities (3 of 4) A hinge joint Ankle Lower Extremities (4 of 4) Foot Contains 7 tarsal bones Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com 5 metatarsal bones form substance of foot Toes are formed by phalanges FIGURE 6-13 A. The surface landmarks of the foot, including the talus, the calcaneus, and the phalanges. B. Soft © Jones tissue & Bartlett Learning.of the ankle. The Skeletal System: Physiology The skeletal system: Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Gives the body its shape Protects fragile organs Allows for movement Stores calcium Helps create blood cells The Musculoskeletal System: Anatomy (1 of 3) Musculoskeletal system provides: Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Form Upright posture Movement Protection of vital internal organs The Musculoskeletal System: Anatomy (2 of 3) Types of muscles: Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Skeletal (voluntary) muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle FIGURE 6-14 The three types of muscle are skeletal, smooth, © Jones & Bartlettand cardiac. Learning. The Musculoskeletal System: Anatomy (3 of 3) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-15 The major muscle groups. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. The Musculoskeletal System: Physiology Contraction and relaxation of system make it possible to move and manipulate the environment. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com A by-product of this movement is heat. Another function of the muscles is to protect the structures under them. The Respiratory System: Anatomy Structures of the body that contribute to respiration (the process of breathing) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-16 The respiratory system consists of all structures of the body that contribute to the process ofLearning. © Jones & Bartlett breathing. Upper Airway (1 of 2) Includes: Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Nose Mouth (oral cavity) Tongue Jaw (mandible) Larynx Divides upper and lower airway Upper Airway (2 of 2) Includes: (cont’d) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Pharynx Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Trachea Epiglottis Lower Airway Thyroid cartilage Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Adam’s apple Cricoid cartilage: immediately below the thyroid cartilage Cricothyroid membrane Trachea Ends at carina, dividing into right and left bronchi leading to bronchioles Lungs (1 of 3) The two lungs are held in place by: Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Trachea Arteries and veins Pulmonary ligaments Divided into two lobes Right lung has upper, middle, and lower lobes Left lung has upper and lower lobes Lungs (2 of 3) Within the lobes are bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Allow for gas exchange Pleura: a layer of smooth, glistening tissue that covers each lung and lines the chest cavity Between the two layers is a small amount of fluid that allows the tissues to glide smoothly. Lungs (3 of 3) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-17 The lungs contain millions of air sacs (alveoli), which lie at the ends of air passages. Small blood vessels surround the alveoli, allowing © Jones & Bartlett Learning. for gas exchange. Muscles of Breathing Diaphragm is the primary muscles of breathing. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Also involved are: Neck (cervical muscles) Intercostal muscles Abdominal muscles Pectoral muscles Inhalation Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Pressure in the thoracic cavity decreases Lungs fill with air Active part of the respiratory cycle Exhalation Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Thoracic cavity returns to it normal shape and volume Passive portion of the respiratory cycle The Respiratory System: Physiology (1 of 6) Function is to provide body with oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Ventilation and respiration are two separate, interdependent functions of the respiratory system. The Respiratory System: Physiology (2 of 6) Respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli and tissues. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Provides oxygen to the cells and removes waste carbon dioxide Diffusion: passive process in which molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration The Respiratory System: Physiology (3 of 6) Chemical control of breathing Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Brainstem controls breathing by monitoring carbon dioxide in blood and spinal fluid. Primary reason for breathing is to lower carbon dioxide levels. Hypoxic drive The Respiratory System: Physiology (4 of 6) Nervous system control of breathing Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com The medulla initiates ventilation cycles. Stimulated by high carbon dioxide levels The pons has two areas that help augment respirations during emotional or physical stress. The Respiratory System: Physiology (5 of 6) Ventilation is simple air movement into and out of the lungs. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Requires chest rise and fall Tidal volume: amount of air moved into or out of the lungs during a single breath Residual volume: the gas that remains in the lungs to keep the lungs open The Respiratory System: Physiology (6 of 6) Dead space: the portion of the respiratory system that has no alveoli and where little or no exchange of gas between air and blood occurs Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Respiratory rate × tidal volume = minute volume Characteristics of Normal Breathing Normal rate and depth (tidal volume) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Regular rhythm or pattern of inhalation and exhalation Clear, audible breath sounds on both sides of chest Regular rise and fall movement on both sides of the chest Movement of the abdomen Inadequate Breathing Patterns in Adults Labored breathing Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Muscle retractions Pale, cyanotic, cool, damp skin Tripod position Agonal gasps The Circulatory System: Anatomy (1 of 2) Complex arrangement of connected tubes Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins Two circuits Systemic circulation (body) Pulmonary circulation (lungs) The Circulatory System: Anatomy (2 of 2) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-25 The circulatory system includes the heart, arteries, veins, and interconnecting capillaries. The capillaries are the smallest vessels and connect venules and arterioles. At the center of the system, and providing its driving force, is the heart. Blood circulates through the body under pressure © Jones & Bartlett generated Learning. by the two sides of the heart. The Heart (1 of 5) Hollow muscular organ Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Made of specialized cardiac muscle Works as two paired pumps Each side is divided into: Atrium (upper chamber) Ventricle (lower chamber) The Heart (2 of 5) Circulation Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com The heart receives its blood from the aorta. Right side receives deoxygenated blood from the veins. Left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. The Heart (3 of 5) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-27 A. The right (lower pressure) side of the heart pumps blood from the body through the lungs. B. The © Jones left & Bartlett (higher-pressure) side of the Learning. The Heart (4 of 5) Normal resting heart rate (HR) is 60–100 beats/min. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Stroke volume (SV) Amount of blood moved by one beat Cardiac output (CO) Amount of blood moved in 1 minute HR × SV = CO The Heart (5 of 5) Electrical conduction system Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Specialized tissue capable of initiating and conducting electrical current Causes smooth, coordinated contractions Contractions produce pumping action Arteries (1 of 4) Arteries carry blood from the heart to all body tissues. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Aorta branches into: Coronary arteries Carotid arteries Hepatic arteries Renal arteries Mesenteric arteries Arteries (2 of 4) Pulmonary artery Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Carries oxygen-poor blood to the lungs Arteries branch into smaller arteries and then into arterioles. Arterioles branch into a series of increasingly smaller vessels until they connect to the capillaries. Arteries (3 of 4) Pulse Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Palpated most easily at the neck, wrist, or groin Created by forceful pumping of blood out of the left ventricle and into the major arteries Arteries (4 of 4) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-28 The main arteries supply blood to a vast network of smaller arteries and arterioles. Venules deliver oxygen-poor blood to the veins that © Jones return blood to the heart. & Bartlett Learning. Capillaries Connect arterioles to venules Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Fine end divisions of arterial system Allow contact between blood and cells Veins Return oxygen-depleted blood to the heart Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com The superior vena cava carries blood returning from the head, neck, shoulders, and upper extremities. The inferior vena cava carries blood from the abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities. Join at right atrium The Spleen Solid organ located under the rib cage Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Filters blood Particularly susceptible to injury from blunt trauma Blood Composition Plasma (liquid) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Red blood cells (erythrocytes) White blood cells (leukocytes) Platelets The Circulatory System: Physiology (1 of 2) Blood pressure: pressure that blood exerts against the walls of arteries Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Systole: when the left ventricle of the heart contracts, it pumps blood from the ventricle into the aorta. Diastole: when the muscle of the ventricle relaxes, the ventricle fills with blood. The Circulatory System: Physiology (2 of 2) Blood pressure readings Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Systolic blood pressure: high point of wave Diastolic blood pressure: low point of wave Normal Circulation in Adults Automatically adjusted and controlled Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Perfusion: circulation of blood in organ or tissue in adequate amounts to meet the needs of cells Hypoperfusion: inadequate blood supply to organs, tissues, and cells Inadequate Circulation in Adults The system can adjust to small blood loss. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Vessels constrict. The heart pumps more rapidly. With a large loss, adjustment fails, and the patient goes into shock. Mean arterial pressure can help detect shock. Functions of Blood Fighting infection Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Transporting oxygen Transporting carbon dioxide Controlling pH Transporting wastes and nutrients Clotting (coagulation) Nervous System Control of the Cardiovascular System (1 of 2) Sympathetic nervous system is responsible for fight-or-flight response. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Sends commands to adrenal glands Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) are secreted to stimulate heart and blood vessels. Nervous System Control of the Cardiovascular System (2 of 2) Blood vessels have alpha-adrenergic receptors. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com The heart and lungs have beta-adrenergic receptors. Baroreceptors sense pressure in the blood vessels. The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system balance each other. The Nervous System: Anatomy and Physiology The nervous system is perhaps the most complex organ in the body. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Divided into two main portions: Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system Central Nervous System (1 of 3) Brain Controlling organ of the body Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Subdivisions Cerebrum Cerebellum Brainstem FIGURE 6-34 The brain lies well protected within the skull. Its major subdivisions are the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brainstem. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Central Nervous System (2 of 3) Cerebrospinal fluid Cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Circulation in the head Oxygenated blood is supplied via carotid arteries Deoxygenated blood is drained by the internal and external jugular veins Central Nervous System (3 of 3) Spinal cord Extension of the brainstem Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Transmits messages between brain and body FIGURE 6-35 The spinal cord is a continuation of the brainstem. It exits the skull at the foramen magnum © and Jones & Bartlett Learning. Peripheral Nervous System (1 of 3) Divided into two main portions: Somatic nervous system Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Autonomic nervous system Peripheral Nervous System (2 of 3) Somatic nervous system Transmits signals from brain to voluntary muscles Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Autonomic nervous system Involuntary actions Split into two areas Sympathetic nervous system (fight-or-flight) Parasympathetic nervous system (slows body) Peripheral Nervous System (3 of 3) Two types of nerves within peripheral nervous system Sensory nerves carry information from body to CNS. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Motor nerves carry information from CNS to muscles. The Integumentary System (Skin): Anatomy (1 of 2) Two layers Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Epidermis (superficial) Dermis (deeper) Subcutaneous tissue lies beneath the skin. Fat that insulates and serves as energy reservoir The Integumentary System (Skin): Anatomy (2 of 2) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-36 The layers of the skin can be divided between the epidermis and the dermis. Below the skin is a layer of subcutaneous © Jones & Bartlett Learning. tissue. The Integumentary System (Skin): Physiology The skin is the largest single organ in the body. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Three major functions Protects the body in the environment Regulates body temperature Transmits information from environment to brain The Digestive System: Anatomy (1 of 4) Gastrointestinal system Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Abdomen: the second major body cavity Contains major organs of digestion and excretion Organized into 4 quadrants: Right upper Lower upper Right lower Left lower The Digestive System: Anatomy (2 of 4) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-38 Several of the organs in the abdomen lie in more than one © Jones & Bartlett Learning. quadrant. The Digestive System: Anatomy (3 of 4) Mouth Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Lips, cheeks, gums, teeth, tongue Salivary glands Oropharynx Esophagus Stomach Pancreas The Digestive System: Anatomy (4 of 4) Liver Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Bile ducts Small intestine Large intestine Appendix Rectum The Digestive System: Physiology Enzymes are added to food. By salivary glands, stomach, liver, pancreas, and small intestine Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Food is converted into basic sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids. Further processed by liver Circulated via blood throughout body The Lymphatic System (1 of 2) Elements of the lymphatic system: Spleen Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Lymph nodes Lymph Lymph vessels Thymus gland Other components The Lymphatic System (2 of 2) Supports the circulatory system and immune system Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Lymph is a thin, straw-colored fluid that carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and waste products away. Helps to rid the body of toxins and other harmful materials The Endocrine System: Anatomy and Physiology (1 of 2) Complex message and control system Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Integrates many body functions Hormones are released directly into the bloodstream. Epinephrine, norepinephrine, insulin The Endocrine System: Anatomy and Physiology (2 of 2) The brain controls the release Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com of hormones. Excesses or deficiencies in hormones can cause disease. FIGURE 6-40 The endocrine system controls the production and release of hormones in © Jones & Bartlett Learning. The Urinary System: Anatomy and Physiology (1 of 2) Controls the discharge of certain waste materials filtered from the blood by the kidneys Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Controls fluid balance in the body Filters and eliminates wastes Controls pH balance The Urinary System: Anatomy and Physiology (2 of 2) Kidneys Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Ureter Urinary bladder FIGURE 6-42 The urinary system lies in the retroperitoneal (behind the peritoneum) space behind the organs of the digestive system. The urinary system in men and © Jones women includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, & Bartlett Learning. The Genital System: Anatomy and Physiology (1 of 4) Controls reproductive processes Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Male system consists of: Testicles Epididymis Vasa deferentia Prostate gland Seminal vesicles Penis The Genital System: Anatomy and Physiology (2 of 4) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-43 The male reproductive system consists of the testicles, epididymis, vasa deferentia, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, © Jones & Bartlett Learning. and penis. The Genital System: Anatomy and Physiology (3 of 4) Female system consists of: Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Ovaries Fallopian tubes Uterus Cervix Vagina The Genital System: Anatomy and Physiology (4 of 4) Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com FIGURE 6-44 The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and © Jones & Bartlett vagina. Learning. Life Support Chain (1 of 3) All cells in body require oxygen, nutrients, and removal of waste. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com The circulatory system is the carrier of these supplies and wastes. If interference occurs, cells become damaged and die. Life Support Chain (2 of 3) Cells use oxygen to turn nutrients into chemical energy through metabolism. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Aerobic metabolism uses oxygen. Cells switch to anaerobic metabolism when oxygen is limited. Life Support Chain (3 of 3) Movement of oxygen, waste, and nutrients occurs by diffusion. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com pH is critical to diffusion. The body expends a large amount of energy to maintain normal pH. Pathophysiology (1 of 5) The study of functional changes that occur when body reacts to disease Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Respiratory compromise is the inability of the body to move gas effectively. Hypoxia Hypercarbia Pathophysiology (2 of 5) Factors that impair ventilation Blocked airway Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Impairment of the muscles of breathing Airway obstructed physiologically (asthma) Other factors Pathophysiology (3 of 5) Factors that impair respiration Change in atmosphere Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com High altitudes Impaired movement of the gas across cell membrane Pathophysiology (4 of 5) V/Q ratio How much gas is being moved effectively through the lungs Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com How much blood is flowing around the alveoli where perfusion occurs Mismatch occurs when one variable is abnormal. Pathophysiology (5 of 5) Effects of respiratory compromise on the body: Oxygen levels fall and carbon dioxide levels rise. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Respiratory rate increases. Blood becomes more acidic. The brain sends commands to the body to breathe. Cells move from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism. Shock (1 of 2) Occurs when organs and tissue do not receive enough oxygen Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Impaired oxygen delivery causes cellular hypoxia. Categorized into several types depending on the cause Shock (2 of 2) Effects of shock on the body Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com The level of oxygen supplied to the tissues falls. Cells engage in anaerobic metabolism. Severe metabolic acidosis ensues. Baroreceptors initiate the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. The heart rate increases. Interstitial fluid moves into the capillaries. Impairment of Cellular Metabolism Results in the inability to properly use oxygen and glucose at the cellular level Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Cells create energy through anaerobic metabolism. Can result in metabolic acidosis Brain cells cannot use alternative fuels. Cellular injury may become irreversible. Review 1. Which of the following are found in the retroperitoneal space? A. Liver Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com B. Spleen C. Kidneys D. Stomach Review Answer: C Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The kidneys lie in the retroperitoneal space—the space behind the abdominal cavity. The spleen, liver, and stomach are all located within the anterior (true) abdomen. Review 1. Which of the following are found in the retroperitoneal space? A. Liver Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The liver lies immediately beneath the diaphragm in the anterior abdomen. B. Spleen Rationale: The spleen lies under the rib cage in the left upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity. C. Kidneys Rationale: Correct answer D. Stomach Rationale: The stomach lies in the left upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity. Review 2. The cartilaginous tip of the sternum is called the: A. costal arch. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com B. manubrium. C. angle of Louis. D. xiphoid process. Review Answer: D Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The xiphoid process projects from the lower part of the sternum. It is made of cartilage and, relative to other parts of the sternum (eg, manubrium, angle of Louis), is soft to palpation. Review 2. The cartilaginous tip of the sternum is called the: A. costal arch. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: This is the bridge of cartilage that connects the ends of the 6th through 10th ribs to the lower sternum. B. manubrium. Rationale: This is the upper section of the sternum, one of three parts. C. angle of Louis. Rationale: This is found at the level where the second rib is attached to the sternum. D. xiphoid process. Rationale: Correct answer Review 3. A person with bilateral femur fractures has: A. fractured one of his or her femurs. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com B. fractured both of his or her femurs. C. one femur fractured in two places. D. fractured the lateral aspect of the femur. Review Answer: B Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The term bilateral refers to both sides of the body with reference to the midline. Therefore, bilateral femur fractures would indicate that both femurs are fractured. Review 3. A person with bilateral femur fractures has A. fractured one of his or her femurs. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: Bilateral means two. B. fractured both of his or her femurs. Rationale: Correct answer C. one femur fractured in two places. Rationale: A bilateral fracture is one fracture that occurs in two bones. D. fractured the lateral aspect of the femur. Rationale: This means that the outside portion of the femur is broken. Review 4. The MOST prominent landmark on the anterior surface of the neck is the: A. mastoid process. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com B. cricoid cartilage. C. thyroid cartilage. D. cricothyroid membrane. Review Answer: C Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The thyroid cartilage, commonly referred to as the “Adam’s apple,” is the most prominent landmark on the anterior (front) surface of the neck. The cricoid cartilage is located directly inferior to (below) the thyroid cartilage; it is a less prominent landmark. Review 4. The MOST prominent landmark on the anterior surface of the neck is the: Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com A. mastoid process. Rationale: This is the prominent bony mass at the base of the skull. B. cricoid cartilage. Rationale: This is the firm ridge of cartilage inferior to (below) the thyroid cartilage. C. thyroid cartilage. Rationale: Correct answer D. cricothyroid membrane. Rationale: This is the thin sheet of connective tissue that joins the thyroid cartilage and the cricoid cartilage. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com 5. Insulin is produced in the: adrenal glands. thyroid gland. pancreas. liver. Review D. C. A. B. Review Answer: B Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The pancreas is a solid organ that produces both insulin and digestive juices. Insulin is produced in the islets of Langerhans, which are a part of the pancreas. Review 5. Insulin is produced in the: A. liver. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The poisonous by-products of digestion are rendered harmless in the liver. B. pancreas. Rationale: Correct answer C. thyroid gland. Rationale: The thyroid, which is found in the neck over the larynx, regulates the body’s metabolism. D. adrenal glands. Rationale: These glands, which are located in the kidneys, regulate salt levels, sugar levels, and sexual function. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com 6. _____ connect(s) muscles to bones. Ligaments Cartilage Tendons Joints Review D. C. A. B. Review Answer: C Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: Tendons connect muscle to bone. Ligaments connect bone to bone. Cartilage is smooth connective tissue covering the ends of bones at mobile joints. Joints consist of the ends of the bones and the surrounding connecting and supporting tissues. Review 6. _____ connect(s) muscles to bones. A. Ligaments Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: Connect bone to bone. B. Cartilage Rationale: Covers the ends of bones at joints. C. Tendons Rationale: Correct answer D. Joints Rationale: Occur where two long bones come in contact. Review 7. The normal resting adult heart rate is: A. 50 to 70 beats/min. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com B. 60 to 100 beats/min. C. 80 to 110 beats/min. D. 110 to 120 beats/min. Review Answer: B Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The normal resting heart rate for an adult is 60 to 100 beats/min. Bradycardia exists when the adult heart rate is less than 60 beats/min, and tachycardia exists when it is greater than 100 beats/min. Review 7. The normal resting adult heart rate is: A. 50 to 70 beats/min. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: Less than 60 beats/min is bradycardia. B. 60 to 100 beats/min. Rationale: Correct answer C. 80 to 110 beats/min. Rationale: Normal is more than 100 beats/min. D. 110 to 120 beats/min. Rationale: More than 100 beats/min is tachycardia. Review 8. The left atrium of the heart receives ___________ blood from the ___________. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com A. oxygenated; lungs B. deoxygenated; body C. oxygenated; body D. deoxygenated; lungs Review Answer: A Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the venae cavae. Review 8. The left atrium of the heart receives ___________ blood from the ___________. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com A. oxygenated; lungs Rationale: Correct answer B. deoxygenated; body Rationale: The right atrium of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body. C. oxygenated; body Rationale: No part of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the body. It receives oxygenated blood only from the lungs. D. deoxygenated; lungs Rationale: The right atrium and right ventricle are the only parts of the heart that receive deoxygenated blood from the body. Review 9. The largest part of the brain is the: A. cerebrum. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com B. brainstem. C. cerebellum. D. foramen magnum. Review Answer: A Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The three major parts of the brain are the cerebrum, the brainstem, and the cerebellum. The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum, which is sometimes called the “gray matter.” The cerebellum—sometimes called the “athlete’s brain”—is the smallest part of the brain. The brainstem is responsible for vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. The foramen magnum is the large opening at the base of the skull through which the spinal cord passes. Review 9. The largest part of the brain is the: A. cerebrum. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: Correct answer B. brainstem. Rationale: The bottom portion of the brain is responsible for vital functions, heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. C. cerebellum. Rationale: The cerebellum is the smallest part of brain. It is sometimes called the athlete’s brain. D. foramen magnum. Rationale: The spinal cord passes through this large opening at the base of the skull. Review 10. Which of the following statements about red blood cells is FALSE? A. They contain iron. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com B. They carry oxygen. C. They help to fight infection. D. They give color to the blood. Review Answer: C Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: The hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells contain iron, give color to the blood, and carry oxygen. White blood cells play a role in helping the body to fight infection. Review 10. Which of the following statements about red blood cells is FALSE? A. They contain iron. Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com Rationale: True; hemoglobin found in red blood cells carries iron. B. They carry oxygen. Rationale: True; hemoglobin found in red blood cells carries oxygen. C. They help to fight infection. Rationale: Correct answer D. They give color to the blood. Rationale: True; hemoglobin found in red blood cells gives blood color.