Social Psychology (9.3) PDF

Social Psychology (9.3) Learning Objectives 9.3.1.1 State some responsibilities of the individual in the aircraft maintenance system (Level 1). 9.3.1.2 State some responsibilities of teams or groups in the aircraft maintenance system (Level 1). 9.3.2.1 Recall typical ways in which...

Social Psychology (9.3) Learning Objectives 9.3.1.1 State some responsibilities of the individual in the aircraft maintenance system (Level 1). 9.3.1.2 State some responsibilities of teams or groups in the aircraft maintenance system (Level 1). 9.3.2.1 Recall typical ways in which individuals may experience internal or external motivation to perform in the aircraft maintenance systems and show links to Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Level 1). 9.3.2.2 Recall typical reasons why individuals may be demotivated to perform in the aircraft maintenance systems (Level 1). 9.3.3 De ne positive and negative peer pressure and state the pressure people may be subjected to in order to conform in a workplace (Level 1). 9.3.4 De ne aspects of organisational culture and the key components of a safety culture such as just culture, reporting culture, learning culture (Level 1). 9.3.5 De ne teamwork and the advantages, disadvantages and important elements of working in a team (Level 1). 9.3.6 Recall duties and responsibilities of leadership positions and the characteristics that need to be demonstrated by a leader (Level 1). Summary The previous chapter considered the abilities and limitations of the individual. This chapter relates to the social context in which aircraft maintenance is conducted. This includes the organisations people work for, how responsibilities are delegated, motivation, team-work, supervision and leadership. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 90 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Responsibility: Individual and Group Introduction Being an aircraft maintenance worker is a responsible job. Clearly, these types of job roles are critical to the safe and ef cient passage of the travelling public when they use aircraft. A de nition of 'responsible' is that a person may be liable to be called to account as being in charge or control of, or answerable, for something. Within aircraft maintenance, responsibility should be spread across all those who play a part in the activity. This ranges from the Accountable Manager who oversees the operation and formulates policy, through middle managers who set procedures to supervisors, teams of engineers and individuals within those teams. In a Part 145 maintenance organisation, an Accountable Manager and a Responsible Manager must be nominated in the exposition document. Image by National Business Aviation Association In a Part 145 maintenance organisation, an Accountable Manager and a Responsible Manager must be nominated in the exposition document 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 91 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Working as an Individual or within a Group Traditionally, in the aircraft maintenance environment, responsibility has been considered in terms of the individual rather than the group or team. It has much to do with the manner in which AMEs are licensed and the way in which work is individually certi ed. This has both advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage of individual responsibility is that an AME clearly understands that a task or tasks have been assigned to them and it is their job to do them. Knowing the individual will be held responsible if something goes wrong is an incentive to do the work correctly. The main disadvantage of emphasis on individual responsibility is that it may overlook the importance of working together as a cohesive team or group to achieve goals. In practice, aircraft maintenance workers are often assigned to groups or teams in the workplace. These may be shift teams, or smaller groups within a shift. Although distinct tasks may be assigned to individuals within a team, the responsibility for ful lling overall goals falls on the entire team. Image by National Business Aviation Association Aircraft maintenance workers are often assigned to groups or teams 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 92 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Individual Responsibility All AMEs are skilled individuals who have undertaken considerable training. They work in a highly professional environment and generally have considerable pride in their work and its contribution to air safety. The certi cation responsibilities of licensed staff are detailed in various worldwide regulations. One document states that ‘the certifying AME shall be responsible for ensuring that work is performed and recorded in a satisfactory manner’. Likewise, non-certifying AMEs also have a responsibility in the maintenance process. For example, an organisation approved in accordance with EASA Part 145 and CASR Part 145 must establish the competence of every person, whether all are directly involved in hands-on maintenance or not. The nature of certi cation to perform individual tasks requiring certi cation means that most maintenance records or work sheets provide traceability to those who were involved in the job. This makes the individual responsible and accountable into the future for the items they sign. Image by Tobias Rehbein from Pexels Arriving aircraft 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 93 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Group or Team Responsibility Group responsibility has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are that each member of the group should feel responsible for the output of that group, not just their own output. This may involve cross-checking others’ work (even when not strictly required), politely challenging others if they think something is not quite right and other types of formal and informal cooperation. The disadvantage of group responsibility is that it can act against safety, with responsibility devolved to such an extent that no one feels personally responsible for the safe output of the group. This is called the diffusion of responsibility. For example, an individual on their own may take action but once placed within a group situation, they may not act if none of the other group members do so, such as if each member of the group or team assume ‘someone else will do it’. Social psychologists have carried out experiments whereby a situation was contrived in which someone was apparently in distress and noted who came to help. If a person was on their own, they were far more likely to help than if they were in a pair or group. Other recognised phenomena associated with group or team work and responsibility for decisions and actions which AMEs should be aware of are: Intergroup con ict a situation in which a small group may act cohesively as a team, but rivalries may arise between this team and other teams or work groups. Group polarisation the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual members’ initial positions. Social loa ng the tendency for some individuals to work less hard on a task when they believe others are working on it. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 94 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Image by Tiger Lily from Pexels Group responsibility has its advantages and disadvantages 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 95 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Motivation and Demotivation Introduction Motivation is a basic human drive that arouses, directs and sustains all human behaviour. Motivated behaviour is goal-directed, purposeful behaviour, people taking action to achieve something. No human behaviour occurs without some kind of motivation. In aircraft maintenance, engineers are trained to carry out tasks. However, it is largely their motivation which determines what they actually do in any given situation. Thus, it can be said that motivation re ects the difference between what a person CAN do and what they WILL do. Motivation is usually considered a positive rather than a negative force in that it stimulates one to achieve various things. However, just because someone is motivated does not mean they are doing the right thing. For example, many criminals are highly motivated. We are all motivated by different things. For example, an artist may work for many months to complete a painting that they may never sell, whereas a businessman may forfeit all leisure time and family life in pursuit of nancial success. Therefore, we are also demotivated by different things. If one worker's prime motivation is money, then they will be demotivated by low wages. Motivation is usually considered a positive rather than a negative force 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 96 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  With respect to aviation safety, being appropriately motivated is vital. Aircraft maintenance workers ought to be motivated to work in a safe and ef cient manner. However, many factors may cause con icting motivations to override this ideal. For instance, the motivation of some nancial bonus, or the demotivation of working outdoors in extreme weather, might lead to less consideration of safety and increase the likelihood of risk - taking, corner cutting, violation of procedures and so on. Image by Chris Leipelt on Unsplash With respect to aviation safety, being appropriately motivated is vital External and Internal Motivation There are two broad types of motivation: External - the organisation or system provides rewards and punishments Internal, or intrinsic - employees do it because they want to. Internal motivation is far more effective than external rewards and punishment. Punishing (or inappropriately rewarding) people who are intrinsically motivated can be counterproductive. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 97 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  What Do People Want from Work? It has been shown that people usually want two intrinsic things from their work: To feel valued and competent To feel a certain amount of control. These things imply that most people want their workplace to be safe, they want to belong and be respected, and they also want to have the knowledge and skills to work independently. When people are motivated by external factors, it has been shown that reward is more effective than punishment. Reward and punishment are both more effective when applied quickly, as opposed to when they are delayed. It has been shown that productivity improves when management take an interest in the workforce and shows increased attention. This is known as the Hawthorne Effect. Fotolia © Gorodenkoff Productivity improves when management take an interest in the workforce 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 98 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs attempts to describe human motivation. Maslow considered that humans are driven by two different sets of motivational forces: Those that ensure survival by satisfying basic physical and psychological needs. Those that help us to realise our full potential in life, known as self-actualisation, needs (ful lling ambitions, etc.). The gure below shows Maslow's pyramid explaining the needs humans are motivated to satisfy. The needs lower in the hierarchy are more primitive or basic and must be satis ed before we can be motivated by the higher needs. For example, it is harder to study when very hungry (the lower - level physiological need to eat dominates the higher - level cognitive need to gain knowledge). There are always exceptions to this, such as the mountain climber who risks their life in the name of adventure. The higher a need ranks in the hierarchy, the more dif cult it becomes to satisfy. High - level needs are often long-term goals that have to be accomplished in a series of steps. Intrinsic motivation is associated with the middle and higher levels of Maslow’s hierarchy. External motivation is associated with the lower levels. © Aviation Australia Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 99 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Aircraft maintenance workers will ful l lower - level needs by earning money to buy food, pay for a home and support a family. They may well be motivated by middle - level needs in their work context (e.g. social groups at work, gaining status and recognition). It is noteworthy that for shift workers, tiredness may be a more powerful motivator than a higher - order need such as personal satisfaction to get the job done on time or accurately. Thus, some people may be susceptible to cutting corners and lowering their standards when tired. Demotivation People who lack motivation do so intrinsically or sometimes through failure by their management to motivate them. Tiredness, discomfort and environmental extremes can reduce motivation. They makes aircraft maintenance and shiftwork particularly adept at demotivating people. However, care should be taken when assuming a person lacks motivation. The presence of some characteristics listed below, like apathy or absenteeism, could also be a signs of stress. There is much debate about the extent to which nancial reward is a motivator. One school of thought suggests that while lack of nancial reward is a demotivator, the reverse is not necessarily true. The attraction of the extra pay offered to work a double shift can be a strong motivator for an individual to ignore the dangers associated with working when tired. Image by Min An from Pexels Tiredness, discomfort and environmental extremes can reduce motivation 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 100 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  The motivating effects of job security and the de-motivating impact of lack of job security are also areas of ongoing debate. The ‘hire and re’ attitude of some companies can be a major in uence on safety, with real or perceived pressure on individuals affecting their performance and actions. It is important that AMEs are motivated by a desire to ensure safety (Maslow’s ‘self-esteem/self- respect’), rather than by a fear of being punished and losing their job (Maslow’s ‘security’). It is possible that the 'can-do' culture evident in some areas of the industry, may be generated by the expectancy that if individuals do not deliver, they will be punished (or even dismissed) and, conversely, those who do ‘deliver’ (whether strictly by the book or not, nding ways around lack of time, spares or equipment) are rewarded and promoted. This is not motivation in the true sense but is one of the major in uences on human performance and a driver of human error in maintenance engineering. Personal Characteristics People have different personalities and are therefore motivated and demotivated by different things. When working in a team, it is useful to be aware of these differences in personality. Different personalities make teams more productive, so it is not desirable to make everyone conform. But awareness of difference can assist with building relationships and dividing or allocating work. © Aviation Australia Different personalities make teams more productive 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 101 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Characteristics of a Motivated Person Strives for high performance and results, and consistently achieves them. Shows energy, enthusiasm and determination to succeed Co-operates when overcoming problems Is willing to accept responsibility Is willing to accommodate change. Characteristics of a De-motivated Person Is apathetic and indifferent towards the job, including showing a reduced regard for safety Is consistently late and absent. Exaggerates the effects and dif culties encountered in problems, disputes and grievances. Lacks co-operation in dealing with problems and dif culties Shows unjusti ed resistance to change. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 102 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Dealing with People with Con icting Motivations When working as an AME, it is important to be conscious of the motivation levels of your fellow workers. This can enable you to foresee possible risk-taking, corner-cutting and violation of procedure. Con icting motivation usually happens in response to extrinsic factors, such as poor wages, or working outside in poor weather. Sometimes, people who are ordinarily motivated employees are pushed to be demotivated by personal circumstances or con ict with a supervisor or fellow employee. Image by Andrea Piacquadio from Pexels People who are ordinarily motivated employees can be demotivated by personal circumstances 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 103 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Peer Pressure Introduction In the working environment of aircraft maintenance, many pressures are brought to bear on the individual AME. We have already discussed the in uence of the organisation, of responsibility and of motivational drives. In addition to these, AMEs may face pressure at work from those who work with them. This is known as peer pressure. Peer pressure is the actual or perceived pressure an individual may feel to conform to what they believes their peers or colleagues expect. For example, an individual AME may feel that there is pressure to cut corners in order to get an aircraft out by a certain time, due to the belief that this is what their colleagues would do under similar circumstances. There may be no actual pressure from management to cut corners, but subtle pressure from peers, e.g., comments such as “Don’t bother checking the manual for that. We always do it like this…” would constitute peer pressure. Peer pressure thus falls within the area of conformity. Conformity is the tendency to allow one’s opinions, attitudes, actions and even perceptions to be affected by prevailing opinions, attitudes, actions and perceptions. In certain experiments, a proportion of participants yielded to group pressure and, despite obvious evidence, they chose to agree with the false ‘group’ nding. The degree to which an individual’s view is likely to be affected by conformity or peer pressure depends on many factors, including: Culture (people from Country X may tend to conform more than those from Country Y) Gender (men may tend to conform less than women) Self-esteem (a person with low self-esteem is likely to conform more) Familiarity of the individual with the subject matter (a person is more likely to conform to the majority view if they feel that they know less about the subject matter than group does) The expertise of the group members (if the individual respects the group or perceives them to be very knowledgeable the individual will be more likely to conform to their views) The relationship between the individual and group members (conformity increases if the individual knows the other members of the group, i.e. it is a group of peers). 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 104 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Image by Rodolpho Zanardo from Pexels Peer pressure is the actual or perceived pressure an individual may feel 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 105 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Positive and Negative Peer Pressure and Conformity The in uence of peer pressure and conformity on an individual’s views can be reduced considerably if the individual airs their views publicly from the outset. However, this can be very dif cult. When asked, many participants in experiments said they agreed with the majority as they did not want to appear different or to look foolish. Conformity is closely linked with culture. It is highly relevant in the aircraft maintenance environment, where it can work for or against a safety culture, depending on the attitudes of the existing staff and their in uence over newcomers. In other words, organisations can engender a positive safety attitude throughout their workforce, so that peer pressure and conformity continues this attitude. In this instance, peer pressure is clearly a good thing. Too often, however, it works in reverse, with safety standards gradually deteriorating if employees develop practices which might appear to be easier or more ef cient, but which erode safety. These workplace norms place pressure on new employees to adopt the same practices or else appear different from the majority. Image by skeeze from Pixabay Conformity is closely linked with culture 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 106 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Culture Issues Aspects of Organisational Culture Culture is shared values (what is important) and beliefs (how things work) that interact with an organisation’s structure and control systems to produce behavioural norms (the way we do things around here). It is a group or company norm. There are two main aspects of an organisation's culture: Something an organisation is (shared values and beliefs) Something an organisation has (structures, practices, systems). Changing practices is much easier than changing values and beliefs. Organisational culture There can be a degree of mistrust of anything new in the workplace, (e.g. a new empolyee whose expertise has not yet been proven, contracting out maintenance to another company, etc.). There may be a tendency for groups within the organisation and for the organisation itself to think that their own methods are the best and that others are not as good. This viewpoint is known as the group’s or organisation’s culture. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 107 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  The gure below indicates that there can be an overall organisational culture and a number of different sub-cultures, such as safety culture, professional/technical culture, etc. It is possible for cultural differences to exist between sites or even between shifts within the same organisation. The prevailing culture of the industry also in uences individual organisations. In uences on Organisational Culture Culture is not necessarily always generated or driven from the top of an organisation (as one might think). Sometimes it is determined from the workforce, or from outside in uences. But the senior management of an organisation is the best point from which to in uence the culture. © Aviation Australia Organisational culture in aircraft maintenance 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 108 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Safety Culture The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) HF Digest 10 - Human Factors, Management and Organisation (Circular 247), describes a safety culture as: ‘a set of beliefs, norms, attitudes, roles and social and technical practices concerned with minimizing exposure of employees, managers, customers and members of the general public to conditions considered dangerous or hazardous’. Further comments suggest that: ‘A safety culture exists only within an organisation where each individual employee, regardless of their position, assumes an active role in error prevention’, stressing that ‘Safety cultures do not …spring to life simply at the declaration of corporate leaders’. The culture of an organisation can best be judged by what is done rather than by what is said. Organisations may have grand mission statements concerning safety, but this does not indicate that they have a good safety culture unless the policies preached at the top are actually put into practice at the lower levels. It may be dif cult to determine the safety culture of an organisation by auditing the procedures and paperwork; a better method is to nd out what the majority of the staff actually believe and do in practice. Image by cottonbro from Pexels Safety culture can best be judged by what is done rather than by what is said 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 109 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  A method for measuring attitudes towards safety has been developed utilising a questionnaire. Employees are asked if they agree with the following: 1. It is necessary to bend some rules to achieve a target. 2. Short cuts are acceptable when they involve little or no risk. 3. I often come across situations with which I am unfamiliar. 4. I sometimes fail to understand which rules apply. 5. I am not given regular break periods when I do repetitive and boring jobs. 6. There are nancial rewards to be gained from breaking the rules. The results are scored and analysed to give an indication of the safety culture of the organisation, broken down according to safety commitment, supervision, work conditions, logistic support, etc. In theory, this enables one organisation to be objectively compared with another. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 110 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Key Components of a Safety Culture Key components of a safety culture may be summarised as follows: The culture is the ‘engine’ that continues to propel the system towards the goal of maximum safety health, regardless of the leadership’s personality or current commercial concerns. Employees do not forget to be afraid (promote constructive worrying). The company has created a safety information system that collects, analyses and distribute information from incidents and near-misses as well as from regular proactive checks on the system’s vital signs. The company promotes a good reporting culture, in which staff are willing to report near- misses. The company promotes a just culture - an atmosphere of trust, in which people are encouraged, even rewarded, for providing essential safety related information but in which it is clear where the line must be drawn between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. The company has a exible culture. The company shows respect for the skills, experience and abilities of the workforce and rst- line supervisors. The company invests in thorough training. The company promotes a learning culture - the willingness and competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system, and the will to implement major reforms when their need is indicated. Image by Andreas Breitling from Pixabay Safety survey 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 111 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Social Culture The in uence of social culture, individual or group background or heritage can be important in determining how each individual integrates into an organisational culture. The way an individual behaves outside an organisation is likely to have a bearing on how they behave within it. Internal pressures and con icts within groups at work can be driven by underlying social and cultural differences (e.g. different nationalities, different political views, different religious beliefs, etc.). This is an extremely complex subject, however, and in-depth discussion is beyond the scope of this text. While safety culture has been discussed from the organisational perspective, the responsibility of the individual should not be overlooked. Ultimately, safety culture of an organisation is a mixture of the attitudes, beliefs and actions of all the individuals. Each person should take responsibility for their own contribution to this culture, ensuring that it is a positive contribution rather than a negative one. Image by fauxels from Pexels Heritage can be important in determining how an individual integrates into an organisational culture. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 112 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Just Culture and Reporting Culture A Just Culture and Reporting Culture Create an Informed Culture In complex systems, like aircraft maintenance organisations, culture is crucial because it reaches into all parts of the system. It is probably the only single factor that can in uence the quality of the defences for good or bad because they, too, are scattered widely throughout the system. As we mentioned previously, reporting culture and just culture go hand in hand: A good reporting culture is one in which staff are willing and free to report all incidents, including self reporting, reporting of near-misses and proactive reporting (i.e. generating report data by conducting informal inspections, so that problems are agged before an accident happens). A just culture is an atmosphere of trust in which people are encouraged, even rewarded, for providing essential safety related information, including reports. But a just culture also means participants understand clearly where the line must be drawn between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. An effective safety culture is an informed culture, one that gathers information and data, makes decisions based on the evidence; and keeps its employees updated with trends, decisions and information. An informed culture is a culture that is seeking to combat complacency, to not forget to be afraid in the absence of bad accidents. Maintaining an informed culture means collecting and analysing data about incidents and near misses. But incidents and accidents are still relatively rare, so to keep the organisation informed, people must feel free to report their errors and near-misses and the organisation must nurture the culture which supports free reporting. Effective reporting depends upon having a just culture. An organisation in which people understand the distinction between acceptable and unacceptable actions. Con dential human factors reporting schemes have objectives to support the free collection of data and thus the informed culture. Because free reporting is so crucial, an informed culture can only grow from a just culture. An adequate reporting system depends on people reporting near-misses, errors and incidents. But people won’t do that if they don’t trust the system and they certainly won’t report their own errors if they are criticised or punished because of what they report. Trust lies at the heart of these cultural aspects. Blame is the enemy of the just culture, whether it is the organisation blaming individuals, or individuals blaming each other. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 113 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  The Components of a Safety Culture (Reason, 1997) The Components of a Safety Culture 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 114 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  The Blame Cycle Sometimes we are inclined to blame people rather than situations. The reason for this is complex and can be explained in two parts: When we see or hear of someone performing less than adequately, we tend to attribute this to the person’s character or ability. We say they were silly, careless, stupid, incompetent, reckless or thoughtless. But if we were to ask the person why they did it, they would almost certainly say it wasn’t their fault and, the circumstances forced them to act that way. The truth, usually, lies somewhere in between. The ‘illusion of free will’ acts to make the above point very fundamental to human nature. People, especially in Western cultures, place great value in the belief that they are free agents, the masters of their own fate. Feeling we are capable of free choice naturally leads us to assume other people are the same. They are also seen as free agents, able to choose between right and wrong, and between correct and erroneous courses of action. People are assumed to be the least constrained factor causing an accident. Their actions are seen as more avoidable than other conditions causing the situation. Image by Tumisu from Pixabay Sometimes we are inclined to blame people rather than situations 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 115 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Creating a Just Culture An organisation must make an effort and apply resources towards creating a just culture. Avoiding the Blame Cycle Creating a just culture means avoiding the blame cycle. For an organisation to avoid the blame cycle, it needs to: Recognise that human actions are almost always affected by factors outside a person’s control Recognise that people cannot easily avoid those actions they did not intend in the rst place Recognise that errors are consequences rather than causes. The beginning of the search rather than the end Recognise that in a well-trained and well-motivated workforce, situations are easier to x than people. Of course, people can behave carelessly and stupidly. We all do so at some time or another. But a stupid or careless act does not necessarily make a stupid or careless person. Image by Ekrulila from Pexels. Creating a just culture means avoiding the blame cycle 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 116 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Errors are most often consequences rather than causes. Many investigations stop as soon as they have identi ed human errors. These are then called the causes of the incident or accident. But the errors, just as much as their bad outcomes, are consequences rather than causes. They are a chapter in a long history of prior error-provoking factors. Finding errors, therefore, should mark the beginning rather than the end of the search for causal factors. We can change individual behaviour up to a point, but we cannot change human nature. And it is human nature to make mistakes occasionally. Situations and even organisations are actually easier to change than human nature. That is where the main focus of error management must lie, in changing the conditions that provoke errors rather than trying to change the humans. Blame Free Culture is not Desirable Decades ago, most blue-collar industries, including maintenance organisations, were punitive cultures. People got punished if they caused damage to the aircraft without regard to the nature of the actions involved. In the 1980s, the phrase ‘blame-free’ culture came along. But that is equally inappropriate. Some actions deserve punishment. The important thing is understanding where the line should be drawn between acceptable and unacceptable actions, between blameworthy and blameless behaviour. For an organisation to be recognised as a just culture, it needs to accept that: A ‘no-blame’ culture is neither feasible nor desirable Some unsafe acts deserve sanctions A just culture depends on trust of the workforce A just culture depends on knowing the difference between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. © Sedgman 2018 Understanding where the line is drawn between acceptable and unacceptable actions 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 117 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Liability, Culpability and Employer’s Expectations We know that a 'just' culture does not mean a 'no-blame' culture. The consequences arising from error all depends on your employer’s expectations. If you are working to your employer's expectations, then the principles of indirect liability mean your employer will accept blame if you make an honest mistake. Therefore, in a just culture, your employer cannot ask you to accept blame for honest mistakes, even if there is damage, injury or death. If you are working outside your employer's expectations, however, the situation is different. Mistakes made when acting outside your employer's expectations are known better as 'violations'. Employees become liable for their own actions when acting outside their employer's expectations. Damage, injury and death become the responsibility of the individual, rather than the organisation. The individual becomes culpable that is, deserving of blame or considered responsible. An individual can personally be blamed for the consequences. But even a violation can have mitigating circumstances, brought on by an unworkable system or an honest desire to do something a better way. For example, an AME may ignore a procedure in an Aircraft Maintenance Manual and do the task another way for the sake of saving time or for some other reason. Effectively, the person is knowingly committing a violation, a known deviation from the approved method of doing things. But they could argue that the unworkable system in uenced their actions. In a just culture, your employer cannot ask you to accept blame for honest mistakes, even if there is damage 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 118 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Disciplinary Policy Discipline within a 'just' culture needs to follow similar principles, whereby honest mistakes and errors made when working in accordance with your employer's expectations are not punished. However, violations and other blatant disregard for safety, rules and guidelines must incur a suitable discipline. unknown - Department of Defence pending approval Blatant disregard for safety, rules and guidelines must incur a suitable discipline. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 119 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  The Substitution Test If an error leads to an undesirable event, there is a question to ask the peers of the person who made the error: ‘Given the circumstances, could you be sure you would not have made the same or a similar error?’ If the answer is no, then blame is probably inappropriate. The best people can make the worst mistakes. The substitution test involves, after an unsafe act has been committed, asking the offender’s peers whether or not it could have happened to them. We all recognise human fallibility. We all know we have made mistakes in the past. If the peers say it could have happened to them, then the act is probably blameless. The history of maintenance-related accidents shows us very clearly that well-trained, well- intentioned and experienced people with blameless records can sometimes make the worst mistakes. This means maintenance errors are not just created by a few incompetent or reckless people. Blaming individuals rarely leads to effective remedial action. Culpability Culpable or Blameless? Errors versus violations Research has shown that, in general, only about 10% of unsafe acts fall clearly into the culpable category. The vast majority are blameless, and so could be safely reported, if the reporters trusted the system. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 120 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  The Culpability Matrix From Reason (1998) A decision tree for determining the culpability of unsafe acts p.209 Culpability matrix For this culpability matrix, any number of case studies can be cited to illustrate the process. From left to right, the results of the matrix range from deliberate and criminal sabotage to blameless error. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 121 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Team Work What is a Team? Whereas individualism encourages independence, teams are associated with interdependence and working together in some way to achieve one or more goals. Teams may comprise several individuals working together towards one shared goal. Alternatively, they may consist of several individuals working in parallel to achieve one common goal. Teams generally have a recognised leader and one or more follower(s). Teams need to be built up and their identity as a team needs to be maintained in some way. A team could be a group of AMEs working on a speci c task or on the same aircraft, a group working together on the same shift, or a group working in the same location or site. There are natural teams within the aircraft maintenance environment. A team may well comprise LAMEs and AMEs of different technical specialities (e.g. Mechanical, sheet/metal structures, avionics, NDT, etc.). Teams may comprise several individuals working together towards one shared goal 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 122 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Team Work Advantages and Disadvantages of Team Work Individuals most often need to feel part of a social group. In this respect, team-work is advantageous. However, research on conformity suggests that team members often feel some pressure to adhere to a group’s views, which may be seen as a potential disadvantage. Working as part of a team has a number of potential bene ts: Individuals can share resources (knowledge, tools, etc.). Individuals can discuss problems and arrive at shared solutions. Individuals can check each other's work (either of cially or unof cially). Individuals most often need to feel part of a social group Teams can be encouraged to take ownership of tasks at the working level. This gives a team greater responsibility over a package of work, rather than having to keep referring to other management for authorisation, support or direction. Groups left to their own devices need proper leadership. Healthy competition and rivalry between teams can create a strong team identity and encourage pride in the team’s product. A strong team identity also has the advantage that a group will know one another’s capabilities (and weaknesses). 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 123 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  There are also disadvantages of team work: Some members may feel pressure to conform to the majority view of the group or to the view of a strong individual. The performance of high-performing individuals and teams may decrease when they work with low-performing individuals or teams on the same project. There is scope for poor communication between individuals or between teams to have a negative effect on performance. Important Elements of Team Work For teams to function cohesively and productively, team members need to have or build up certain interpersonal and social skills. These include: Communication Co-operation Co-ordination Mutual support. Image by Pixabay on Pexels Cohesive and productive teams have certain interpersonal and social skills 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 124 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Team Communication Communication is essential for exchanging work-related information within the team. Team leaders must ensure that team members have not just heard an instruction but understood what the instruction means. Team members must feel con dent that they can highlight issues and problems with other team members and the team leader. Team members need to listen, discuss problems and arrive at shared solutions. Team Cooperation ‘Pulling together’ is inherent in the smooth running of successful teams. Fairness and openness within the team encourages cohesiveness and mutual respect. Disagreements must be handled sensitively by the team leader. Individuals should feel free to share resources (e.g. knowledge, information, tools, etc.) Individuals should be able to check each other’s work, either formally or informally. Team Coordination Co-ordination is required within the team to ensure that the team leader knows what the group members are doing. This includes delegation of tasks so that all the team’s resources are utilised. Delegated tasks should be supervised and monitored as required. The team leader must ensure that no individual is assigned a task beyond their capabilities and must also ensure prioritisation of tasks. Mutual Support Mutual support is at the heart of the team’s identity. The team leader must engender this in the team. For instance, if mistakes are made, these should be discussed and corrected collaboratively and constructively. In many companies, Line Maintenance Engineers tend to work as individuals, whereas Base Maintenance Engineers tend to work in teams. This may be signi cant when engineers who normally work in a hangar nd themselves working on the line, or vice versa. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 125 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Management, Supervision and Leadership Managers and Supervisors Managers and supervisors are a necessary part of the aircraft maintenance team. Managers and supervisors play a key role in ensuring that work is carried out safely. It is no good instilling the engineers with good safety practice concepts if these are not supported by their supervisors and managers. Managers and supervisors play a key role in ensuring that work is carried out safely The Management Role Line Maintenance Managers may be placed in a situation where they have to compromise between commercial drivers and ideal safety practices (both of which are passed down from upper management). For example, if there is a temporary staff shortage, the manager must decide whether the workload can be safely carried out with reduced manpower or decide whether an engineer working a double shift to make up the numbers will be able to perform adequately. Safety management principles may help by providing a more objective assessment of risk. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 126 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  The Supervisory Role Supervision may be a formal role or post (i.e. a team leader or supervisor), or an informal arrangement in which a more experienced engineer monitors less experienced staff. The supervisor is not only in a position to watch out for errors but to appreciate the individual engineer’s strengths and weaknesses, plus the norms and safety culture of the group. It is mainly their job to ensure that good safety practices are maintained. It can be dif cult for supervisory and management staff to strike the right balance between carrying out their supervisory duties and maintaining their trade skills and knowledge (and appropriate authorisations) and they may get out of practice. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 127 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Characteristics of a Leader There are potentially two types of leader in aircraft maintenance: the person of cially assigned the team leader role and an individual within a group whom the rest of the group tend to respect, follow or defer to (possibly due to a dominant personality, etc.). Ideally, of course, the of cial team leader should also be a person who commands respect. A leader in a given situation is a person whose ideas and actions in uence the thoughts and behaviour of others. A good leader in the maintenance engineering environment needs to be pro cient at: Motivating their team Reinforcing good attitudes and behaviour Demonstrating by example Maintaining the group cohesion Ful lling a management role. A team leader should also be a person who commands respect 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 128 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Motivating the Team Motivation can be achieved by ensuring that the goals or targets of the work which need to be achieved are clearly communicated and manageable. For instance, the team leader would describe the work required on an aircraft within a shift. They must be honest and open, highlighting any potential problems and encouraging team solutions. Reinforcing Good Attitudes and Behaviour When team members work well (i.e. safely and ef ciently), this must be recognised and reinforced by the team leader. They might do so by offering a word of thanks for hard work or making a favourable report to senior management about an individual. A good leader will also make sure bad habits are eliminated and inappropriate actions are constructively criticised. Demonstrating by Example A key skill for a team leader is to lead by example. This does not necessarily mean a leader must demonstrate the same adeptness at a task as their team. In fact, a supervisor may not have as much opportunity to practise using their skills. But they must demonstrate a personal understanding of the teams activities and goals so the team members respect their authority. It is particularly important that the team leader establishes a good safety culture within a team through their attitude and actions in this respect. Maintaining the Group Cohesion Individuals do not always work together as good teams. It is part of the leader’s role to be sensitive to the structure of the team and the relationships within it. They must engender a ‘team spirit’ in which the team members support each other and feel responsible for the work of the team. The leader must also recognise and resolve disputes within the team and encourage co-operation among its members. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 129 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Ful lling a Management Role The team leader must not be afraid to lead and to make it clear when necessary that there cannot be more than one leader in a team. The team leader is the link between higher levels of management within the organisation and the team members who actually work on the aircraft and is responsible for coordinating the activities of the team, including allocation of tasks. There can be a tendency for team members to transfer some of their own responsibilities to the team leader, and the team leader must be careful to resist this. In terms of the relationship among managers, supervisors and engineers, an ‘us vs them' attitude will not improve the safety culture of an organisation. It is important that managers, supervisors and engineers all work together rather than against one another. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 130 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only