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CLASSICAL DRAMA Course Code:9057 Study Guide Department of English Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY  CLASSICAL DRAMA BS ENGLISH (4-Ye...

CLASSICAL DRAMA Course Code:9057 Study Guide Department of English Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY  CLASSICAL DRAMA BS ENGLISH (4-Year Program) Course Code: 9057 Units: 1–9 Department of English Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD i  All rights reserved with the publisher First Edition 2021 Quantity 1000 Price Rs. Typeset by Naeem Akthar Printing Incharge Dr. Sarmad Iqbal Printer AIOU-Printing Press, Sector H-8, Islamabad Publisher Allama Iqbal Open University, H-8, Islamabad ii  COURSE TEAM Chairman: Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar Course Development Coordinator: Dr. Rashida Imran Writers: Dr. Rashida Imran Prof. Dr. Saeed Sheikh Reviewers: Dr. Rashida Imran Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar Dr. Shamim Ali Editor: Fazal Karim Formatted / Layout by: Naeem Akhtar iii  FOREWORD The BS English study guides aim to include all possible queries that students may have and gently stimulate their intellect to probe into further questions. The courses intend at professional development of the students in various disciplines of linguistics and literature using versatile methods adopted by course writers, while writing the units. The topics and ideas presented in each unit are clear and relevant. Owing, to the same reason, the text is comprehensive and accessible to students having no prior knowledge of linguistics and literature. The BS English study guides are a powerful tool even for BS English tutors teaching in various regions, focusing upon a uniform scheme of studies for all the courses. Also, these courses will help tutors by providing adequate teaching material for independent teaching. All study guides strictly follow the standardized nine-unit sub-division of the course content for optimum understanding. The short introduction at the beginning provides an overview of the units followed by achievable learning objectives. The study guides also define difficult terms in the text and guide the students for accessible learning. The units are finally summed up in summary points and the assessment questions not only guide students, but also help to revise the content developed upon previously formed concepts. Moreover, they provide links and a list of the suggested readings for further inquiry. In the end, I am happy to extend my gratitude to the course team chairman, course development coordinator, unit-writers, reviewers, editors and typesetter for the development of the course. Any suggestions for the improvement in the programme/ courses will be fondly welcomed by the Department of English. Prof Dr Zia Ul-Qayyum Vice Chancellor iv  INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE Dear Students, This study guide on the course of ‘Classical Drama (9057)’ is developed to introduce classical drama as a key genre of Greek and English Drama. The primary objective of this course is to provide holistic overview of the drama written during the classical period of Greek drama and Elizabethan Age of English literature. The course is, unavoidably, selective in nature as this field is highly diverse. Therefore, the selection of the dramatists and their works as well analyses and discussions are representative rather than exhaustive in nature and aim to demonstrate the wider scope of the classical drama. The course aims at familiarizing you with major developments in the tragic as well as comic form of drama ranging from classical era to modern times. It, also, provides a detailed insight into social, cultural, political and religious conditions of the classical and Elizabethan age which greatly influenced literary perceptions and sensibilities of the selected dramatists. Brief biographical sketches of the selected dramatists are also included to provide you an insightful and critical perspective into literary geniuses in making. The course describes fundamental literary theories, critical concepts key terms, and key terms related to this genre and is expected to inculcate basic knowledge and develop essential skills required for advancing in a more detailed, critical and theoretical exploration of this genre of literature. However, it is pertinent to mention here that our primary objective was to provide you basic orientation to critically approach the course so that you may be able to appreciate literary value and worth of dramatic excellencies of the classical and Elizabethan drama independently. Therefore, it is advised that you thoroughly read the core texts prescribed for this course. As, it is evident that contextual sensibility is highly desirable in appreciating the true meanings of a literary text in its entirety, therefore you must situate the selected works in their social, cultural, historical, political and religious contexts for detailed critical analyses and interpretations. Moreover, as majority of the prescribed core texts are quite lengthy, so it is not deemed appropriate to include them in this study guide. However, as the selected texts are chief representative of their age, so these are readily available online as well as in printed versions. You are expected to study the original or standardized versions of the core texts to enhance your understanding. You must realize the fact that detailed study of the selected works as well as an in depth analysis of extensive critical work grounded on them is the key to success. v The following section gives a brief description of unit wise course contents: Unit-1: Introduces drama as an important genre of English literature and provides a detailed critique of Greek dramatic art and traces its origin in Greek dramatic festival of Dionysos. The unit also includes some preliminary discussion on representative Greek dramatists and their works as well as treatment of justice and vengeance in Greek drama. Unit-2: Provides an in-depth introduction to the concept of tragedy including the development of tragedy from Greek drama to the modern tragedy. Aristotle’s theory of tragedy has been analysed in greater detail and its impact on Mediaeval, Renaissance, Elizabethan, Neo-Classical concepts, and theories are examined too. Unit-3: Analyses Oedipus Rex, a great tragic paly, by Sophocles who was a prominent Greek tragedian of great literary merit. The unit includes a detailed description of Sophocles’ life and his works as well as salient features of Greek drama. The idea of Greek tragedy and contributions made by Sophocles in the perfection of Greek tragedy is the subject of primary discussion. Unit-4: Presents Dr Faustus as the most critically acclaimed work of Elizabethan age followed by Marlowe’s contributions to the perfection of Elizabethan drama and creating literary space for Shakespeare is also extensively discussed. Dr Faustus as a heroic tragedy and as a tragic hero are critically examined. Unit-5: Explores the idea of Shakespearean tragedy and its defining features. The issues like the influences that might have shaped the dramatic genius of Shakespeare or the assertion that Shakespeare has never read Aristotle have also been highlighted and discussed. Unit-6: Discusses Hamlet as a masterpiece by Shakespeare. Critical investigation of Hamlet’s tragic character is the central concern of the unit. Hamlet’s melancholy has been discussed to highlight Shakespearean magnificence in the art of characterization. The elements of revenge and ambition in the play are also critically examined. Unit-7: Evaluates King Lear as one of the greatest tragedies of Shakespeare. The images of eye and eyesight which pervade the play throughout have been interpreted and illustrated from the text. The process of self-discovery of Lear has been discussed in detail. The charge that Shakespeare has sacrificed justice to convenience with special reference to Cordelia’s death has also been critically examined. vi Unit-8: Examines comedy, a popular genre of drama in general followed by Elizabethan comedy with special reference to Shakespearean comedy. The critical analysis by Shakespearean scholars have been included to enlighten the students about the growth and evolution of this genre, so that they may be able to appreciate Shakespeare's virtues and faults if any. Unit-9: Highlights Twelfth Night as the most delightful comedies of Shakespeare and discusses it as the comedy of masks and mistaken identities. How Shakespeare’s dramatic genius uses the traditional device of disguise to produce a comedy of high delight is also discussed. Moreover, Shakespearean blend of romance and humour juxtaposed to produce a romantic comedy in the real sense of the term is also discussed. Wish you an intellectually exciting exploration of the course! Dr. Rashida Imran Assistant Professor Course Coordinator vii  CONTENTS Introduction..........................................................................................................v UNIT 1 Greek Drama....................................................................................1 UNIT 2 Tragedy..........................................................................................17 UNIT 3 Oedipus Rex...................................................................................29 UNIT 4 Dr Faustus......................................................................................43 UNIT 5 Shakespearean Tragedy.................................................................59 UNIT 6 Hamlet............................................................................................67 UNIT 7 King Lear.......................................................................................89 UNIT 8 Comedy........................................................................................107 UNIT 9 Twelfth Night...............................................................................121 Recommended Reading.......................................................................................135 viii UNIT 1 GREEK DRAMA Written By: Dr. Rashida Imran Reviewed By: Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar 1  CONTENTS Greek Drama............................................................................................................1 Overview..................................................................................................................3 objectives.................................................................................................................3 1.1 What Is Drama?...........................................................................................4 1.2 Significance of Drama.................................................................................5 1.3 Origin of Greek Drama................................................................................6 1.4 The Dramatic Festival of Dionysos.............................................................9 1.5 Drama and The Polis..................................................................................10 1.6 Greek Drama: Representative Writers.......................................................11 1.7 Justice and Vengeance in Greek Drama....................................................12 Summary Points.....................................................................................................14 Self-Assessment Questions....................................................................................15 2  OVERVIEW This is the foremost unit of the course which provides basic orientation to Greek drama. The unit begins with the detailed description of Greek dramatic art and moves on to define drama in Aristotelian terms. The unit, also, critically explores ‘theater’ as a key term related to Greek drama. After highlighting the significance of drama, the unit moves forward to trace origins of the Greek drama. The dramatic festival of Dionysos has been discussed extensively to highlight its importance in the development of Greek drama. The unit also includes some preliminary discussion on representative Greek dramatists and their works and concludes with the exploration of ideas of justice and vengeance in Greek drama. OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to:  define the term drama  highlight the significance of dramatic art  trace the origin of Greek drama  understand critical importance of dramatic festival of Dionysos  explore the relationship between dramatic festival and polis  identify representative figures of Greek drama  investigate the themes of justice and vengeance in Greek drama 3 The dramatic art has, always, been closely associated with depicting and reflecting a society in its essence. It is conditioned by the social environment in which it is produced, and it tends to reproduce the social life in all of its intricacies. Thus, drama is perceived to be the constructor as well as reflector of the social reality. It has been the subject of serious academic scholarship for decades and is regarded as a suitable literary genre to investigate the issues of critical importance related to social, moral and political aspects of a society. It has been ranked as the highest form of creative and intellectual products which can be used as a suitable epistemological site to understand generic structure and outlook of a society. This assertion gains weightage keeping in view the general tendency in human nature to represent its intellectual consciousness and abstract perceptions in the form of a concrete art for critical reception and appropriation of the public. 1.1 What is Drama? The word drama, in the typical sense of the term, refers to ‘action’. Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his seminal work Poetics, states that dramatic poets “represent people in action” as opposed to a third person narrative or a blend of a narrative and dialogue which we find common in a novel, another significantly important genre of literature. The Greek term for drama is ‘dran’, which means ‘action’, ‘doing’, and ‘performance’, However, according to Aristotle the verb ‘dran’ did not belong to Attic dialect spoken at Athens rather the verb ‘prattein’ was used to signify both action and/or performance. Furthermore, both Aristotle and Plato viewed drama as an instance of ‘mimesis’ which signifies ‘imitation’ or ‘representation’ but with a difference in perspective. Plato conceived mimesis as a substandard or inferior form of representation which must be avoided in an ideal state as it is performing the role or putting oneself into the character of another which may serve to be morally inferior or even morally degenerating. On the other hand, Aristotle, who was the ardent pupil of Plato, appreciated the aesthetic value of mimesis and regarded it as essential to human nature and fundamental to human learning besides being pleasure oriented. “… to engage in mimesis is innate in human beings from childhood and humans differ from other living creatures in that humans are very mimetic and develop their first learning through mimesis and because all humans enjoy mimetic activities” (Aristotle 5-9). This implies that historically drama originated in the form of stage or theatrical performances as writing was a later invention. Thus, initially, drama was meant to be played in front of the audience and success of a drama was heavily dependent on the performance of the characters besides an interesting story and gripping plot. Moreover, ‘doing’ or ‘performance’ is not only restricted to Greek culture and society only, rather all human societies and diverse sociocultural groups exhibit a marked preference for performances which can be used in a wide range of social contexts. 4 Another term which is crucially related to the study of drama is ‘theater’ which is derived from the Greek term ‘thea’ which literally means ‘watch’ or ‘observe’ and while in modern times we use the terms ‘audience’ and ‘auditorium’, the classical Greeks used the terms ‘watchers’, ‘spectators’ and ‘watching place’. Moreover, the noun ‘theatron’ which means ‘theater’ stands for both spectators as well as the physical area or stage where plays were staged. However, modern conception of the term brings more extended meanings and includes not only the basic text as performed or narrated but complex theoretical viewpoints and approaches employed in the critical explorations of drama: Theater is performance, though often the performance of a dramatic text, and entails not only words but space, actors, props, audience, and the complex relations among these elements... Theater, of necessity, involves both doing and seeing, practice and contemplation. Moreover, the word “theory” comes from the same root as “theater.” Theater and theory are both contemplative pursuits, although theater has a practical and a sensuous side which contemplation should not be allowed to overwhelm (Fortier 4–6). Thus, the study of theater essentially involves the critical explorations of the lived experiences of those who are involved in production and reception of drama. Literary critics, in the modern age, are interested to know about the perceptions and assumptions of those who were involved in the entire process of theatrical performances including but not limited to authors, characters and spectators. Contrary to modern theaters, in classical Athens plays were performed in broad daylight and easily approachable physical settings so that maximum number of spectators could watch them. The setting would preferably be in the outskirts of the temple or shrine of a god signifying worship of a mythological god to uphold whatever religious principles were associated to him. 1.2 Significance of Drama Drama is one of the most pervasive cultural products in ancient and modern societies. It stands unique among other genres of literature with respect to its rhetorical conventions, stylistic techniques and performance element. Drama performs various distinct functions in either explicit or implicit ways. As a cultural product, it has never been restricted to purely entertainment purposes, rather it has been linked to upholding of religious, moral, social and political values of a society. The drama continues to be perceived as a form of civilizing agency or an agent of socialization and transformation which shapes the perception of the society where it is produced. However, many dramas may blur temporal and spatial boundaries and attain the status of ‘classic’ something of extraordinary quality, invaluable and unsurpassed aesthetic appeal. As discussed earlier, drama is not only educative and civilizing 5 agency in its essence but is also fundamental in reviving a culture by preserving its heritage. Drama can also be viewed as a form of documentation of history, though it is debatable that how far dramatic representation is an amalgamation of reality and fiction. Drama and performances may keep historical events alive and thrive though elaborated but real and authentic stories. Greek tragedy falls partly into this category, since its themes and subjects are drawn from the heroic age, an idealized and glorified past time about a thousand years before the classical age. Similarly, the Ramlila plays of Indian origin are another finest example of blending myth and history. These serve to be a form of cultural heritage for the Hindus in the similar sense as Greek myths were perceived in classical Greece. History plays of Shakespeare is another prominent instance specially Richard III. Within the Muslim world, the historical plays based on heroic legends of Ottoman empire are very popular. Historical plays are always grounded in the lost but glorified past. Drama can, also, be a tool to uphold moral principles of noblest kind and to provide moral and ethical code of conduct. The Mystery Plays in part reiterated the message of the Christian gospel, while the Ramlila plays celebrate the triumph of love and loyalty over hatred, evil and lust. Thus, drama may also serve a reformative function and instill moral values and wisdom. Furthermore, human beings seek pleasure and entertainment in performing arts specially in drama. Play goers seek refuge in performances from the harsh realities of life. These not only appeal to their aesthetics sense but also subvert them from their dull and monotonous routines. Poetic justice provides relief and strengthens belief in just divine system. Human beings interact and engage with the characters and invest meanings to the performances which provide them intellectual satisfaction. This, further, reinforces Aristotelian claim that mimesis is essentially innate to humanity and a source of natural pleasure. Moreover, we enjoy hearing or watching a story gradually unfolding. This involves not only intellectual interaction but also emotional one as the viewers associate themselves with the characters and their experiences as well as resonate with their tales of happiness and woe. Stories are all pervasive and common to our modern landscape and the art of storytelling is as ancient as is the human civilization itself. Much of the cultural wisdom has been transferred from one generation to another in the form of folk stories which often reflect ‘cultural consciousness’ either in extended or condensed narration. However, for Greeks drama came later than the pure narration of stories without involving any action or performance. 1.3 Origin of Greek Drama Drama, primarily, originated in Greece and the modern western drama has its historical roots in the mid sixth century at Athens. The period in which Greek drama 6 rose to a position of eminence ranges from sixth to mid third century while it was the fifth century when Greek drama witnessed remarkable perfection and the evidence is that most of the dramatic texts which faced tests of the times and survived till date are the ones which were produced during fifth century. Greek drama has three uniquely distinct genres which include serious drama or tragedy traditionally believed to be presented in 534; satyr -drama originated in 500 and comedy which historically originated in Athens in 486. Drama, in its earlier stages of development, has been closely associated with celebrations of religious nature. It, usually, dealt with ritualistic ceremonies of religious worship of gods. If we trace the earlier roots of Greek literature, we find the towering figure of Homer, a great epic poet of unrivalled stature. Greek literature including Greek drama owes a great deal to this poetic genius. He is one of the most celebrated figures in the Greek poetry. He is credited not only for originating Greek poetry but also establishing philosophical, literary and scholarly foundations of western literature. He is most famous for his two great epic poems written in the heroic manner. Homer’s ‘Iliad’ celebrates, Achilles, the great Greek hero of the Trojan war while ‘Odyssey’ is about the return of Odysseus from that war. Both seminal works provide standard versions of mythological gods. Homer’s works largely influenced later Greek literary artists specially the dramatists. They appropriated Homer’s poetic style, diction and themes into their own works. His influence on Aeschylus, a great Greek dramatist, was so phenomenal and evident that he was described as serving up “slices from the banquet of Homer”. Many of the critically acclaimed works of even modern critics are focused at analyzing textual appropriations of Homer’s seminal material. Homer’s Achilles is one of the great explorations of what it means to be a truly “tragic” hero, a man whose pursuit of honor leads to the death of his dearest friend and ultimately his own, but when he appears in Euripides’ Iphigeneia at Aulis, we behold an ineffective youth, full of sound and fury, unable to rescue the damsel in distress. Homer may be three centuries earlier than the tragedians of the fifth century, but his influence upon them was seminal. Homer himself was looking back to an earlier age, what we call the late Bronze Age (1500–1100), a tradition which he passed on to the dramatists. Both Homer and the tragedians depict people and stories not of their own time, but of an earlier, lost, and idealized age of heroes (Allan 4). Greek dramas were primarily written and performed in Athens which was the hub of all cultural activities in ancient Greece. However, it is surprising to find out that Athens was not the leading city of Greece in terms of political, cultural and economic development in the sixth century. Nevertheless, it was at Athens that all three distinct genres of Greek drama were performed in public competitions in late sixth and early fifth century. Athens attained this status when she brought under her control Greek 7 region Attica and witnessed economic boom by discovering and utilizing products of Attic soil which mainly included olives, olive oil and clay for pottery. The Greeks of the seventh and sixth centuries experienced an uneasy mix of hereditary monarchy, aristocracy, popular unrest and ‘tyranny’. In modern times, tyranny has quite negative connotations and it refers to the rule of a tyrant who is essentially a dictator. However, for Greeks, it is an archaic Greek term used to refer to ‘one-man rule’ who has assumed the role of a ruler after rescuing a state from an internal stasis or civil unrest. Thus, these were the tyrants who determined future course of actions for Athens and led her to a state of dignity and eminence under democracy and attracted artists to their courts at Athens. Moreover, these were the tyrants who instilled a communal sense of ethnic identity by eliminating all divisions within the society. Another unique act of tyrants was the creation and establishment of a single festival of Dionysos at Athens, the City Dionysia, which brought all other local festivals to an end by providing a unified site for official celebrations for the people. This was the festival where tragedy was initially performed in 534 as part of cultural program which led the foundations of the development of the Greek drama leading to satyr-play, and finally comedy. The traditional date for the formal introduction of a dramatic form (tragedy) is given as 534 and clearly tragedy was not ‘invented’ overnight and we should postulate some sort of choral performances in the sixth century developing into what would be called ‘tragedy’. Thus, satyr drama is not the primitive form and it was developed after tragedy. Initially, it would accompany the tragic performances of three competing playwrights but gradually it was removed from the tragic competitions. Later at some point during the fourth century satyr-drama becomes its own separate genre. Comedy began later than tragedy and satyr-drama, the canonical first date being the Dionysia of 486. The ancient critics divided comedy at Athens into three distinct chronological phases: Old Comedy, roughly synonymous with the classical fifth century (486 -385); Middle Comedy (385–325, or “between Aristophanes and Menander”); New Comedy (325 onward). What survived of Greek literature apart from actual play texts, we have literary criticism about general dramatic tradition and particularly about individual plays and dramatists. Central to literary criticism is Aristotle’s seminal work ‘Poetics’ which primarily deals with tragedy and epic besides some general critique or commentary on drama. Aristotle wrote this treatise a hundred year after the golden period of Attic tragedy. The ‘Poetics’ is an analytic critique of defining features and different components of tragedy. There are a few points which are both difficult to comprehend as well as controversial, for instance i. End of tragedy is catharsis of pity and fear. ii. Tragedy can be without an actor but not without a plot. iii. The best tragic characters become prey to misfortunes because of 8  some hamartia. iv. Hamartia is another complicated term which is mistreated as ‘tragic flaw’. v. Tragic flaw emphasizes the role of character in a tragedy instead of plot. 1.4 The Dramatic Festival of Dionysos At Athens, the god Dionysos was honored through dramatic festivals. He was one of the most eminent of Greek gods. He was the god of fertility, wine and religious activity. He was a popular figure in Greek mythology. He was often referred to as Eleutherios meaning ‘the liberator’ because his wine, music and ecstatic dance freed his followers from self-consciousness and societal constraints. The dramatic festivals organized as a worship of god Dionysos performed dual functions of not only honoring him but also state sponsored events to develop communal life of the city. It is not surprising to find out that these arrangements were made by the tyrants to create, promote and strengthen the sense of national unity as well as cultural identity of the citizens. These festivals were splendid in their vigour and vitality making Athens the most notable place in Greece and the finest example of state governed centralized instructions to minimize the chances of any sort of ethnic divisions and deviations by bringing all rural festivals into a unified activity in the city of Athens. These dramatic performances were competitions in similar sense as we have award ceremonies and prizes for best cultural products and performances in the modern times. As we know, the ancient Greek civilization once ruled the world. This owes a great deal to intensely competitive nature of Greeks besides some other compelling factors. Thus, these festivals provided them golden opportunities to exhibit their unique talent and skills. Special judges were appointed from all the tribes to assess and award these performances. Ancient Greeks were not the followers of any religion as the idea of religion exists in the modern sense of the term. They did not have any conventional system of religious principles or practices. Therefore, the term ‘religion’ may not sound appropriate to describe their belief systems as they did not have any such religious paradigm. In the ancient Greece, distinct boundaries were not drawn between the realm of religion and philosophy or between morality and ethics. However, they did have faith in mighty powers of various gods and deities based on their mythological knowledge. Moreover, they did not worship their gods to seek spiritual salvation or purgation of their sins but because they believed that these forces had control on the human beings, and they were powerful enough to redirect destiny of the humans. They, also, believed that gods could be influenced by human worship and offerings and sacrifices they made to please them to repel evil. Greek drama is replete with instances when the powers of gods were invoked to escape sufferings and ill fate. 9 When we visualize Greek tragedy, emotional and entertaining, performed in ancient outdoor civic theater, we are unable to realize what was its impact on the spectators who were significantly greater in number as compared to our modern theaters partly because it was a religious festival as well as a civic activity. According to Aristotle, a tragedy is essentially required to elicit emotions of pity and fear leading to catharsis of these emotions. Now, the question arises, ‘is catharsis an individual or collective response’? keeping in view the Dionysos festival, the response must have been collective in nature. Moreover, worshipping Dionysos was an act of achieving a state of ecstasy, so it can be safely assumed that aesthetic appeal of watching a tragedy collectively, suspending consciousness and feeling sufferings of the characters was in some sense an ecstatic experience. The performances at the Dionysia are the subject of scholarly critique for the past many decades partly because of the reason that these were fundamental in establishing the tradition of dramatic competition and partly because these carried much prestige for being organized under the state machinery of tyrant rule. Moreover, we are best informed about these competitions because of their previously mentioned characteristic features. However, it is difficult to determine the extent to which drama served the purpose of religious offering, political identity or a means of popular entertainment but nevertheless drama performed all these functions simultaneously in varying degrees. 1.5 Drama and the Polis As we have discussed earlier Greek drama festival has normally been perceived serving a religious purpose of honouring gods, but its political orientation is equally important. This is partly because of the reason that Greeks were keen participants of religious festivals. They used to attend these festivals with natural fervor as a civic obligation. When these festivals involved the wider Greek community, then arose the possibility of serving some political end too by offering some benefits to the polis. Much of the modern scholarship is focused on exploring this dimension of Greek drama. Polis is a Greek term from which we have derived English terms politics and political. When we claim that a certain cultural product serves some political purposes, we tend to develop a relationship between it and the politics of the society where it is produced. Thus, exploring political dimension of Greek drama would certainly entail its role in Athenian politics and laws, etc. Was drama instrumental in creating and sustaining Athenian identity? Was it used as a tool of ideology construction? Did it serve as a means of mass education? Did it serve as a public spokesperson and voiced those concerns which could not be raised at any other public platform? These are some of the critical concerns which you may like to explore to enhance your understanding of the subject matter. Another issue which is of greater interest for a modern critic to explore is the role of women in ancient Greece with reference to Dionysos festival. We know that women in ancient Greece observed a secluded lifestyle. We can safely assume that there 10 might not have been any female tragedian as Athens was primarily a male dominated society and women were not allowed to either vote or hold a political office. However, whether women attended this festival is still debatable without any definite answer. Therefore, it can be postulated that if this dramatic festival was a religious worship, women could have attended it. However, if it was a political and civic activity then the logical inference negates participation of women. Nevertheless, we do not have authentic evidence to support either of the claims. 1.6 Greek Drama: Representative Writers Greek drama, even after the centuries of its creation, still holds relevant for the modern audience for its universal themes and situations, lyrical diction, and intricate plots. Greek drama created an entirely new form of art and Greek literary artists continue to influence modern writers, philosophers, psychologists, and thinkers in diverse fields. Greek drama witnessed several artists of varied literary merit and some of the most prominent and chief representative figures are as under: 1.6.1 Aeschylus (525-456 BC) Aeschylus was born in about 525 BC and he is earliest of the best known ancient Greek tragic dramatists. He was very skillful at handling trilogy which refers to a group of three plays written to be performed consecutively by following sequential development of the story. He elevated the dramatic presentation from a choral performance to a work of art. He significantly contributed towards the perfection of tragic form by adding a second character on the stage to create opportunity for the dialogue. He, also, reduced the number of chorus from almost fifty to fifteen. He removed all spectacles of bloodshed from the stage. Aeschylus highlighted the importance of Greek drama through presentation and not mere recitation. His works reflected a consciousness of the politics of his era specially Gracio Persian war. He is often remembered for the sublimity of his ideas and loftiness of his style. He enjoyed the same prestige in Greek era as Shakespeare enjoyed in Elizabethan period. He wrote ninety plays and only seven of them survived. He died in 456 BC. 1.6.2 Aristophanes (450-385) Aristophanes, the most famous writer of Greek comedies, was born in 450. He witnessed the upheavals caused by Peloponnesian War which stripped Athens of her position of dignity and eminence for being the cultural and political capital of Greece. He was the best-known practitioner of Old Comedy which was reformative in nature and grounded in political satire. His works reflected his keen consciousness of social, cultural, political and philosophical life of Athens society. Literary appeal of Aristophanes was largely grounded in his witty dialogues, reformative satire and comic scenes. His plays are still performed on the modern stage. He wrote forty-four comedies of which only eleven survived. He died in 385BC. 11 1.6.3 Euripides (485-406) Euripides belongs to the troubled era of upheavals Athens faced as a direct consequence of war with Sparta. He was born in 485 in Attica, and he is last in the series of great Greek tragedians of fifth century. Though he composed several plays but only nineteen of them survived. It is estimated that he wrote more plays than the combined number of other two tragedians, Aeschylus and Sophocles. He is greatly admired for being a keen innovator and experimenter who revived the form and content of traditional plays through his works. He portrayed strong female characters who were driven to violence after long and intense suffering. His plays are more aptly categorized as melodramas rather than pure tragedies. He is universally acknowledged as an artist of high-quality rhetorical skills. He has been labelled as ‘the most tragic of Greek tragedians.’ He is greatly admired for his psychological insight. He was least successful in the dramatic competitions of festival of Dionysos as compared to other two tragedians of his time. 1.6.4 Sophocles (496-406) Sophocles was born in Colonus in 485 BC. He is regarded as the chief representative figure of Greek drama. He was very skillful at plot construction and the use of dramatic irony. He regularly participated in Greek dramatic competitions and won majority of them as compared to other two great tragedians of his times. He is famous for bringing skillful innovations in Greek drama with respect to plot construction and art of characterization. His plays reflect intense suffering of the human which is a natural consequence of their own actions. Greek philosopher Aristotle greatly praises Sophocles’ masterpiece Oedipus Rex for its dramatic conventions and plot construction. Sophocles’ plays are still the chief concern of modern scholarship and several of them are being performed on the modern stage. He died in 406 BC. 1.6.5 Menander (342-292) Menander was born in 342 BC and he is the chief proponent of New Comedy which deals with average characters and does not have any supernatural or heroic elements in its plot. He strongly influenced the development of European comedy. He was not considered successful during his lifetime. He wrote more than a hundred plays and only one of them survived. He died in 292 BC. 1.7 Justice and Vengeance in Greek Drama Greek tragedies are, primarily, preoccupied with the ideas of justices and vengeance with special reference to man’s existence and suffering in the broader chaotic world. More specifically, Greek writers explored the ideas related to godly justice and revenge. It was a common held belief of ancient Greeks that gods did not approve of human greatness. Therefore, through their strange and mysterious ways, they played 12 tricks on the humans to deprive them of their greatness. However, these were certainly human actions involving excessive pride or hubris causing their downfall from a state of prosperity to adversity and happiness to suffering. The resultant death, destruction and devastation maybe perceived as a just punishment for their excessive pride and lust for absolute power. All three great tragedians explored the themes of justice and revenge in their plays but there were differences in their philosophical viewpoints and treatment of the subject matter. Thus, their representation of these ideas is largely grounded in their perceptions of life and their approach to human existence and related issues. Aeschylus had a strong belief in just Zeus and hereditary guilt of first sin. Therefore, humans are sinful by nature. Aeschylus’ central preoccupation is to justify gods’ ways to the mankind. His characters often experience godly wrath for disrupting cosmic order. However, their defeat and destruction serve the noblest purpose of rendering them humility and purifying them from deadly sins of pride and hubris. Aeschylus depicted strong female characters in his plays who are driven to violence in seeking justice. For instance, Agamemnon is killed by his wife on the charge of offering their daughter as a sacrifice before sending the expedition against Troy. The play depicts her standing by the side of her husband’s dead body and chanting, ‘justice is served’. Sophocles is also concerned with the idea of divine justice. However, his focus is on human world rather than divine. Though, Sophocles does not dismiss the idea of divine providence and predestination, but his plays depict human beings facing the consequences of their own actions and doings. His characters take the responsibility of their decisions and face their consequences in a heroic manner. Oedipus Rex experiences a unique justice by avenging himself through self-punishment because no other mortal can bear his suffering. Euripides’ treatment of justice is strikingly different than that of his predecessors. He believes that gods cannot be invoked for justice and they would not help either to promote it. In his paly Medea, justice and revenge are depicted in very crude terms. Medea decides to kill her children to seek revenge from her husband. Despite an intense internal monologue, she is passionate to serve justice. Her internal conflict raises her to the stature of a tragic heroine. Euripides lays great stress on individual freedom and actions rather than predestination. Thus, gods should not be blamed for human suffering and miseries but the human themselves. Greek ideas of justice and vengeance still hold relevant for the modern audience because of their intellectual appeal and philosophical complexity. 13  SUMMARY POINTS i.The dramatic art has, always, been closely associated with depicting and reflecting a society in its essence. ii.Drama has been ranked as the highest form of creative and intellectual products which can be used as a suitable epistemological site to understand generic structure and outlook of a society. iii.The Greek term for drama is ‘dran’, which means ‘action’, ‘doing’, and ‘performance’, However, according to Aristotle the verb ‘dran’ did not belong to Attic dialect spoken at Athens rather the verb ‘prattein’ was used to signify both action and/or performance. iv.This implies that historically drama originated in the form of stage or theatrical performances as writing was a later invention. v.The study of theater essentially involves the critical explorations of the lived experiences of those who are involved in production and reception of drama. vi.The drama continues to be perceived as a form of civilizing agency or an agent of socialization and transformation which shapes the perception of the society where it is produced. vii.Historical plays are always grounded in the lost but glorified past. viii.Aristotle claims that mimesis is essentially innate to humanity and a source of natural pleasure. ix.Drama, primarily, originated in Greece and the modern western drama has its historical roots in the mid sixth century at Athens. x.Greek drama has three uniquely distinct genres which include serious drama or tragedy traditionally believed to be presented in 534; satyr -drama originated in 500 and comedy which historically originated in Athens in 486. xi.The Greeks of the seventh and sixth centuries experienced an uneasy mix of hereditary monarchy, aristocracy, popular unrest and ‘tyranny’. xii.What survived of Greek literature apart from actual play texts, we have literary criticism about general dramatic tradition and particularly about individual plays and dramatists. xiii.At Athens, the god Dionysos was honored through dramatic festivals. xiv.The Greek dramatic performances were competitions in similar sense as we have award ceremonies and prizes for best cultural products and performances in the modern times. xv.Ancient Greeks were not the followers of any religion as the idea of religion exists in the modern sense of the term. xvi.Greek drama is replete with instances when the powers of gods were invoked to escape sufferings and ill fate. xvii.Greek drama, even after the centuries of its creation, still holds relevant for the modern audience for its universal themes and situations, lyrical diction, and intricate plots. 14 xviii.Aeschylus elevated the dramatic presentation from a choral performance to a work of art. xix.Greek philosopher Aristotle greatly praises Sophocles’ masterpiece Oedipus Rex for its dramatic conventions and plot construction. xx.Euripides has been labelled as ‘the most tragic of Greek tragedians.’ Self-Assessment Questions i.Discuss the unique features of dramatic art and its significance in detail. ii.Trace the origins of Greek drama with special reference to its representative dramatists. iii.Highlight the critical importance of the dramatic festival of Dionysos in the development of Greek drama. iv.Write a detailed note on the relationship between Greek drama and polis. v.Critically analyze the themes of justice and vengeance in Greek drama. 15 16 UNIT 2 TRAGEDY Written By: Dr. Muhammad Saeed Sheikh Reviewed By: Dr. Rashida Imran 17  CONTENTS UNIT 2.............................................................................................................................. 17 Tragedy............................................................................................................................. 17 Overview........................................................................................................................... 19 Objectives.......................................................................................................................... 19 2.1 What is Tragedy?........................................................................................................ 20 2.2 Aristotle on Tragedy................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Developments in Tragedy........................................................................................... 22 2.4 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 26 Summary Points................................................................................................................ 26 Self-Assessment questions................................................................................................ 28 18  OVERVIEW This unit deals with an introduction to the concept of tragedy including the development of tragedy from Greek drama to the modern tragedy. Aristotle’s definition of tragedy has been analysed in detail. Mediaeval, Renaissance, Elizabethan, Neo-Classical concepts, and theories are examined too. How far modern tragedy in its concept and practice is similar or different from the previous theories has also been discussed. This unit is hoped to enlighten the students about the continuity of the traditional concept of tragedy from the Greek or classical drama. The key elements like the tragic hero, the tragic flaw or hamartia, the function of tragedy, the role of morality in the formation of tragic drama as something didactic as a defence against the charges of immorality laid by Puritans, and the question, ‘Is death of the protagonist essential for making a tragedy more effective?’ have also been discussed. OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to: i. define tragedy analyse Aristotle’s definition of tragedy ii. iii. trace the development of tragedy in concept and practice iv.analyse the Mediaeval, the Renaissance, the Elizabethan, and the Neo- classical concepts of tragedy. v. define tragic hero, hamartia and catharsis and illustrate from the Greek tragedy prescribed for your study 19 2.1 What is Tragedy? According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, tragedy is a serious play with a sad ending especially one in which main character dies. Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory defines tragedy thus, “In the first place it almost certainly denoted a form of ritual sacrifice accompanied by a choral song in honour of Dionysus, the god of the fields and the vineyards. Out of this ritual developed Greek dramatic tragedy” (926). Murfin describes tragedy as a serious and often sombre drama written in prose or verse that typically ends in disaster and that focuses on a character who undergoes unexpected reversals. According to Greek philosopher Aristotle (16), “Tragedy is the imitation of an action that is serious, has magnitude, and is complete in itself; in language with pleasurable accessories, each kind brought in separately in various parts of the work in a dramatic, not in a narrative form with incidents arousing pity and fear. Wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions”. Another view of tragedy that was held in the middle ages by the play goers resembles the one which The Monk in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tale holds: Tragedie is to seyn, a certeyn storie, As olde bookes maken us memorie, Of hym that stood in greet prosperitee And is y-fallen out of heigh degree Into myserie, and endeth wretchedly; The theme or moral of the Monk’s tale according to Harrison (14-15) is that fortune or destiny mysteriously plays trick on a man to throw him from a state of prosperity to misery to bring out a reversal and a disastrous end. “Tragedy is indeed one of the most difficult of critical terms, a theme for endless discussion and theory” (Harrison14-15). You must have noted that the definitions of tragedy referred above have some common points. Tragic drama, according to these definitions is a play which has a sad ending. The protagonist suffers a fall from happiness to misery, a reversal of fortune from prosperity to adversity. An effective tragic drama leaves the theatre goers in an emotional state of purgation of their emotions of pity and fear. It should be noted that tragedy through all the processes of evolution, no doubt, exhibited changes in its mechanics as well as the stage craft and the morals which the dramatist has in mind to effectively communicate to the audience. 20  2.2 Aristotle on Tragedy Aristotle in his seminal work ‘Poetics’ defines tragedy and makes an extended discussion on its different components. The definition has been cited in the previous section. However, the following points are important to comprehend the concept of tragedy in the true sense of the term: i. The tragedy is an imitation, imaginative reconstruction of a piece of life (action) which should not be too long to skip the memory of the audience as the play proceeds, and it should be not too short to undermine the relationship of the parts of the story to the whole disturbing the unity of plot. The limit of its length should be such as to allow the hero passing through different stages and come to a reversal of fortune. A well-constructed plot should have a proper beginning, a middle and an end. ii.The tragic hero should neither be a saint who is ideally just and virtuous nor he be vicious and depraved. He must have a tragic flaw in his character which Aristotle calls as “Hamartia1”. A weakness or limitation due to which the hero experiences a change from happiness to misery. Cuddon interprets this point as tragedy is the disaster which comes to those who represent and who symbolize in a particularly intense form, these flaws and shortcomings which are universal in a lesser form. The greater the person, so it seems, the more acute is their tragedy. iii.By participating vicariously in the grief, pain and fear of the tragic hero or heroine, the spectator in Aristotle’s words experiences pity and fear and is purged – the catharsis of the emotions of pity and fear. Hence the moral function of the tragedy. According to Aristotle “Tragedy, through pity and fear effects the proper catharsis [purgation] of these emotions”. “Catharsis or purging can only be understood when one has felt it in the theatre. True tragic purgation of the emotions is thus an experience which must be shared in public for it owes much of its intensity to the fact that everyone in the theatre is being similarly moved. The experience, fully realized, leaves the feeling so utterly stirred and drained that one’s whole emotional state and balance for an appreciable time completely changed – the purgation achieved in private reading is by comparison a very pale form” (Harrison 17). A play that effects the purgation or cleansing of the emotions of pity and fear in the theatre, according to Harrison (1951) is ‘deep tragedy’. It is how Aristotle defends poetry and refutes the charges of immorality against the poet. 1 ‘Hamartia” is often used synonymously with ‘tragic flaw’ but the usage is not strictly accurate. A tragic flaw is inherent in the Protagonist, tragic flaws are often, throughout necessarily, character flaws. They range from moral flaws such as jealousy to traits normally considered virtues, such as courage. The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms (1998: 404) 21  2.3 Developments in Tragedy In the ancient Greek plays, tragic flaw brings out the disaster of the protagonist as in Oedipus Rex. Oedipus in his overweening pride ‘Hubris’ is led to kill his father and marry his mother in a failed attempt to avert the same prophecy. He blinds himself when he discovers that he unknowingly fulfils the prophecy. In the Mediaeval tragedy, influenced by the miracle and morality plays, the role of the tragic flaw is minimized, and the downfall of the protagonist is not caused by the error in judgement alone as there are other forces like fate which has predestined the future course of events in the protagonist’s life which leads him to his reversal of fortune. During the Renaissance, according to Murfin (1998), the classical tragedy was rediscovered and in England during the Elizabethan age drama emerged as a popular genre. The writes of drama followed the Senecan model. Elizabethan Senecan Tragedies fall into two major groups. One consists of plays that are academic in spirit, given that they closely imitated Senecan’s forms and conventions. The other, more important group of tragedies is comprised of works geared toward a popular audience. These tragedies resemble Senecan’s insofar as they involve considerable violence and an occasional ghost. This form of Senecan tragedy commonly called Revenge Tragedy (or, in its most extreme manifestations, the Tragedy of Blood) proved far more important to the history of English theatre – and to literature in general than did the more academic form of Elizabethan Senecan English tragedy. Revenge tragedy brilliantly merges the classical themes with English traditions. William Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1602) is the most famous example of this mixed tradition. Elizabethan tragedies differ from the classical tragedy in the following aspects: i. The Elizabethan portrayed their protagonists usually virtuous or wicked unlike the Aristotelian suggestion that the protagonists should be like general human beings and not idealistically presented. The protagonists however portrayed by Elizabethan were individuals representing general mankind. ii. Introduction of humour to provide comic relief to the audience. iii. Elizabethans introduced the blend of the essential elements of both comedy and tragedy which was a new genre called tragicomedy. Gorboduc (1561) by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville, has been regarded as the first Elizabethan tragedy imitating Senecan’s model. “During the 16th century and until approximately 1640, dramatists did not follow the classical traditions. In fact, we find a large number of tragedies in this period whose form and structure show considerable variations” (Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory – 4th edition 930). According to Cuddon, there was a revival of tragedy in England in the later part of the 17th century which was slight. However, from 1700 onwards little 22 tragedy of note was written in the sense that it survived and captured the interest of the audience. In the 18th century the dramatist once again wrote under the influence of classical rules and models or they attempted something like domestic or Bourgeois tragedy. European dramatists experimented with tragic formulae and succeeded in varying degrees during the 18th and 19th centuries. “Near the end of the 19th century, two Scandinavian dramatists brought about a wholly unexpected revolution of tragic form and subject. Their works displayed the tragedy of disease, of eccentricity, a bad heredity, of madness or more or less psychotic and emotionally morbid states. Their tragic vision revealed a society that was diseased, spiritually and morally decadent. In Ibsen’s case the vision gave great and bitter offense. What he exposed was too near the truth for almost anybody’s comfort” (Cuddon 932). This was a revolutionary departure from what was written during the previous centuries. The new vision did not show the Kings, Queens, Nobles or Aristocrats falling from prosperity to adversity. It presented the common man living in a social milieu where there was disease, deprivations both physical and emotional, political antipathies and religious scepticism. The new vision brought the audience to face the truths of life which remained hither to eclipsed on account of multi-faceted reasons. “Since then, a large number of dramatists have attempted different kinds of tragedy; or serious plays which are tragic in tone, impart and intention. [….] If tragedy, like other major art forms is, to be taken as expression and reflection of man’s nature and his vision of the universe and his role and position in it, in any society and period then the concept of tragedy has changed greatly since the 16th century. The scale and tone of tragedy or anything resembling it has been modified. We now have the grief, the misery, the disease, of the ordinary man. Not a King or Queen or a Prince, but every day’s mother, tramp, peasant or salesman” (Cuddon 932-33). “Most pre-Twentieth century criticism placed the main emphasis upon character and their psychological truth to life and the specific moral lessons taught by the plays” (Herbage 1). 20th century criticism is distinguished in its attempt to broaden the base of inquiry with respect to both form and content, and less concerned with moral instruction than with philosophical vistas. The criticism of the past tended to seek in the plays by no means fruitlessly, confirmation of its own moral and religious orthodoxy. The criticism of the present to seek again not fruitlessly, systems sufficiently hospitable or ill-defined accommodate its heterodoxy. As has been discussed earlier that Aristotle defends poetry against his master Plato’s charge of immorality which poetry teaches by exciting the heart which is the worthless part of the soul. Aristotle establishes the moral function of tragedy by explaining his theory of catharsis. Aristotle believes the cathartic function of tragedy exercises a moral teaching for the theatre goers. Sir Philp Sidney 1554-1586, in his reply to the Puritanic attack on poetry establishes the moral lesson tragedy imparts to the 23 audience. “The high and excellent tragedy, the opened the greatest wounds, and shewth the vicars that a couered with tissue, that maketh Kings feare to be tyrants, and tyrants manifest tirannicall humours; that with sturring the effects of admiration and commiseration teacheth the vuncertainety of this world, and upon how weake foundations guilden roofs are builded” (31). According to Cuddon, it becomes clear, from both theory and practice, that hither to tragedy has tended to be a form of drama concerned with the fortunes and misfortunes, and ultimately the disasters that befall human beings of title, power and position. “This is the Contemptus2 Mundi Concept recessive but persistent tinctured with distorted rumours from Aristotle like all Elizabethan definitions, it is utilitarian but not Aristotelian, embracing what Aristotle had specially rejected – the idea of the Protagonist and the psychological effect the dissuasion from crime. At this point the tragic poet is in the odd position of having made guilt meaningful but leaving innocence meaningless. The fate of the wicked is rationalized but the fate of the innocent victim of wickedness must be referred to the residual ‘Contemptus Mundi’ concept where innocence is meaningful if at all, only as it established credentials for existence in a better world to come” (Harbage 5-6). He quotes Aelius Donatus of the 14th century, who viewed tragedy as the reverse image of comedy. The moral of tragedy is that life should be rejected. In this concept the idea of earthly justice is excluded. Suffering and death are not avoidable in the world of rationality where things happen following the law of cause and effect, but death is inevitable curse in a universe where all are at the mercy of chance as symbolized by Fortune’s wheel. In term of religion this is the world of evil where innocent and guilty are treated alike to that final horror – death which is meted out as punishment. “It is now generally agreed that there was little or no tragedy in medieval literature, and this agreement seems to rest on two grounds; first, that tragedy was then understood as narrative, rather than as drama; second, that the general structure of mediaeval belief had little place for the genuinely tragic action” (Raymond 19. The most famous English and mediaeval definition of tragedy is Chaucer’s Prologue of the Monk’s Tale: Tragedie is to seyn, a certeyn storie, As olde bookes maken us memorie, Of hym that stood in greet prosperitee And is yfallen out of heigh degree Into myserie, and endeth wrecchedly … As already highlighted in the earlier discussion on the definition of tragedy, the story of tragedy presents a change from prosperity to adversity in the life of the protagonist. 2 The Contempt of the world, and worldly concerns is a theme in the intellectual life of both classical adiquity and of Christianity. 24 Aristotle defines tragedy in the same sense, but he explains why and how this change takes place. According to Aristotle it is the tragic flaw (hamartia) in the character of the protagonist whereas in the medieval concept this change is affected by the general and external fact of mutability […]. It has at first sight more in common with the Greek idea of tragedy than with any later versions. Medieval tragedies are usually collected examples of a general law, and the key word is fortune. Raymond Williams – ibid. Fortune is related to ideas which include fate, chance, destiny and providence. Such ideas occupy an important place in the discussion and interpretation of tragedy from the classical to the mediaeval world. Those forces or powers have been inexplicable in their operation and interpretation in simple statement to be distinguished from one another. However, fortune at times in the sense of chance is distinguished from fate and providence. In the Greek tragedy it is implied that man is a hopeless mystery whose future is determined by the forces of predestination beyond the control of man. Though Aristotle’s definition and its explanation hold responsible the individual, the tragic hero who brings upon himself a disaster because of hamartia, an error of judgement, the Greek concept views the tragedy in generic sense rather than the individual even if it presents the fall of a single hero from happiness to misery. “But in the mediaeval idea of tragedy, the general emphasis is firm to the point of extreme abstraction […] there is an apparent continuity in the emphasis on rank, from the Greek to the mediaeval conception. But unlike the continuity of reference to a general condition beyond human powers, this apparent continuity is in fact a reversal”. Raymond William (ibid). In the mediaeval tragedy the general condition was attached to the fall of the prince to make the generic to the individual. Fortune was related to the worldly success from the unworldly. The main source of Renaissance tragedy was this precise emphasis on the fall of famous men. But, with the dissolution of the feudal world the practice of tragedy made new connections. In the Renaissance tragedy, there is a change which is covered by the apparent continuity referred above in the medieval tragedy and the complexity of definition and terms. Sidney’s definition shows this continuity, “In this definition the theme of mutability is still dominant” (Williams 14). Sidney refers to ‘the sweet violence of tragedy, ‘the sweet violence is a related sign of a new interest: fallen what was to become the major question: how can the suffering in tragedy give pleasure? The answer may be found in Aristotle’s theory of catharsis – purgation of the pent-up emotions of pity and fear which is a moral cleansing. Sidney refers to the tragic pleasure in both the moral and aesthetic sense. In the Neo-classical concept of tragedy, we again find, at first sight a continuity from Aristotle and from medieval tragedy. According to Harbage, Neo-classical ideas about unity, decorum and historical truth in tragedy were current in Elizabethan age, but those about hamartia and catharsis were not. Even among the more learned 25  writers, Aristotle’s definition of the tragic hero and the tragic effect was not known or not understood or not deemed interesting. Williams (1966) views the Neo-classical concept an aristocratic rather than a feudal conception. The Neo-classical rules for tragedy, while assuming that tragic themes must be historical because they must concern great matters of state, tended to argue from the necessary dignity of tragedy rather than from its general and representative quality. It, therefore, demands discussion of method and considerations of decorum. “Aristotle’s description of character – ‘a man not pre-eminently virtuous and just whose misfortune, however, is brought upon not by vice and depravity but by some error (hamartia)’ – had been contained within a description of action: the ‘change of fortune’ not the change in the hero’s fortune; error that is to say was related to the action which was in itself a general mutability. What we find in the new emphasis is an increasingly isolated interpretation of the character of the hero: the error is moral, a weakness in an otherwise good man who can still be pitied. […]. The way to handle suffering is now at least as important as the way to experience it or learn from it” (Williams 26). 2.4 Conclusion Thus, in general the tragic vision is not a systematic view of life. It admits wide variations and degrees. It is a sum of insights, intuitions, feelings, to which the words “vision” or “view” or “sense of life”, however inadequate, are most readily applicable. The tragic sense of life, […] is an attitude towards life with which some individuals seem to be endowed to high degree others less, but which is latent in every man and may be evoked by experience (Sewell 4). According to Raymond the tragic vision is in its first phase primal in that it calls up out of the depths the first and last of all questions, the question of existence. Man feels and experiences doubts, anxieties, uncertainty, mysteries while on some occasions of meditations, loneliness. ‘To be or not to be’ is the question. ‘What is to be’ and ‘why to be’ are the questions which put man into a predicament where life is meaningless and absurd. It is a continuity which begins with the Greek concept and culminates in the post war theories of tragedy. The vision of tragedy now is not the story of the fall of princes and aristocracy. The common man passes through the conditions of life – psychological, spiritual, social and secular which throw him into a conflict with forces beyond control. His experience of the conflict versus himself makes him to suffer in the mind. It is the tragic vision which has developed from man’s agony. It is not the tragedy of blood, nor is it which leaves the stage cluttered with dead bodies. Summary Points i. Tragedy has been defined variously. However, all definitions agree that it is a play that presents the reversal of fortune of the hero from happiness to misery, from property to adversity. 26  ii. The most popular and the oft quoted definition of tragedy is Aristotle’s definition. Tragedy according to him is the imitation of an action that is serious, has magnitude and complete in itself … in dramatic and not a narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear, where with to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions. iii. According to Harrison, tragedy at first sight to have meant little more than a play ending in disaster. iv. A play that affects the purgation or cleansing of the emotions of pity and fear in the theatre according to Harrison is a deep tragedy. v. In the ancient Greek plays tragic flaw brings out the disaster of the protagonist as in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex. vi. In the mediaeval, influenced by the morality and miracle plays, the role of tragic flaw is minimised, and the downfall of the protagonist is not caused by the error of judgement alone. vii. During the Renaissance, the classical tragedy was rediscovered and in England drama emerged as a popular genre. The writers followed the Senecan model. viii. Senecan tragedy was commonly called Revenge tragedy. ix. Revenge tragedy brilliantly merged the classical themes with English tradition. x. Elizabethans portrayed their protagonists virtuous or wicked. They introduced humour to provide comic relief for the audience; they blended the elements of both comedy and tragedy in their plays. xi. There was revival of tragedy in England during the latter part of the 17th century. xii. In the 18th century the dramatists wrote under the influence of classical rules. xiii. Near the end of the 19th century two Scandinavian dramatists brought about a wholly unexpected revolution of tragic form and subject. xiv. The new vision presented the common man living in a social milieu. xv. Most pre-twentieth century criticism placed the main emphasis upon characters and their psychological self, and the specific moral lessons taught by the plays. xvi. According to Raymond Williams there was little or no tragedy in Mediaeval literature firstly because tragedy was understood as narrative and drawn. Secondly, the general structure of Mediaeval belief had little place for genuinely tragic action. xvii. In the Neo-classical concept of tragedy, is a continuity from Aristotle and medieval tragedy. xviii. In general, the tragic vision is not a systematic view of life. It admits wide variations and degrees. xix. The tragic vision is in first phase primal in that it calls up out of the depths the question of existence. xx. The 20th century vision of tragedy has developed from man’s agony. It is not the tragedy of blood nor it leaves the stage cluttered with blood. 27  Self-Assessment Questions i. Tragedy as a genre of literature is multifaced and multiplexed genre. Do you agree? ii. Analyse Aristotle’s definition of tragedy in detail. iii. Trace the development of tragedy from Greek concept to the 20th century vision of tragedy. iv. Bring out the commonalities and differences in Aristotle’s definition of tragedy and Sidney’s definition. v. Define the following terms with suitable examples from the literary texts included in your course. a. Tragic Hero b. Hamartia c. Catharsis d. Deep Tragedy 28 UNIT 3 OEDIPUS REX Written By: Dr. Rashida Imran Reviewed By: Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar 29  CONTENTS Oedipus Rex...........................................................................................................29 Overview................................................................................................................31 Objectives..............................................................................................................31 3.1 Sophocles: Life and Works.............................................................................32 3.2 Oedipus Rex: Introduction..............................................................................34 3.3 Oedipus Rex: Plot............................................................................................35 3.4 Oedipus Rex: As a Tragedy............................................................................37 3.5 Oedipus: As a Tragic Hero.............................................................................39 Summary Points.....................................................................................................40 Self Assessment Question......................................................................................41 30  OVERVIEW This unit deals with Oedipus Rex, a great tragic paly, written by Sophocles who was a prominent Greek tragedian of great literary merit. The unit commences with a detailed description of Sophocles’ life and his works and moves on to discuss salient features of Greek drama. The unit, also, makes an exhaustive discussion on Greek tragedy with special reference to the contributions made by Sophocles. The unit also specifically focuses on Sophocles role in the perfection of Greek drama with reference to tragedy. The unit, further, includes discussion on Oedipus Rex as a tragedy. The unit also highlights Oedipus as a tragic hero and concludes with the discussion of major themes of the play. OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to  give a brief biographical sketch of Sophocles’ life  appreciate literary talent of Sophocles  critically review his major works  discuss stylistic features of Greek drama  highlight Sophocles contributions to the perfection of Greek dramatic art  discuss Oedipus Rex as a tragedy  analyze Oedipus Rex as a tragic hero  discuss major themes of Oedipus Rex  analyze classical conception of Greek tragedy  evaluate Aristotle’s criticism of Oedipus Rex 31 3.1 Sophocles: Life and Works Sophocles is one of the most renowned and celebrated figures of Greek literature. However, the modern critics possess not much authentic information about the personal life of the author and the conditions which influenced his literary genius. The biographical material which survived in the modern times does not adequately serve the purpose of exploring relationship between his personal life and his works. It is equally difficult to trace any autobiographical elements in his works. Though, his life is an enigma, but this does not restrict the modern scholarship to appreciate and critically explore the finest of literary works in the genre of tragedy produced by him. Athens, one of the leading cities of ancient Greek which witnessed remarkable development under the tyrant rule, was also fortunate to be fascinated by the dramatic art of this great tragedian. He was born in the beautiful and serene town of Colonus, in the outskirts of Athens in 496 BC. Colonus finds its reflection as a place of peace and tranquility in Sophocles’ plays. It, also, reveals his fascination and emotional attachment to his birthplace. In the lifetime of Sophocles, Athens became a hub of diverse social and cultural activities of ancient Greece. Sophocles was blessed to lead an extremely stable and peaceful life. However, his works orchestrate a life of suffering and miseries. Sophocles’ father is credited for making special arrangements for his education which established strong foundations for the development of his literary talent. Sophocles produced almost one hundred and twenty-three plays, however, only seven of them survived and many were lost during the turbulent period of human history. The seven plays which survived include Antigone, Ajax, Philoctetes, Oedipus at Colonus, Electra, Oedipus Rex and Women of Trachis. However, classical resources do not provide any authentic information about their dates of composition. Some of his famous plays deal with the fortunes of Theban legends which were also presented in earlier Greek literature including the heroic epics of Homer. It is, also, speculated that Sophocles composed a treatise on his dramatic art which is not preserved like majority of his plays. Sophocles remained the central figure of Greek dramatic art for an unprecedented period of fifty years. He was an active participant of the great religious festival of the god of Dionysos. He competed in the festival as a tragedian and defeated his contemporaries multiple times. He was never ranked below the second position by the judges of the competitions. Besides Sophocles, there are two other prominent Greek tragedians who carved their names on the canvas of Greek literature. Both were his contemporaries; Aeschylus was his senior in his dramatic career and many of Sophocles’ plays were written later than Aeschylus’ plays. On the other hand, he wrote earlier or contemporary to the second great tragedian Euripides. The plays of all these three tragedians were presented in the Greek drama festivals and Sophocles won more competitions than those of the other two when combined. It is believed 32 that Sophocles’ consecutive successes at the drama festival greatly mortified Aeschylus. Though, it is Aeschylus who is most often regarded as the primary originator of ancient Greek tragedy, it is Sophocles who enjoys a privileged position as classical tragedy’s technical master lending perfection to tragic art. Undoubtedly, Sophocles remains chief representative figure during the times that witnessed the rise and fall of Athens’s greatness as a political and cultural power in the ancient Greece of fifth century. Sophocles died in 406 BC after leading a long life of dignity and eminence, two years before Athens’s fall to Sparta. This defeat proved critical in terminating nearly a century of Athenian supremacy and cultural achievement during the period of tyrant democracy. The greatness of Sophocles was not only limited to his excellencies in the dramatic art only. He was not just a man of letters and in fact this term was quite foreign to Greeks. He was involved in politics though reluctantly. He was a passionate Athenian who remained absorbed in the public life of the city. He served both as a treasurer of the state and a diplomat. He was, also, elected as a general twice and served in the defense of his country. He was, also, associated with the cult of a local deity and performed priestly obligations. He was held in high esteem by his contemporaries for possessing unique and admirable qualities of dramatic art which include but not limited to balance and tranquility. His flowing eloquence was of unrivalled beauty which was greatly appreciated and complemented by the Greeks. He was greatly acknowledged as tragic Homer. Not much is known about his family life with certainty. There are competing accounts of a peaceful familial relationship as well as a turbulent one. However, this aspect of his life does not outshine his dramatic art or diminish his value as the literary genius of all times. Sophocles is, also, credited for making significant contributions to the dramatic art and lending it a state of perfection. He constructed the plots of his tragedies meticulously. He made Chorus the most integral part of the play. His plays are remarkably charged with emotions and are also famous for their unique poetic eloquence. He, also, abandoned the practice of a trilogy which was very commonly prevalent in satyr plays. Though, majority of his plays deal with same legend, however there are differential patterns of characterization and treatment of the themes. It is Sophocles who introduced the third speaking actor to classical drama, creating the more complex dramatic situations and deepened psychological penetration through interpersonal relationships and dialogue. Sophocles’ plays communicate various philosophical messages including but not limited to helplessness of man in the universe. Therefore, it is advisable that a man should lead his life according to a predestined course of action. Excessive desire or pride may prove fatal in bringing wrath of gods. Sophocles gives the impression that though fate exerts a massive hold in the life of humans, but they are the architect of 33 their own fate and these are their actions which are responsible for bringing good or evil fortune. 3.2 Oedipus Rex: Introduction Oedipus Rex is not only the greatest play of Sophocles but one of the greatest plays of Greek literature. Ancient as well as modern critics regard Oedipus Rex as the finest representation of dramatic art ever produced. Greek philosopher Aristotle in his seminal work ‘Poetics’ highly praises Oedipus Rex and sets it as a kind of ‘standard’ to be followed by other tragedians. The literary appeal of other tragedies is judged based on dramatic art presented in Oedipus. Aristotle not only appreciates Oedipus Rex as a tragedy but also regards Oedipus Rex as an ideal tragic hero. Oedipus, a man of “great repute and good fortune,” whose tragedy stems from his horrifying discovery that he has killed his father and married his mother, is artistically presented to elicit catharsis of emotions of pity and fear. No other drama has ever influenced dramatic perceptions of literary artists more powerfully than Oedipus Rex. It has gripped the literary imagination of artists and critics ever since it was produced in ancient Greece. Oedipus Rex has a meticulous plot which is centered on the dilemma of the central tragic character. Undoubtedly, it has been regarded as the most influential play ever written. It is one of the most famous of all Greek plays which has established the standards for critical reception of tragedies. No wonder, it is a literary marvel which not only possess a well knitted plot but a uniquely eloquent style of its own kind. Oedipus Rex is one of the most important of group of three plays based on Theban legend of Oedipus. The other two are ‘Antigone’ and ‘Oedipus at Colonus’. Although all three plays are interconnected by a single theme. However, they do not from a trilogy in the conventional sense of the term. A Greek trilogy refers to a group of three plays usually performed on the stage consecutively for the sequential development of the plot. However, Theban plays do not follow the same sequence, hence do not form a trilogy in the conventional sense of the term. The play relentlessly explores the interrelationship between human nature, destiny and suffering thereby lending a universal appeal to the ancient tale of a man’s tragic discovery. Oedipus Rex has now attained an everlasting place in collective consciousness of humanity and human conditions. As classical scholar Bernard Knox has argued, “Sophocles’ Oedipus is not only the greatest creation of a major poet and the classic representative figure of his age: he is also one of a long series of tragic protagonists who stand as symbols of human aspiration and despair before the characteristic dilemma of Western civilization—the problem of man’s true stature, his proper place in the universe.” For past many centuries, Sophocles’ play has claimed consideration as drama’s most perfect and most profound achievement. Freud discovered in the play the key to understanding man’s deepest and most repressed sexual desires and 34 Oedipus complex occupies the most central place as theoretical concept in psychoanalytic school of thought. In short, Oedipus Rex has become a guiding principle to unravel mysteries of human existence and their psychology of survival. In Sophocles’ hands, however, this ancient tale becomes a profound meditation on the questions of guilt and responsibility, the order of our world, and the nature of man. The play stands at equal pedestal with ‘Hamlet’ and ‘Lear’ as western literature’s critical explorations of human sufferings. 3.3 Oedipus Rex: Plot The play opens with the scenes of plague-stricken Thebes. The life of the people of Thebes is engrossed in miserable conditions and incessant sufferings and there is no ray of hope to escape this critical situation. They pray to gods, but their prayers remained unanswered. Oedipus is the kind, capable and respected ruler who has established himself as the wisest man after solving the riddle of the Sphinx and gained the throne and married to Thebes’s widowed queen, Jocasta, as was customary in Greek culture. Despite the death and devastation on a huge scale, people are still hopeful and request Oedipus for his intervention. Oedipus has, already, sent his brother-in-law, Creon, to the Oracle at Delphi for guidance and advice. Oracles’ pronouncements were taken seriously by the people in power which is an indication of humility. Creon returns and announces that the plague is a punishment for the murder of Oedipus’ predecessor, Laius, so he must be avenged to rescue Thebes from the evil clutches of plague. Oedipus, feeling the sufferings of his people, vows that he would discover and bring the murderer to justice. Therefore, many critics believe that the play begins as a detective story, with the troubling question “Who killed Laius?” as the initial mystery. Oedipus’ insistence on finding the culprit and banishing him for Laius’s murderer seals his own fate. He pledges to restore Thebes to her previous conditions of prosperity not knowing that he himself is the very source of this suffering. Thus, the discovery would only serve to be catastrophic for his own self. Meanwhile, the Chorus mourns for the dead and begs gods for help. The leader of the Chorus suggests that blind seer Teiresias should be consulted. It is one of the central ironies of the play that the blind Teiresias is the first to see the truth. On the other hand, the most intelligent and the wisest Oedipus is blind to the fact that he himself is the cause of death and devastation. Throughout his life, he tried to escape the fate which was foretold for him, but all his efforts only led him to the direction of fulfilling that grim prophecy. Teiresias is summoned, but he is reluctant to reveal the truth, but Oedipus is adamant “No man, no place, nothing will escape my gaze. I will not stop until I know it all”. Finally, Teiresias reveals the truth that Oedipus has killed his own 35 father and has become a “sower of seed where your father has sowed”. Troubled by this discovery and in a fit of rage, Oedipus rejects Teiresias’ vision and accuses him of conspiring with Jocasta’s brother Creon against his rule. Creon is summoned and he pronounces his innocence but in vain. Oedipus exposes his pride, wrath and hasty judgement in his treatment of Teiresias and his subsequent condemning of Creon to death, Jocasta comes to her brother’s defense, while arguing that not all oracles can be believed. To calm him, she tells him that long ago, Laius and she outwitted the gods and cheated fate by abandoning their son on the mountain hill. Though, Jocasta provides the detail to assure Oedipus that he could not be the murderer, but it ironically serves the purpose of further proving the case of Oedipus’ crime of murdering his father and marrying his mother. In what is a marvel of ironic plot construction, each step forward in answering the questions surrounding the murder and Oedipus’s parentage takes Oedipus a step back in time toward full disclosure and self-discovery. When he interrogates Jocasta about the details of murder of Laius, he suspects that he killed him but Jocasta asks him not to jump to hasty conclusion and sends for only surviving witness of the murder, a freed slave. Oedipus thinks of a drunken traveler at a banquet who asserts that he was not the son of Corinthian king. However, his parents denied that he was adopted. He, then, remembers his visit of Oracle of Delphi where he was prophesized that he would kill his father and marry his mother. Desperately running away to escape his fate, Oedipus kills an old man and his escorts in an ordinary confrontation. As Oedipus is absorbed in his thoughts and starts doubting himself, a messenger from Corinth arrives with news that Oedipus’s supposed father, Polybus, is dead and the people of Corinth want him to be their king. Nevertheless, he announces his victory as part of the prophecy is proved wrong, so he has defeated fate. This news again negates the oracle that Oedipus is fated to kill his father. However, he is not willing to return home because he is still afraid of the second part of the prophecy. To relieve Oedipus’s anxiety, the messenger reveals that he himself brought Oedipus as an infant to Polybus. Though they loved him like their own son but he was not their biological child. Like Jocasta whose evidence in support of Oedipus’s innocence turns into confirmation of his guilt, the messenger provides intelligence that will connect Oedipus to both Laius and Jocasta as their son and as his father’s killer. When he probes messenger further, he provides the shattering details that how a shepherd rescued Oedipus from a hillside and gave him to Polybus and his wife. The Corinthian messenger’s intelligence produces the crucial recognition for Jocasta, who urges Oedipus to cease any further inquiry. Oedipus is, however, deaf to her pleas as he is blind of the truth about himself. He summons the shepherd who gave the infant to the messenger and was coincidentally the sole survivor of the attack on 36 Laius. He verifies both the incidents of finding Oedipus on hillside and Laius’s murder at the crossroads. This revelation leads the play to its staggering climax. In a sheer state of sadness and grief, Oedipus rushes down the stage. Meanwhile a messenger from the palace brings the dreadful news of Jocasta’s suicide after wailing and crying and locking the doors behind her. Oedipus blinds himself to justify moral shame that his actions, unwittingly or not, have provoked. 3.4 Oedipus Rex: As a Tragedy Oedipus Rex, as a tragedy, has been the subject of critically acclaimed Greek and modern scholarship. It has been perceived as the most representative form of tragic art in perfection. It has been critically admired to such an extent that it seems implausible that another tragedian may create some tragedy of this mastery and standard. In fact, Oedipus has been conventionalized as a classic example of tragedy. As discussed earlier, Aristotle attributes great value to Oedipus Rex as a tragedy. His theorization of tragedy and its different constitutive elements appear to be in perfect harmony with the representation of tragic version of life in Oedipus. The tragic conception of Oedipus is central to human suffering which is partly a product of his own actions and partly stems from mysterious workings of fate which is beyond the control of man. Oedipus is the finest depiction of heroic suffering which arises the emotions of pity and fear. Many aspects of modern tragedy owe a great deal to Sophocles. As mentioned earlier, Aristotle was a great admirer of Oedipus’ plot which has been methodically constructed. It is well integrated and has an analytic structure in which past is gradually unfolded to bring catastrophic effects in the present. The most noteworthy feature of this plot is sheer inevitability of fate and coincidence. Each incident arises logically from the previous one and is perfectly sequenced within the interplay of different incident all assimilating perfectly towards a unified structure. Aristotle’s idea of a perfect plot is highly applicable to Oedipus, no incident should be capable of being excluded without being detriment to the play. Reversal and recognition are central to the development of the plot, therefore, it has also been categorized as a kind of detective story, because the chief concern of the play is to find and banish the culprit who has committed a heinous crime to save people from the relentless onslaught of plague. Like a detective story, the play also involves a series of investigations, evidence and verifications to unravel the identity of the criminal who is source of Theban sufferings and miseries. In short, the plot of the play is so skillfully constructed that it does not let the audience to lose attention in the gripping story even for seconds. Oedipus Rex poses serious philosophical questions for contemplation. Is workings of fate fully responsible for introducing death and destruction in a man’s life? Or the unbridled passions of humans are responsible for bringing suffering and misery in the life of mortals? Oedipus 37 devastated by recognition, realizes insignificance of man’s existence in the cosmic plan. The idea of human happiness is transitory in nature, momentarily and short lived. It is a mere illusion. The chorus at the end of the play sings the final ode Sons and daughters of Thebes, behold, this was Oedipus. Greatest of men; he held the key to the deepest mysteries; Was invited by all his fellow men for his great prosperity; Behold, what a full tide of misfortunes swept over his head Then learn that mortal man must always look to his ending; And none can be called happy until that day when he carries; His happiness down to the grave in peace. According to Aristotle, a tragedy must arouse pity and fear and catharsis of these emotions. The play is replete with incidents which serve this purpose well. Firstly, we are shuddered by the thought that Oedipus in a heroic deed of saving his people, leads to his