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1 DAILY CLASS NOTES Lecture - 7 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION - III 2 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION - III Political System: T...
1 DAILY CLASS NOTES Lecture - 7 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION - III 2 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION - III Political System: There ware three major theories: 1. Single state: Similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material. 2. No single ruler but several rulers: Mohenjo-Daro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth. 3. No rulers: There was no ruler and everybody enjoyed equal status. It is not clear what type of political system existed in Harappa. But we can see the cultural homogenisation which indicates probably there was a Centralised Authority, for instance there might be an oligarchy type political set up. Not ruled by priests as the cities in lower Mesopotamia. This is evident because in contrast to Egypt and Mesopotamia, no temples found. People of Indus Valley Civilizations were more concerned with commerce than with conquests. There was no significant presence of weapons at any site. So, from the above-mentioned information we can conclude that Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants. Existence of State: The existence of the state was also debatable – State exists State does not exists Communication system Cultural uniformity does not mean political Standardization in artefacts unification. Site specialization Elements of warfare/conflicts does not dominate. Mobilization of labour for public works Exception: Fortification especially at Dholavira. Establishment of trading outpost at Shortughai Absence of evidence of priest king, slaves, Common script standing army or court officials. Cultural homogeneity Equality with respect to access to wealth. Social differentiation Absence of marked economic difference as Some buildings of citadel complex may have compared to Mesopotamia or Egypt. administrative functions NOTE: Greater acceptance towards possibility of decentralization. 3 Sculptures: Very few sculptures are known for high standard of craftsmanship. In comparison with Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations – IVC reported very limited number of stone and bronze sculptures depicting basically human and animal forms. The major specimens are reported from Mohenjo-Daro and few from Harappa, Chanhudaro, Dholavira and Daimabad. Of these, except the statue of 'Dancing Girl' from Mohenjo-Daro and Daimabad, hoard representing various animals were casted in bronze rest were carved in stone, dominated by male figures. Major Findings with respect to Sculptures: Priest King - Stone bust of male figure found at Mohenjo Daro. 2 fine stone torsos of male figure at Harappa. A seated stone ibex at Mohenjo Daro. Stone lizard at Dholavira. Broken seated male figure at Dholavira. 2 bronze female figurines were found at Mohenjodaro (1 among these two is dancing girl). Priest-King: Found at Mohenjo-Daro. It was a steatite sculpture. He may be a person of very high rank. In the sculpture he has an elaborate clothing and ornaments. His body below the chest is missing. Dimensions: Height of 17.5 cm and width of 11 cm. He has a well-combed hair. The hair parted in the middle and dropping behind the neck. Nude figure of this youth with well-built yet supple and sensuous body. It had holes for the attachment of the heads and arms, but none are apparent for the legs. 4 Dancing Girl: A bronze statue of nude Dancing Girl found from Mohenjo-Daro (It was named by John Marshall). It was made with a lost wax method/Cire-Perdue. The statue is of about 11 cm. in height Lost-wax Technique: The lost-wax process, also known as cire-perdue, is a metal casting technique in which molten metal is poured into a mould that was made using a wax model. The wax model is melted and drained away after the mould has been created. Molten metal is poured into a hollow core, which is then solidified to produce the casting. Artistic style: The stylistic tradition was not homogeneous and uniform. There was difference in composition, form and technique between the 'Priest- King' and 'Dancing girl' found from Mohenjo-Daro. The quantity or quality the Harappan sculptural remains cannot be compared with the repertoire of either Mesopotamia or Egypt. There is neither the variety of expression nor the range of exploitation of media which both these cultures witnessed. However, an assortment of Harappan sculptures reflects on their own developed art concept. It was surprising to not to have sculptural remains of animals but they were represented in the seals, terracotta and pottery drawings. Few animals have been found depicted in copper or bronze, gold or silver and stone or faience. They are in the form of miniature figurines mostly as ornaments, forming a part of necklace representing sheep, rabbit, monkey, buffalo, squirrel, bull etc., nevertheless, these representations cannot be treated as sculptures. Hoard from Daimabad which was discovered accidentally consists of four animal sculptures. 5 In the Late Harappan period, the following have been found: A pair of oxen, an elephant, a rhinoceros and a buffalo. Solid cast weigh over 60 kg. Of these, the chariot and bulls are remarkable. Society: The society appears to have been matriarchal in nature. Then prevalence of popularity of the mother goddess is evident from the terracotta female figurines found in Punjab and Sind Region. The existence of diverse professions - priests, warriors, peasants, traders and artisans (masons, weavers, gold- smith, potters, etc.) Harappa and Lothal - different types of buildings as residence by different classes have been found at these two sites. The presence of a class of workmen is proved by workmen quarters near the granary at Harappa. Workshops and houses meant for coppersmiths and bead-makers found at Lothal. Larger houses belonged to the rich class whereas those living in the barracks like workmen quarters were from the class of labourers. Fashion: They used to wear both cotton and woollen clothes, which indicates their consciousness of fashion. Men and women wore two separate pieces of attire similar to the dhoti and shawl. Shawl covered the left shoulder passing below the right shoulder. Skirt like dress to cover the lower portion. Different hairstyles were in vogue for both the sexes. Wearing of a beard was evident among the males. Cinnabar was probably used for cosmetic purposes. Apart from these face-paint, lipstick and collyrium (eyeliner) have also been found. They were fond of Jewellery and ornaments (beads etc.) Ornaments like Necklaces, armlets, earrings, beads, bangles, etc., used by both the sexes. Rich people used gold, silver and semi-precious stones. Poor used wear ornaments made of terracotta. Export and Import Clothing: Discovery of a large number of spindles and spindle whorls have been found. Spinning of cotton was very common, hence this indicates they probably did both internal and external trade with these products as well. Both the rich and the poor practised spinning whorls made by expensive faience as also of the cheap pottery and shell. 6 Religious Belief: The religious belief understanding is majorly based on the Harappan seals and terracotta figurines. Major interpretations were given by John Marshall in 1931. Harappan religion is normally termed as animism i.e., worship of trees, stones, etc., Terracotta figurines indicates they probably used to worship mother goddess. Female adorned with a wide gridle, loin cloth and necklaces. Wore a fan-shaped head dress. In various cases female is shown with an infant. One such figurine that shows a plant growing out of the uterus of a woman, probably it symbolises the goddess of earth (prototype of Shakambhari) and it was connected with the origin and growth of plants. Earth: Fertility goddess. IVC people worshipped her in the same manner as Egyptians worshipped Nile goddess. The worshiping of linga (phallus) and yoni (female sex organ) by the Harappans have also been proposed but there is no ample evidence to support these proposals. Even Rigveda speaks of the non-aryan people who were phallus worshippers. Though recently a terracotta piece is found in Kalibangan which closely resembles a lingam with yoni pitha. Male Deity: Evident by the seal depicting a deity with a buffalo - horned headdress, sitting in a yogic posture and surrounded by animals - an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and a buffalo. Two deer considered sacred. This deity is identified with God Pashupati (Lord of beasts) or 'Proto-Shiva'. Tree Worship: In another instances, a deity is shown with horns and flowing hair standing nude between the branches of a Pipal tree and a worshipper is kneeling in front. It represents tree worship. Procession Seal: Horned figures in a pipal tree with one-horned attendants and bull figure (2000-1900 BCE). Animal Worship: Animal worship also appears to be popular among the Harappans. Many of them have been represented on the seals. The most important one is the One-horned animal unicorn which may be a Rhinoceros. 7 Fire worship: Fire worship was prevalent in Kalibangan and Lothal. At Kalibangan, a series of raised brick platforms with pits containing ash and animal bones have been found. Different areas followed different religious practices. Gods were not placed in Temples as in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Great Bath: Elite ritual activity involving ceremonial bathing can be found in Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro. Kalibangan Cylindrical Seal: A woman flanked by 2 men holding her with one hand and raised sword over her head may indicate Human sacrifice. Burial Practices: Not yielded any monument such as the Pyramids of Egypt or the Royal cemetery at Ur in Mesopotamia. Dead bodies were generally rested in north-south direction. Buried with a varying number of earthen pots. In some graves, grave goods have also been found such as bangles, beads, copper mirrors, etc. indicate they believed in life after death. But grave goods were not very lavish. Dead bodies generally buried in a north-south manner with jewellery and other grave goods. E.g., Inamgaon (Maharashtra). These different practices in different regions of Harappan civilization may reflect diversity in religious beliefs. Findings of Burials: Harappa: A coffin burial with a shroud (chhof) made of reeds have been found. Lothal: Multiple or double burials with male and female bodies together were discovered. Kalibangan: Kalibangan has yielded evidence of a symbolic burial i.e., a burial which contains grave goods but no bones or skeleton. Mohenjo Daro & Harappa: Fractional burials where body was exposed to elements and bones were gathered and buried have been discovered here. Urn burials found at Kalibangan and other IVC sites is an indicative of post-cremation burials. Script: Pictographic and logosyllabic (each symbol stood for a word/syllable) script have been found. Probably ideograms i.e., a graphic symbol or a character to convey the idea directly. Writing was boustrophedon (right to left and left to right in alternate lines). Script has not been deciphered so far. 8 The evidence of a common script points to great cultural integration. Virtual disappearance by c.1700 BCE hints at the lack of sufficient downward percolation of writing. The Harappans were literate people. The Harappan seals are engraved with various signs or characters. Recent studies enlightened that Harappan script consists of about 400 signs. Language is still unknown. But few research suggests that their language might be "Brahui", a dialect used by Baluchi people in Pakistan today. Unlike Egyptians and Mesopotamians, Harappans did not write long inscriptions. Their most inscriptions were recorded on seals and contained only a few words. Script in Egypt: An inscribed stone with writing in three different languages and scripts was discovered near Rosetta, an Egyptian town on the north shore. Kings' and Queens' names were encased in a little frame known as a cartouche. Script in Mesopotamia: Cuneiform is a logo-syllabic script that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Near East. It is named for the characteristic wedge-shaped impressions (Latin: cuneus) which form its signs. Cuneiform was originally developed to write the Sumerian language of southern Mesopotamia. Cuneiform is the earliest writing system. Distinguishing Features of Harappan and Mesopotamian Civilization: Harappan Civilization Egypt or Mesopotamian Civilization Planned towns – chess board system. Haphazard growth. Excellent drainage system. No such system found. Rectangular houses, brick-lined bathrooms, wells, No such evidence found. stairways. Own unique pottery, seals. No such unique style. Invented their own typical script. Mesopotamia cuneiform script No resemblance to Egyptian/Mesopotamian. Egyptian script hieroglyphics Both scripts have been deciphered. Script mostly on seals. Mesopotamians pressed letters onto moist clay tablets while Egyptians wrote on papyrus sheets made of reeds. No signs of existence after 1900 BCE. Continued to exist even after 1900 BCE. Spread over a wider area. Less area as compared to Harappa. 9 Technology: New techniques in metallurgy and production of copper, bronze, lead, and tin came to existence. A touchstone found in Banawali. No use of iron. Engineering skill: Especially in building docks. Great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. Weights and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) are similar. Proto-Dentistry: In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, discovered that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal ‘Nature’ that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates from 7,500-9,000 years ago → tradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures. 'Interrogating Indus inscription to unravel their mechanism of meaning conveyance' [Research paper]: The Indus inscriptions can be compared to the structured messages found on stamps, coupons, tokens and currency coins of modern times. Major findings: The majority of the Indus Valley inscriptions were written logo graphically (by using word signs) and not by using phonograms (speech sounds units), claims a recent research paper published in Palgrave Communications, a Nature group journal. The paper mainly focuses on understanding how Indus inscriptions conveyed meanings, rather than on deciphering what they conveyed. The inscribed seals and tablets were used in some administrative operation that controlled the commercial transactions of the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation. According to paper, though many ancient scripts use rebus methods to generate new words, the inscriptions found on the Indus seals and tablets have not used rebus as the mechanism to convey meaning. The researcher also rejected the popular hypothesis that the seals were inscribed with Proto-Dravidian or Proto-Indo-European names of the seal-owners. Decline of Indus Valley Civilization (IVC): Possible Causes: Ecological disturbances Change in river course Low Rainfall Flood 10 Drying of Ghaghar and increasing aridity Earthquakes Natural Calamities Aryan Invasion Reasons for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization: Flood theory: Tectonic shift at Sewan near Mohenjodaro caused the destruction, thus decline of IVC. Alternate view - Indus changed its course and started moving some 30 miles away from Mohenjodaro. Harappan sites in Ghaggar Hakra valley were affected by gradual desiccation. River capture - Either Yamuna or Satluj which used to flow via Ghaggar was captured. Sudden rise of Arabian sea coastline floods and rise in soil salinity = disrupted coastal commerce and trade. Aridity and Famine theory: Increased aridity and drying up of the river Ghaggar-Hakra on account of the changes in river courses caused the decline of the IVC. Increase in arid conditions by around 2000 BCE affected agricultural production, finally leading to the decline in the IVC. Rainfall: Rainfall in IVC increased around 3000 BCE and then decreased around 2000 BCE. This may have adversely affected agriculture and stock bearing. This in turn would have caused the IVC to decline. Fertility: Increasing salinity of the soil caused by the expansion of neighbouring desert, which led to decrease in soil fertility and hence, decline in the IVC. Over exploitation: Overgrazing over cultivation, excessive cutting of trees for fuel or farming. Decline in Lapis Lazuli trade with Mesopotamia. Aryan invasion theory (Ramprasad Chanda 1926/elaborated by Mortimer Wheeler): IVC was destroyed by the Aryans who came to India from north-west around 1500 BC. This view is completely negated today. Few signs of insecurity and violence appeared in last phase of Mohenjodaro: Hoards of jewellery were buried at places. Skulls were huddled together at one place. New types of axes, daggers, knives appeared in the last phase of Mohenjodaro. But the new people did not come is such a great number as to completely overwhelm IVC. Conclusion: The Indus valley civilization did not collapse all of a sudden but declined gradually and ultimately merged with other local cultures. 11 Late Harappan Phase (2000 – 1900 BCE): It was also called Localisation Era. Fragmentation and decline in the urban settlements were smaller. But it was not a sudden change, rather there was a gradual change in seals, pottery confined writing in the frequency of cubical weights and so on. More in number but smaller in size. More rural settlements became evident. Post Urban Phase (1900 BCE – 1300 BCE): Late Harappan phase after Mature Harappan phase. Complex interplay of change and continuity. Decline in Urban Settlements: Decline of urban life. Stylistic homogeneity of mature phase disappeared. Sharp stylistic diversity. Elements of urbanism like seals, specialised crafts, cities, long distance trade, etc. declined but did not completely disappear. Rural Lifestyle: Referred as sub-Indus culture. Lived in villages. Primarily Chalcolithic in nature. 12 Decline in Urban Economy: No object for measuring length. Items like lapis lazuli, chert, carnelian beads, copper and bronze vessels are either absent or scarce as trade items. It means end of trade with West Asian centres. Except at Bhagwanpur, Haryana, burnt bricks have not been found anywhere else in late Harappan culture. Pottery: Painted Harappan pottery is replaced with less intricate designs and Painted Grey Ware (PGW). Overlaps with PGW in Harayana and Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) in Western Uttar Pradesh. Lack human figurines, less bright. The pots were thicker and sturdier. Mature shapes like perforated jars, s-shaped jars disappeared. Subsistence: Subsisting on agriculture. Diversification of agriculture. Beginning of double cropping: Wheat and barley were grown as winter crops. Rice, millets and sorghum were grown as summer crops. Stock-raising Hunting and fishing. Important Sites: Swat Valley Kudwala in Cholistan Prabhas Patan (Somnath) Rangpur (Gujarat) Bet Dwarka in Gujarat. Daimabad in Maharashtra Manda in Jammu Sanghol in Punjab Daulatpur in Haryana Alamgirpur, Hulas in Uttar Pradesh 13 Post-urban Harappan Settlement in Swat Valley (Pakistan): The post-urban Harappan settlement have been discovered in the Swat Valley (Pakistan). Practiced agriculture and cattle rearing together with pastoralism. Used black-grey burnished ware, produced on slow wheel. Swat people also produced black-on-red painted and wheel-turned pottery which shows close links with Indus pottery during 'early post-urban' period. They show connection with a post urban culture associated with Harappa. Thus, the Swat Valley can be regarded as northernmost outpost of late-Harappan culture. 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