Navegación Aérea, Equipos y Sistemas PDF

# Navegación aérea, Equipos y Sistemas ## 1. Introducción The aim of this document is to provide an overview of the technical and operational aspects of air navigation, focusing on navigation and surveillance of aircrafts. The document will start by outlining the evolution of the concept of air n...

# Navegación aérea, Equipos y Sistemas ## 1. Introducción The aim of this document is to provide an overview of the technical and operational aspects of air navigation, focusing on navigation and surveillance of aircrafts. The document will start by outlining the evolution of the concept of air navigation. It will then provide an overview of aircraft navigation and surveillance functions, including the systems and techniques that enable them. Subsequently, the document will delve into a detailed explanation of each system, analyzing their respective operating principles, key operational features, and common applications. ## 2. Introduction to Air Navigation ### 2.1 Air Navigation concept In its early stages, the notion of air navigation primarily revolved around the techniques that enabled aircrafts to travel between an origin and a destination, with constant awareness of their position in space. However, this concept has evolved alongside the progression of air transport. The increasing number of aircraft, improved performance, infrastructure development, and complex operating scenarios have necessitated a broader perspective in air navigation. This includes considering other aspects such as safe coexistence among various air traffic elements. Currently, the term "Air Navigation System" (SNA) is used, defined as a comprehensive framework encompassing legal, organizational, technical, and operational components, facilitating safe, smooth, and efficient aerial operations. The effectiveness of the SNA hinges on the balanced development of all its elements. * **Legal and organizational aspects:** These encompass regulations, principles, and norms guiding operations, as well as responsibilities and requirements for those involved. * **Technical and operational aspects:** These fall under the CNS-ATM concept, which encompasses a diverse array of services dedicated to optimizing aircraft operations: * **Air Traffic Management (ATM):** These services involve managing airspace organization, traffic flow, and providing aircraft with information and alerts. * **Communications, Navigation, and Surveillance (CNS):** These services are enabled by various technical means, providing support to ATM operations: * **Communications:** Disseminating pertinent information related to air operations. * **Navigation:** Enabling aircrafts to determine their position and navigate between diverse points. * **Surveillance:** Tracking the real-time positions of all aircraft within a specific airspace. ### 2.2 Phases of flight The primary objective of air navigation is to direct the movement of an aircraft from one geographical location to another along a predetermined route. These routes are planned prior to flight and are defined by a series of waypoints (points of travel) between the start and end points of the flight. The flight of an aircraft can be divided into six phases: * **Take-off:** The stage where the aircraft starts ascending, leaving its origin airport. * **Climb (departure):** Continuation of the ascent, following departure routes, until reaching the point marking the beginning of the enroute stage. * **En route:** The phase where the aircraft covers the majority of the flight path, maintaining a stable and level flight. * **Descent (arrival):** The stage where the aircraft transitions from the enroute phase to descent, following designated arrival routes, concluding at the point marking the beginning of the last phases of flight. * **Approach and landing:** The aircraft's final descent, culminating in its landing on the runway. ### 2.3 Navigation functions The process of air navigation, during any phase of flight, necessitates two essential functions: * **Positioning function:** The pilot must continuously monitor the aircraft's location relative to the established flight path. * **Guiding function:** The pilot must effectively steer the aircraft to maintain the predetermined flight path, utilizing the obtained position data. The required precision and efficiency in performing these functions heavily depend on the phase of flight. They are more critical during takeoff and landing, due to stringent flight conditions and substantial collision risks with aircraft or obstacles. Alternatively, enroute operations are less demanding. The flight is level, maintaining a consistent speed, with only potential collision risks with other airplanes. ## 3. Air Navigation Techniques Air navigation techniques comprise the methods and procedures employed in aviation for navigating between an origin and a destination. The evolution of these techniques has been driven by the need to cater to diverse geographical and operational environments, as well as the continuous advancements in aircraft technology and navigation aids. ### 3.1 Visual Navigation This technique relies on the pilot's direct observation of external references. *Initially, the flight path is meticulously planned on a chart, identifying waypoints that align with easily identifiable ground features such as rivers, roads, or buildings. During flight, pilots use these visual references to determine their position and guide the aircraft towards the designated waypoints.* Visual navigation remains a basic, but limited, method, heavily reliant on pilot experience and with inherent limitations. Its effectiveness depends on clear weather conditions and good visibility. It is prone to errors and requires constant attention. ### 3.2 Dead Reckoning This technique relies on three primary parameters: aircraft speed, time, and heading. *Initially, a flight route is planned on a chart, outlining waypoints linked by straight lines. Each line is characterized by its bearing and distance. After checking the initial position, the aircraft proceeds towards the next waypoint, maintaining a steady heading. Assuming a consistent speed, the pilot can estimate the aircraft's position at any point and the expected arrival time at the next waypoint by calculating the time elapsed. This process is repeated for each waypoint.* Dead reckoning is a rudimentary navigation technique susceptible to significant inaccuracies, particularly due to factors such as wind conditions or pilot/instrument errors. However, its principles, refined and incorporated into more advanced systems, serve as the foundation for navigation methods. ### 3.3 Radio Navigation Radio navigation is an instrumental technique that relies on using radio aids. * The flight path is formulated to align waypoints with existing radio aids. * The pilot guides the aircraft from one aid to another, leveraging position and guidance information provided by these aids. * This approach constrains the aircraft's flight path to predefined routes due to the existing infrastructure of radio aids. This method is limited by the available radio aid infrastructure, making it difficult to create flexible flight paths. ### 3.4 Area Navigation (RNAV) Area Navigation (RNAV) is a technique that allows aircraft to fly along any desired trajectory, regardless of the locations of ground-based aids. * The flight path is determined by coordinates of waypoints, not requiring alignment with ground-based aids. * Onboard RNAV/RNP equipment automatically calculates position and guiding information based on self-contained or radio-aided navigation. This approach is a major development in air navigation, offering flexibility and efficiency, especially for complex flight paths and challenging terrain, but it requires more sophisticated equipment and advanced procedures. ### 3.5 RNAV and RNP * **RNAV refers to position-based area navigation without performance monitoring.** Its requirements must be met throughout all phases of flight within the operational coverage of the relevant navigation aids and in all regions of the airspace. * **RNP refers to performance-based area navigation**. It incorporates RNAV alongside the requirement for performance-based monitoring, defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), for the following elements: * **Accuracy:** The difference between the position indicated by the navigation system and the aircraft's actual position. * **Integrity:** The system's ability to automatically warn the user or detach itself when a malfunction occurs. * **Continuity:** The ability to maintain continuous operation throughout a flight without unanticipated disruptions. * **Availability:** The percentage of time the system reliably operates. These specifications provide a framework for optimizing air navigation and ensuring flight safety. Different specifications exist within RNAV (RNAV 2D, RNAV 3D, and RNAV 4D) and RNP, based on capabilities and the specific phase of flight: * **RNAV 10:** Used for enroute operations in oceanic airspace or remote areas to maintain longitudinal separation, typically referred to as RNP 10, even though it does not include performance monitoring. * **RNAV 5:** Used for continental enroute operations. * **RNAV 1 and 2:** Used for enroute, departure (SID), arrival (STAR), and approach segments (initial or intermediate parts or in case of missed approach). In the European Union, only RNAV 1 is used in route operations. * **RNP 4:** Used for enroute RNP operations in oceanic airspace or remote areas to maintain longitudinal separation. * **RNP 1:** Used for SID, STAR, and approach segments (initial, intermediate, or in case of missed approach) with limited or no air traffic service (ATS) in low-to-medium density traffic areas. * **RNP APCH:** Used for RNP approaches up to RNP 0.3 NM, employing straight or curved segments and potentially incorporating additional capabilities such as Baro-VNAV or SBAS (Satellite Based Augmentation System) in the final approach. * **RNP AR APCH:** Used for RNP approaches with RNP values between 1 and 0.1 in the initial, intermediate, or missed approach, and between 0.3 and 0.1 in the final approach. Straight or curved segments can be used. Baro-VNAV is used for final vertical guidance. * **RNP 0.3:** Primarly used for helicopter operations in enroute, departure, arrival, and approach phases (excluding final approach). * **A-RNP:** A universal specification with scalable RNP values between 2 and 0.3, applicable to enroute, departure, arrival, and approach phases. Its use is not envisaged in the European Union. ## 4. Surveillance Functions and Systems The core objective of surveillance is to gather precise, real-time information about the location of aircraft in a particular airspace. This is a critical function for air traffic control, as it ensures safe and efficient air traffic flow. Surveillance systems are the network of ground-based installations and aircraft equipment that detect and deliver this vital information. Surveillance systems can be categorized into three primary categories based on their methods of obtaining position information: ### 4.1 Independent Non-Cooperative Surveillance These systems operate without relying on any cooperation from the aircraft itself. They utilize ground-based radar technology to determine the aircraft's position. * **Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR):** This is a non-cooperative system, solely installed on the ground. The primary radar transmits a series of radio frequency pulses. These pulses are reflected back from the aircraft and then processed, providing information such as: the distance to the aircraft, the angle of the aircraft relative to the radar (bearing), and the time of detection. * **Surface Movement Radar (SMR):** SMR systems are specialized primary radars used for monitoring aircraft movement on the ground, primarily at airports. <start_of_image>되어 ### 4.2 Independent Cooperative Surveillance These systems require the aircraft to actively participate in the surveillance process. * **Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR):** The SSR system is installed on the ground. It emits an interrogation signal which is received by the transponder onboard the aircraft. The transponder replies with a specific encoded signal, providing data such as aircraft identification, altitude, and other information. This method offers more robust detection compared to primary radar due to the active participation of the aircraft. * **Multilateration (MLAT):** MLAT is an independent, cooperative method that involves determining the aircraft's position based on the signals received from the transponder at multiple ground stations. MLAT systems are highly flexible, adaptable to various environments, and have proven effective for enhancing surveillance in areas with limited radar coverage, such as oceanic airspace. ### 4.3 Dependent Surveillance This system relies on the aircraft itself to provide real-time location information. * **Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Contract (ADS-C):** In this method, aircraft automatically transmit position and ID data to ground-based systems, such as Air Traffic Control (ATC) centers, through an established data link. This link ensures robust, continuous data transmissions under agreed-upon conditions between the aircraft and ATC, further enhancing flight safety. * **Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B):** Aircraft broadcast their position and ID data using a radio data link, making it accessible to any equipped user in air or on ground. This method offers broader data sharing and improves situational awareness. ## 5. Autonomous Navigation Systems Autonomous navigation systems rely on self-contained equipment, typically in the aircraft itself to determine its position and movement. ### 5.1 Inertial Navigation System (INS) INS utilizes a highly sophisticated platform within the aircraft, incorporating components such as accelerometers and gyroscopes. These components measure the aircraft's motion, providing information on position, velocity (speed), and attitude (orientation). ### 5.2 Doppler Navigation System This system employs a radar antenna to transmit a series of radio pulses, effectively creating beams that bounce off the ground, producing a Doppler shift in the reflected signal. This Doppler shift is used to determine the aircraft's horizontal speed and direction, and ultimately calculate its position. ## 6. Conclusion Air navigation systems have evolved significantly, with advances in technology constantly refining and improving their capabilities. These systems are vital for air traffic management, ensuring safety and efficiency. The integration of various systems, particularly the growing importance of satellite-based navigation and surveillance, is shaping the future of air transportation.