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Brain and Behavior, 4th Custom Edition Utrecht University Australia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States  Brain and Behavior, 4th Custom Edition k&HQJDJH/HDUQLQJ(0($ Authors: James W. Kalat, John T. Cacioppo, &XVWRPLVHGIURP%LRORJLFDO3V\FKRORJ\΂WK(GLWLRQE\-DPHV:.DODW&RS\ULJKW Laura A. Freberg, Stephanie Cacioppo k&HQJDJH/HDUQLQJΖQF$OO5LJKWV5HVHUYHG &XVWRP(GLWRUɄ7DPVLQ$VSOLQ &XVWRPLVHGIURP'LVFRYHULQJ3V\FKRORJ\7KH6FLHQFHRI0LQGWK(GLWLRQ E\-RKQ7&DFLRSSR/DXUD$)UHEHUJ6WHSKDQLH&DFLRSSR&RS\ULJKW &XVWRP(GLWRULDO$VVLVWDQW5HEHFFD3DOOLVWHU k&HQJDJH/HDUQLQJΖQF$OO5LJKWV5HVHUYHG &RQWHQW3URMHFW0DQDJHU1DUPDGD.DXVKDO $//5Ζ*+765(6(59('1RSDUWRIWKLVZRUNPD\EHUHSURGXFHGWUDQVPLWWHG 0DQXIDFWXULQJ0DQDJHU(\YHWW'DYLV stored, distributed or used in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, 0DQXIDFWXULQJ%X\HUɄ(ODLQH%HYDQ SKRWRFRS\LQJUHFRUGLQJRURWKHUZLVHZLWKRXWWKHSULRUZULWWHQSHUPLVVLRQ of Cengage Learning or under license in the U.K. from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd. The Author(s) has/have asserted the right under the Copyright Designs and Patents $FW΂WREHLGHQWLȴHGDV$XWKRU V RIWKLV:RUN While the publisher has taken all reasonable care in the preparation of this ERRNWKHSXEOLVKHUPDNHVQRUHSUHVHQWDWLRQH[SUHVVRULPSOLHGZLWKUHJDUG to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions from the book or the consequences thereof. Products and services that are referred to in this book may be either trademarks DQGRUUHJLVWHUHGWUDGHPDUNVRIWKHLUUHVSHFWLYHRZQHUV7KHSXEOLVKHUVDQG author/s make no claim to these trademarks. The publisher does not endorse, and accepts no responsibility or liability for, incorrect or defamatory content contained in hyperlinked material. )RUSURGXFWLQIRUPDWLRQDQGWHFKQRORJ\DVVLVWDQFHFRQWDFWXVDW [email protected] )RUSHUPLVVLRQWRXVHPDWHULDOIURPWKLVWH[WRUSURGXFWDQGIRUSHUPLVVLRQ queries, email [email protected] British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Ζ6%1΂ Cengage Learning, EMEA Cheriton House, North Way $QGRYHU+DPSVKLUH63΂%( United Kingdom To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, register or access your online learning solution, or purchase materials for your course, visit www.cengage.com Printed in United Kingdom by Ashford Colour Press Print Number 01 Print Year 2023  Table of Contents 1. The Science of Mind: The Discipline of Psychology 3 Originally chapter 1 from Discovering Psychology: The Science of Mind, 4th Edition, John T. Cacioppo, Laura A. Freberg, Stephanie Cacioppo 1. The Cellular Foundations of Behavior 35 Originally chapter 1 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 2. Synapses 71 Originally chapter 2 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 3. Anatomy and Research Methods 97 Originally chapter 3 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 4. Genetics, Development, and Plasticity 135 Originally chapter 4 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 7. Movement 179 Originally chapter 7 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 8. Wakefulness and Sleep 211 Originally chapter 8 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 10. Reproductive Behaviors 245 Originally chapter 10 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 11. Emotional Behaviors 273 Originally chapter 11 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 13. Cognitive Functions 305 Originally chapter 13 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 14. Psychopathology 343 Originally chapter 14 from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat 16. The Healthy Mind: Stress and Coping, Health Psychology, and Positive Psychology 379 Originally chapter 16 from Discovering Psychology: The Science of Mind, 4th Edition, John T. Cacioppo, Laura A. Freberg, Stephanie Cacioppo Appendix A: Brief, Basic Chemistry 426 Originally from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat Appendix B: Society for Neuroscience Policies on the Use of Animals and Human Subjects in Research 432 Originally from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat Reference 435 Originally from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat Subject Index/Glossary 500 Originally from Biological Psychology, 14th Edition, James W. Kalat Acknowledgements The content of this text has been adapted from the following product(s): Biological Psychology, 14th Edition James W. Kalat Discovering Psychology: The Science of Mind, 4th Edition John T. Cacioppo, Laura A. Freberg, Stephanie Cacioppo Full copyright details and acknowledgements will appear in the aforementioned publications.  Argosy Publishing, Inc. Taste buds contained in the papillae of the tongue are far more responsive to bitter tastes than to sweet tastes. 2  1 The Science of Mind THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Identify the five in- 2. Explain why issues of 4. Describe how early 6. Explain why psychology’s role depth perspectives of diversity and ethics are movements in psychology as a hub science supports psychology and explain important to explore across are significant for modern applications in many how integrating these all topics in psychology. psychology. academic fields, contributes perspectives leads to to the solutions of critical a more comprehensive 3. Explain the contributions 5. Discuss the importance contemporary problems, and and accurate view of of philosophy and the of the scientific method informs the development of behavior and mental natural sciences to as a foundation for public policies. processes. our understanding of psychology. modern psychology. STUDYING THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY CAN lead you to see yourself and other people in completely new ways. Hundreds of years ago, people believed that the world was flat and the Sun and stars circled the Earth. Careful scientific research slowly dispelled these inaccurate notions. Nonetheless, we hold tightly to many equally false commonsense beliefs about the human mind and behavior. We all “know” that opposites attract, but we also “know” that birds of a feather flock together—so why do we need psychology to tell us what we already “know”? The problem is that both statements cannot be true at the same time, so the real state of affairs is neither obvious nor simple. Just as careful science was required to understand our planet’s place in the universe, the same scientific techniques are providing us with a more accurate, complete view of the human mind. Let’s begin with a seemingly simple and familiar example: our ability to taste. We know a lot about taste—what we like or dislike, the different qualities of taste, and so on. Most of us can taste sweetness in a solution made of 1 part sugar and 200 parts water. As remarkable as this sensitivity appears to be, however, people can detect 1 part bitter substance (like quinine or the chemicals in broccoli) in 2 million parts water. This contrast in taste sensitivity between sweet and bitter does not reflect the actual difference between sweet and bitter substances—that is, bitter tastes are not 10,000 times stronger than sweet tastes—but rather how we experience them. Why would we have such a vast difference in sensitivity between these types of tastes? Our personal experience of taste does not help us much in answering this question, but psychological science can. As it turns out, our greater sensitivity to bitter tastes is highly adaptive: Masterfile Most poisons or toxins taste bitter, and if you want to stay alive, it is more important to avoid swallowing poison than to enjoy something sweet. Being far more sensitive to tastes that are 3 3 Can you tell whether you’re experiencing lust or romantic love? Introspection is the personal observation of our own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Because we are not perfect observers of the operations of our own minds, psychologists developed other methods that provide scientific insight into the mind. In this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan, areas of the brain that were more active when participants were feeling lust are shown in blue and areas that were more active when people are experiencing feelings of romantic love are shown in pink. Through technology, researchers can better understand complex behaviors like love and lust. From https://news.uchicago.edu/story/researchers-find-brains-sweet-spot-love-neurological-patient Source: University of Chicago Office of Communications bitter is a trait that has served our species well because it helps us avoid eating things that could kill us. Psychology helps us understand why we do the things we do by providing a context for understanding the mind and behavior. To gain that understanding, psychology addresses questions from the multiple scientific perspectives discussed in this chapter. One can think of this like the zoom feature in Google Earth. In some parts of this textbook, we will zoom in on human behaviors, like looking at the highly magnified image of the papillae on the tongue (pictured on page 2), which allow us to taste, and trace the messages about taste sent from the tongue to the brain. At other times, we’ll zoom out, to take in the larger picture and better understand why the boy on the previous page is giving his bitter-tasting broccoli a skeptical look. To begin, we can look at the little boy’s reaction to his broccoli from a developmental perspective, which tells us that children are more sensitive to taste than adults. Using a biological perspective, we can trace the neural mechanisms responsible for taste sensitivity. Or, using the social perspective, we can think about social influences like culture on food preferences. Cottage cheese, enjoyed by many Americans, is viewed with disgust in some other parts of the world. Meanwhile, deep-fried tarantulas, a delicacy in Cambodia, might not be a popular item in the United States. Although single perspectives tell us a great deal about a phenomenon like our sensitivity to bitter tastes, no one perspective gives us a complete answer. The best view comes from iStock.com/NASA/kutay tanir putting multiple perspectives together. You can learn about your house by zooming in on it in Google Earth, but when you see how your home fits into the larger context of city, state, country, and planet, that viewpoint adds something special to your understanding. We’ll start by learning more about psychology’s main perspectives, along with a little background about their origins. Our approach to these perspectives is consistent with contemporary recommendations for teaching introductory psychology 4 Chapter 1 THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 4 made by the American Psychological Association (e.g., Gurung et al., 2016). Once we understand these perspectives, we’ll be in a better position to see how they come together to give us the big picture. What Is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of the mind, which includes thought, emotion, and behav- ior. A quick look at this textbook’s table of contents will show you the variety of approaches to mind that you will encounter, such as the thinking mind (cognitive psychology) and the troubled mind (abnormal psychology). mind The brain and its activities, includ- The word psychology is a combination of two Greek words: psyche (or psuche), or “mind,” ing thought, emotion, and behavior. and logos, meaning “the objective study of.” Literally translated, therefore, psychology means psychology The scientific study of be- “the objective study of the mind.” Today, we define psychology as the scientific study of behav- havior, mental processes, and brain func- ior, mental processes, and brain functions. tions. The phrase “behavior, mental processes, and brain functions” has undergone several introspection A personal observation of changes over the history of psychology. Behavior refers to any action that we can observe. For your own thoughts, feelings, and behavior. many years, our definition stopped at this point. The more recent addition of mental processes and brain functions to our definition was made possible by the development of improved re- search methods. Early efforts to study mental processes were generally unsatisfactory because they relied on the use of introspection, or the personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Because it is difficult for others to confirm your introspections, this subjective approach does not lend itself well to the scientific method. If you say that you are in PSYCHOLOGY AS A HUB SCIENCE Why Is Psychology a Hub Science? MOST READERS OF THIS BOOK are not pursuing careers in psychology, so how will this material help you in your chosen career? Psychology is all about people, and nearly all occu- pations require an understanding of people and their behavior. An architect cannot design a functional space without considering how people respond to being crowded. An attorney can- not cross-examine a witness without an understanding of memory, motivation, emotion, and stress. A teacher cannot encourage students to reach their potential without an understand- ing of child development and learning. Business leaders and economists cannot predict the movements of markets without understanding the minds making the relevant decisions. The study of psychology, then, provides you with better insight into and understanding of many FIGURE 1.1 occupations and fields of study. You probably have seen applications that allow you to map your friendship networks on Psychology as a Hub Science. This social media, with shorter links indicating greater connectivity and larger bubbles indicating map of science was generated by more overlapping friendships with another person. Kevin Boyack and his colleagues gener- comparing citations from more than ated a similar map of the sciences (see Figure 1.1) 1 million papers published in more but used reference lists in journal articles instead Law Political Science International Relations than 7,000 journals since 2000. of friendship networks (Boyack et al., 2005). The SOCIAL Psychiatry Sociology History Geography Economics Computer Science Psychology appears among the seven SCIENCES Gerontology resulting map shows the extent to which each of the MATHEMATICS Communications Management major areas of science, indicated in PSYCHOLOGY Education Library and sciences are influential and what other sciences they Ophthalmology Nursing Public Health Information Sciences Psychology Statistics Robotics Electrical Engineering Applied Mathematics the map by a different font. The other Astronomy and most influence. Boyack and colleagues referred to the Sports Biomedical Engineering Neurology Radiology Neuroscience Astrophysics Anthropology Nuclear Construction Mechanical six major areas are social sciences, PHYSICS Emergency Geoscience Engineering Sciences Meteorology Medicine most influential sciences as hub sciences. Their anal- Gastroenterology Cardiology General Surgery Medicine Genetics Toxocology Otorhinolaryngology Zoology Paleontology Marine Biology Geoscience Fuels Physical Condensed Matter Material Sciences mathematics, physics, chemistry, Pharmacology Obstetrics/ ysis shows that psychology is one of the seven major EARTH Pediatrics Respiratory Hematology Gynocology Endocrinology Fish Ecology Environmental Soil Chemistry Analytical Polymers Chemical earth sciences, and medicine. SCIENCES Urology Agriculture hub sciences, with strong connections to the medical Chemistry Engineering MEDICINE Rheumatology Biochemistry Plant Physical Source: Adapted from K. W. Boyack, CHEMISTRY Sciences Chemistry Oncology Urology Dairy Nutrition sciences, the social sciences, and education. In the up- Dermatology Immunology Virology Entomology Biochemistry Biotechnology General/ Organic et al. (2005). “Mapping the Backbone of Pathology Plant coming chapters of this book, we will highlight these Microbiology Dentistry Veterinary Food Sciences Pharmacology Science,” Scientometrics, 64(3), 351–374. Medicine connections with examples that are relevant to each Parasitology With kind permission from Springer particular chapter. Science1Business Media. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 5 5  love, how can anyone else know whether your observation is accurate? In addition, your mind and behavior are governed by many processes of which you are unaware. Fortunately, innova- tions in the methods used to investigate brain activity and behavior, such as brain imaging technologies, have allowed psychologists to revisit the question of mental processes and brain functions with greater objectivity and success. Why Do We Study Psychology? The empiricist philosophers had a profound You have plenty of company while taking this course. Between 1.2 and 1.8 million undergraduates in the United States enroll in introductory influence on the foundations of American political psychology each year, not to mention the 30% of high school graduates thought—that all of us are created equal. For who have already completed a psychology course (American Psychologi- generations, Europe had been ruled by people who cal Association [APA], 2019; Gurung et al., 2016). Increasing numbers of were born into positions of power instead of earning students outside the United States share your journey. Today, the United the privilege of leading through hard work and States is home to only 21 to 24% of the world’s psychologists, down sharply education. If knowledge is not innate or inborn, any from 80% in the 1980s (Takooshian et al., 2016). What do all of these people hope to gain by studying psychological of us can learn enough to grow up to be president. science? We recognize that introductory psychology is often a required course, but we hope that before too long, you will see many benefits more important than the ability to check a box: Among the many advantages of studying psychology is a deeper understanding of ourselves as individuals and of the people around us. One of the major themes of this textbook is the social nature of the human species and the importance of social connectivity to our health and well-being. We can all benefit from improved self- knowledge and social skills. Psychology provides many opportunities to improve your critical thinking skills, a necessity in an era of “fake news” and a highly prized skill among employers. As you will see in our chapter sections on real-world problems, psychology can make contributions to the understanding of and solutions to many pressing contemporary issues, from pandemics and social justice to poverty and climate change. Psychology can answer many questions that we ask out of simple curiosity. People behave in interesting ways, and we often find ourselves asking, “Why?” What ques- tions do you have about human behavior? Many students mistakenly believe that they don’t “need” a course in psychology, because they already have a good understanding of human behavior. We are not saying that your understanding of others is poor, but by studying psychological science, all of us can improve our knowledge. See how many of the common myths listed in Table 1.1 you or others you know believe. Have you ever wondered why people in elevators stand facing the doors and watching the numbers? Psychologists explain this behavior in terms of personal space, or the imaginary bubbles we keep around ourselves that Air Images/Shutterstock.com strangers should not invade. When our personal space is violated by necessity, as in a crowded elevator, we cope by pretending nobody else is really there. 6 Chapter 1 THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 6 TABLE 1.1 Ten Common Myths about Human Behavior 1. We only use 10% of our brains. 2. Some people are left-brained while others are right-brained. 3. Playing Mozart to infants makes them more intelligent. 4. Hypnosis improves your memory. 5. Students learn better when instruction matches their individual learning styles. 6. Lie detector (polygraph) tests are accurate. 7. Low self-esteem is a major source of personal and societal problems. 8. The teen years are typically disruptive. 9. Memory for traumatic events is usually poor. 10. In romantic relationships, opposites attract. Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., Ruscio, J., & Beyerstein, B. L. (2009). 50 great myths of popular psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Where Did Psychology Originate? Psychology is a relatively young discipline, dating only to the 1870s. However, topics that interest modern psychologists go back much farther in the history of human thought. People living as long ago as 6000 to 5000 bce in Assyria described their dreams (Restak, 1988). Among these accounts are descriptions of being chased, which are still among the most philosophy The discipline that system- common dreams that people experience (Nielsen et al., 2003). See Figure 1.2 for common atically examines basic concepts, including the source of knowledge. dream themes. natural sciences Sciences that study the The psychology family tree is a hybrid with two major roots: philosophy and the natural physical and biological events that occur sciences. Psychologists answer questions traditionally posed by philosophers using scientific in nature. research methods of the natural sciences, described in more detail in Chapter 2. Being chased or pursued, not injured Being physically attacked Trying again and again Themes in dreams Being frozen with fright Eating delicious food FIGURE 1.2 Arriving too late, (e.g., for a train) Many People Report Dreams with Sergey Mironov/Shutterstock.com Swimming the Same Themes. Although we Being locked up don’t understand why we dream about certain things, many people report Seeing snakes similar themes in their dreams. Finding money Source: Adapted from T. A. Nielsen, et al. (2003). “The Typical Dreams of Canadian 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 University Students,” Dreaming, 13, 211–235. Percentage of participants reporting theme doi: 10.1023/B:DREM.0000003144.40929.0b WHERE DID PSYCHOLOGY ORIGINATE? 7 7  www.BibleLandPictures.com/Alamy Stock Photo Cynthia Johnson/Hulton Archive/Getty Images Georgios Kollidas/Shutterstock.com (a) (b) (c) One of the most significant questions shared by philosophy and psychology asks whether the mind is inborn or is formed through experience. (a) Philosophers beginning with Aristotle (384–322 bce) believed that all knowledge is gained through sensory experience. (b) Beginning in the 17th century, this idea flourished in the British philosophical school of empiricism. Empiricists, like John Locke, viewed the mind as a “blank slate” at birth, which then was filled with ideas gained by observing the world. (c) Contemporary psychologists believe that experience interacts with inborn characteristics to shape the mind. Intelligence, for example, is influenced by both genetics and experience. During the 1970s, Romanian orphans adopted at young ages recovered from the effects of their seriously deprived social circumstances, but those who endured years of deprivation had more severe cognitive deficits (Ames, 1997). What Are Psychology’s Philosophical Roots? Philosophers and psychologists share an interest in questions regard- ing the nature of the self, the effects of early experience, the existence of free will, and the origin of knowledge. Both disciplines consider the New York Public Library/Science Source relative balance of biological factors (nature) and environmental fac- tors (nurture) in the resulting human behavior. Both attempt to deter- mine the relationships between self-interest and community welfare, between body and mind, and between humans and other species with which we share the planet. Although we typically consider questions of the unconscious mind and abnormal behavior to be the realm of the psychologist, philosophers investigated these issues thousands of years before the first psychologist was born. Ancient people might have attempted to cure headaches, seizures, or psychological disorders by drilling What Are Psychology’s Natural holes in the skull. Bone growth around Sciences Roots? the hole indicates that some patients survived the procedure. Surprisingly, While philosophers tackled these difficult questions, physicians were laying the foundation some people today engage in DIY of our knowledge of the brain and nervous system, discussed in detail in Chapter 4. During trepanation, a practice that obviously this pursuit, physicians helped develop the scientific methods that would become central to concerns the medical community psychology and previewed the application of scientific knowledge to the improvement of (“Doctors warn of the dangers of individual well-being. trepanning,” 2000). Beginning in the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists armed with new technologies, includ- ing the light microscope (see Figure 1.3), made important discoveries that established the mind as physical rather than magical. For example, they demonstrated that a single sensory nerve carried one type of information instead of multiple types. You might have already du- plicated this research yourself while rubbing your sleepy eyes—you see a flash of light. The nerves serving the retina of the eye do not know how to process information about touch or pressure. When stimulated, they are capable of only one type of message—light. Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) asked his participants to push a button as soon as they felt a touch. When a thigh was touched, participants reacted faster than when a toe was touched. Because 8 Chapter 1 THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 8  FIGURE 1.3 Microscopes Changed the World of Science. This light microscope was used by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek to discover red blood cells in 1676. Microscopes opened a new world to scientists interested in living things. A = Screw for adjusting the height of the object being examined B = Metal plate serving as the body C = Skewer to impale the object and rotate it D = Lens, which was spherical Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image Works World History/Topham/The Image Works A B C D the toe is farther from the brain than the thigh, signals from the toe required more time to reach the brain. These types of discoveries convinced scientists that the mind was not super- natural and could be studied scientifically. The Two Disciplines Merge to Create a New Science Philosophers began to incorporate physiological and psychological concepts into their work, and natural scientists began to explore the questions asked by philosophers. The gradual merger of these approaches resulted in a series of experiments that looked increasingly like contemporary psychology. Gustav Fechner (1801–1889) was curious to know how soft a The work of Hermann von Helmholtz sound a person could hear. He randomly pre- (1821–1894) on reaction time helped sented sounds of different intensities to which a establish the mind as something that participant would respond “yes” or “no.” When the could be studied scientifically. bilwissedition Ltd. & Co. KG/Alamy Stock Photo “yes” responses passed 50%, or better than chance, Fechner concluded that the sound was within the range that the human ear could detect (see Chapter 5). Although Fechner’s research seems very similar to von Helmholtz’s, note the importance of “mental processes” in Fechner’s work, as opposed to the simple measurement of physiology in von Helmholtz’s experiment. The stage was set for a modern science of psychology. WHERE DID PSYCHOLOGY ORIGINATE? 9 9 SUMMARY 1.1 Highlights in the Philosophical and Scientific Roots of Psychology Person or group Things to remember Ancient Greek philosophers Observations can be accounted for by natural, not supernatural, explanations. British empiricists Knowledge is the result of experience. Ancient physicians The brain is the source of the mind. 17th- and 18th-century natural Discoveries about sensation and movement showed that the scientists mind was physical. A B C D Hermann von Helmholtz Studies of reaction time reinforced the idea of the mind as physical. Credits: Top row—www.BibleLandPictures.com/Alamy Stock Photo; Second row—Georgios Kollidas/Shutterstock.com; Third row—New York Public Library/Science Source; Fourth row—Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image Works; inset: World History/Topham/The Image Works; Bottom row—bilwissedition Ltd. & Co. KG/Alamy Stock Photo. How Did the Science of Psychology Begin? As psychology developed from the gradual merger of philosophical questions and scien- tific reasoning, the young discipline struggled to determine which questions and methods were best suited to its goals. Lively debates arose among psychologists who helped to shape the field. Wilhelm Wundt and Structuralism The credit for being the very first psychologist goes to Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), a former research assistant to von Helmholtz, who conducted the first documented psycho- logical experiment in 1879. This landmark experiment was a simple test of reaction time: How quickly after hearing a ball drop onto a platform could a person respond by striking a telegraph key? 10 Chapter 1 THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 10  Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), seated in this photo, is considered the first experimental psychologist. structuralism An approach in which the mind is broken into the smallest elements INTERFOTO/Alamy Stock Photo of mental experience. Gestalt psychology An approach that saw experience as being different from the sum of its elements. functionalism An approach that saw behav- ior as purposeful and contributing to survival. CONNECTING TO RESEARCH The First Official Psychology Experiment WE HAVE GIVEN CREDIT to Wilhelm such as the sound of a ball dropped onto the amount of mental processing required Wundt for conducting the first experiments a platform, and measurements of reaction to carry out a task. As his tasks became in psychology. What did those crucial first time, as indicated by the participant pressing more complex, reaction time increased experiments look like? a telegraph key. In addition to these simple accordingly. Wundt’s experiments reflected both his reaction-time experiments, Wundt asked interests in consciousness and his training as participants to make decisions: When you CONCLUSIONS a medical doctor. He was aware of methods see this light, press the button on the left, As mentioned earlier in this chapter, that were used by researchers in physiology, but if you see that light, press the button on Wundt’s mentor, Hermann von Helmholtz, such as the reaction-time measures pio- the right. had performed a number of experiments neered by F. C. Donders in the Netherlands, similar to those performed by Wundt. and he sought to apply these methods to ETHICS Von Helmholtz touched the participant measure psychological processes such as As you continue reading your textbook, you on the thigh and toe and discovered that attention and decision making (Danziger & will review a number of experiments like this the participant pushed a button faster Ballantyne, 1997). one. Many will highlight important ethical in response to the thigh touch than the considerations regarding the treatment of toe touch. What makes von Helmholtz’s The Questions: Is it possible to “time” mental participants. These ethical concerns will demonstration a physiological experiment processes? Are simple reaction times different be reviewed in more detail in Chapter 2, and Wundt’s a psychology experiment? from reaction times involving choices? but in the meantime, Wundt’s experiment Part of the answer is the interpretation appears to have posed little risk to his that each scientist made of his results. For METHODS participants. After you consider the criteria von Helmholtz, differences in reaction time Wundt’s methods involved two sets of for conducting ethical research outlined in these two instances represented the ef- apparatus: one that would deliver a stimulus in Chapter 2, however, you might want to fects of the speed of conduction of neural precisely to a participant, and a second that return to this description and see if you signaling. Because the toe is farther from would measure and record the participant’s agree with our assessment or not. the brain than the thigh is, messages from responses. His imposing-looking brass the toe take more time to reach the brain. instruments used to carry out these tasks RESULTS Wundt’s simple reaction-time experiments were displayed to an admiring public at the Wundt viewed reaction time as “mental were not that different, but his experiments 1893 Chicago World’s Fair. chronometry” (Hergenhahn & Henley, on choice were more clearly psychological. The first experiments carried out by 2013, p. 255). In other words, he believed As decisions became more complex, reaction Wundt involved the presentation of stimuli, that reaction time provided a measure of time increased. HOW DID THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY BEGIN? 11 11  Wundt saw mental experience as a hierarchy. The mind constructs an overall perception (the food I’m eating tastes good) out of building blocks made up of sepa- rate sensations, such as taste and vision, and emotional responses. One of Wundt’s students, Edward Titchener (1867– Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) was 1923), expanded on Wundt’s views to establish a theory of Bettmann/Contributor/Getty Images one of the founders of Gestalt structuralism, in which the mind could be broken down psychology. Please note that there is into the smallest elements of mental experience. Titchener’s no connection between the Gestalt approach to psychology paralleled the general trends in the psychology of Wertheimer, Köhler, and physical sciences of his day, such as efforts in chemistry to Koffka, and the later similarly named break molecules into elements and attempts by physicists to Gestalt approach to therapy. describe matter at the level of the atom. Gestalt Psychology The structuralists’ effort to break behavior into its essential elements was rejected by a group of early 20th-century German psychologists, including Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler, who founded Gestalt psychology. Gestalt, although difficult to translate into English, basically means “form” or “whole.” The Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking a “whole” perception into its building blocks, as advocated by the structuralists, would result in the loss of important psychological information. Figure 1.4 demonstrates the importance of context to our interpretation of visual information. The structuralists would have a difficult Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image Works time explaining why the same visual building blocks could lead to such different conclusions. William James and Functionalism While the structuralists and Gestalt psychologists continued their debate, a new type of psychol- ogy emerged, partly in response to the publication of Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species in 1859 and The Descent of Man in 1871. Functionalism viewed behavior as purposeful because it led to survival. Instead of restricting themselves to exploring the structure of the mind, func- tionalists were more interested in why behavior and mental processes worked in a particular way. William James (1842–1910) proposed Functionalism’s chief proponent was William James (1842–1910), whose textbook, Princi- functionalism, an approach to the mind ples of Psychology (1890), dominated psychology for 50 years. There are few topics in psychology that viewed behavior as purposeful. that James did not address in his book, and many of his ideas sound modern. For example, he Courtesy of the Wellesley College Archives Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was FIGURE 1.4 a student of William James at Harvard University, although she could not Gestalt Psychologists Challenged Structuralism. Participants usually see the middle figure as a officially register because of her gender. B when instructed to look at the first row, but see a 13 when instructed to read the second row, even She studied memory and the self and though the images are exactly the same. Structuralists, who believed that experiences could be reduced served as president of the American to small building blocks, would have difficulty explaining these results. In contrast, Gestalt psychologists, Psychological Association in 1905. who emphasized the role of context or the “whole” in perception, would have no problem. 12 Chapter 1 THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 12 coined the term stream of consciousness to describe the flow of ideas that people experience while awake. Throughout his discussions of mental processes and behavior, James emphasized the role of evolution. If we enjoy ice cream, it might be because eating sweet, high-fat foods enhanced survival for our ancestors, for whom famine was more of a problem than obesity. It is difficult to overestimate the impact of James on psychology. Structuralism came and went, but all contemporary psychologists are functionalists at heart. As described by two psychology historians, “As a systematic point of view, functionalism was an overwhelming success, but largely because of this success it is no longer a distinct school of psychology. It was absorbed into the mainstream psychology. No happier fate could await any psychological point of view” (Chaplin & Krawiec, 1979, p. 53). Clinical Roots: Freud and the Humanistic Psychologists When a case of capital punishment is discussed, we The history of efforts to aid those with psychological disorders has not al- ways been enlightened. With the exception of occasional bursts of insight often hear about the prisoner’s terrible childhood from the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, the most common view of psy- from one side of the argument and the need to chological disorders over the course of history has been the supernatural protect society from further misdeeds by this person approach. According to this view, psychological disorders resulted from from the other side. Where would the Freudians and the actions of evil spirits or other external, magical forces, and associated humanistic psychologists line up in this debate? “treatments” were often harsh. Between the 17th and the 19th centuries, supernatural explanations for psychological disorders began to give way to two scientific ap- proaches: a medical model and a psychological model. The medical model of psychological disorders emphasized physical causes of abnormal behavior and medical treatments, such as medication. The psychological model suggested that abnormal behavior can result from traumatic life experiences, leading to fear, anxiety, and other counterproductive emotional responses. Psychological treatments take many forms, from offering support to applying cognitive and behavioral methods to help people think and problem-solve in new ways. As Chapters 14 and 15 will explain, contemporary psychologists typically combine medical and psychological approaches to understand disorders and develop effective treatments. For ex- ample, we know that feeling depressed has both physical components (changes in the activity of chemical messengers in the brain) and experiential components (exposure to stressful situ- ations). Treatment for depression often combines medication with efforts to change the way a person thinks about situations. Everett Collection Inc/Alamy Stock Photo Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) built a bridge from his medical training as a physician to his belief in the impact of life experiences on behavior. His psychodynamic theory and its applications to the treatment of psychological disorders dominated much of psychological thinking for the first half of the 20th century. Freud’s ideas about the existence of the unconscious mind, the development of sexuality, dream analysis, and psychological roots of abnormal behavior influenced not just psychology, but also culture. He nearly single-handedly founded the study Prior to advances in psychological of personality in psychology, a topic explored more science, people with psychological fully in Chapter 12. He developed the techniques of disorders were subjected to bizarre psychoanalysis for treating mental disorders, which “treatments,” such as this 18th-century are discussed in Chapter 15. He popularized the use spinning device intended to calm of psychological principles for explaining everyday patients. behavior, and his theories are as likely to be covered in an English literature course as in a psychology course. Our enthusiasm for Freud is tempered by a The work of Sigmund Freud (1856– number of valid concerns. Freud’s theories do not 1939) on consciousness, sexuality, akg-images/Newscom always lend themselves to experimentation, an es- abnormal behavior, and psychotherapy sential requirement for any scientific theory as dis- played a dominant role in psychology cussed further in Chapter 2. For example, how could during the first half of the 20th you design an experiment to test whether dreaming century. HOW DID THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY BEGIN? 13 13  about a house really means that you’re thinking about yourself (Freud, 1913)? Although psy- choanalysis is still used as a therapy technique, it is rarely conducted in the strict Freudian Courtesy of the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University Archives manner. Other techniques, discussed in Chapter 15, exceed psychoanalysis in effectiveness and popularity among contemporary therapists. Humanistic Psychology By the 1960s, American psychology was dominated by behaviorism (discussed in a later section of this chapter) on one side and Freud’s theories on the other. Structuralism had fallen into disfavor, and functionalism and Gestalt psychology were no longer distinct schools of thought. Just as other aspects of American culture at this time began to feature rebelliousness against current ways of thinking, some psychologists began to push against the restrictions of psychodynamic theory. Many of these disenchanted psychologists had been trained in psychoanalysis but were not seeing the results they desired. This dissatisfaction with prevailing views led these psychologists to propose new ways of thinking about the human mind through an approach known as humanistic psychology. Humanistic psychology was referred to as a “third force,” separate from the prevailing behaviorist and psychodynamic theories. One area of disagreement between the humanistic psychologists and Freud related to the question of basic human nature as good or evil. Like James, Freud was heavily influenced by In 1920, Francis Cecil Sumner Charles Darwin, whose work stimulated his decision to study medicine. Freud believed that (1895–1954) became the first African human behavior was on a continuum with animal behavior, and that society had a civilizing American to receive a doctorate function on the otherwise selfish and aggressive human. In contrast, the humanistic psycholo- in psychology for his work on gists extended the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other 18th-century Romantic psychoanalysis. Sumner’s later work philosophers into a belief that people are innately good, are motivated to improve themselves, focused on religion and racism. and behave badly only when corrupted by society. This more positive view of human nature led the humanistic psychologists to ask novel ques- humanistic psychology An approach tions. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was curious about what made a person “good.” As Chapter that saw people as inherently good and motivated to learn and improve. EXPERIENCING PSYCHOLOGY Testing Reaction Time YOU HAVE READ about a number of Number on ruler at reaction-time experiments in this chapter, top of person’s hand Reaction time including those conducted by Hermann von Helmholtz and Wilhelm Wundt. It is pos- 2 in. (about 5 cm) 0.10 s (100 ms) sible to conduct similar experiments without 4 in. (about 10 cm) 0.14 s (140 ms) the brass equipment used by these early researchers. 6 in. (about 15 cm) 0.17 s (170 ms) This exercise, developed by Dr. Erik 8 in. (about 20 cm) 0.20 s (200 ms) Chudler of the University of Washington, is 10 in. (about 25.5 cm) 0.23 s (230 ms) designed to measure your reaction time to a visual stimulus. All you need is a partner and 12 in. (about 30.5 cm) 0.25 s (250 ms) a simple footlong ruler or yardstick. Hold the 17 in. (about 43 cm) 0.30 s (300 ms) ruler vertically, with the highest numbers at the top, and ask your partner to place a hand 24 in. (about 61 cm) 0.35 s (350 ms) at the bottom of the ruler without touch- 31 in. (about 79 cm) 0.40 s (400 ms) ing it. Tell your partner that you will drop the ruler sometime in the next 5 seconds 39 in. (about 99 cm) 0.45 s (450 ms) and to grab the ruler as quickly as possible 48 in. (about 123 cm) 0.50 s (500 ms) and hold it. Note the number at the top of 69 in. (about 175 cm) 0.60 s (600 ms) the person’s hand after the ruler is caught, 14 Chapter 1 THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 14 16 will show, Maslow’s emphasis on what is good about people, as opposed to Freud’s focus on what goes wrong with people, reemerged in the form of contemporary positive psychology. Humanistic psychologists not only disagreed with Freud about the nature of human be- ings, but also rebelled against Freudian approaches to treatment. As described in more detail in Chapter 15, the humanistic therapist Carl Rogers (1902–1987) developed a new approach Bettmann/Contributor/Getty Images called client-centered therapy. In this type of therapy, the people receiving treatment are called clients rather than the more medical term, patients, reflecting their equal standing with the therapist and their active role in the therapy process. Humanistic approaches to therapy have also influenced best practices in communication, group process, parenting, and politics. The emphasis on active listening and the use of “I hear what you’re saying” reflections have become nearly cliché in courses of leadership training and interpersonal communication. Advice to parents to provide unconditional love to their children is a direct application of humanistic beliefs, discussed in more detail in Chapter 11. Finally, humanistic psychology continues to Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) flavor our political and social domains. When issues such as capital punishment arise, the hu- contributed a theory of motivation manistic contention that there are no bad people, just bad societies that fail people, typically and ideas about exceptional people to appears as part of the debate. the growing humanistic psychology movement. The Behaviorists and the Cognitive Revolution Beginning at the dawn of the 20th century, the concepts of “mental processes” and “brain func- tion” in our definition of psychology took a back seat to observable behavior for the better part of the next 50 years. Psychologists following the approach of behaviorism concentrated on observable, measurable behaviors instead. As part of their effort to measure behavior carefully, many behaviorists restricted their research to studies using animals. Armed with Darwin’s evi- dence linking humans to animals, the behaviorists comfortably drew parallels between their behaviorism An approach that features observations of animals and their assumptions about human behavior. In particular, behavior- the study and careful measurement of ob- ists were fascinated by learning, which is examined in depth in Chapter 8. servable behaviors. and use this chart to convert your results to reaction time. In other words, if the number above the participant’s hand is 8, record 0.20 seconds or 200 ms (a millisecond is one one- thousandth of a second). Test you