222 Multiple Choice Questions PDF

Lecture 1 ● What is quantitative research? ○ Research that commonly presents data in numbers. ■ Quantitative research is a research strategy that emphasizes the use of numerical data to describe a social phenomenon, explain its causes, and infer which variable causes variation observed in the oth...

Lecture 1 ● What is quantitative research? ○ Research that commonly presents data in numbers. ■ Quantitative research is a research strategy that emphasizes the use of numerical data to describe a social phenomenon, explain its causes, and infer which variable causes variation observed in the other variable. ● What is qualitative research? ○ Research that commonly presents data in words, images, and narratives. ■ Qualitative research is a research strategy that emphasizes the exploration of meanings (or behind behavior) through the use of words, images, and narratives. It seeks to understand how and why things happen in particular ways, under what circumstances, or through what processes, and how people think about this, respond to this, etc. ○ Well-suited for exploring complex social phenomena, understanding individuals' perspectives, and capturing the richness of their experiences. ○ Collecting non-numerical data through methods such as interviews and focus groups, which are commonly used in qualitative research to gain insights into subjective experiences, perspectives and decision-making processes. ● What is the deductive approach to research? (quantitative) ○ Theories inform the formulation of hypotheses. ■ Involves the formulation of hypotheses based on existing theories and testing them through the collection and analysis of data. ● What is the inductive approach to research? (qualitative) ○ Theoretical ideas emerge as an outcome of research, and findings inform the creation of new theories or the qualification/revision of existing theories. ○ Research begins with specific concepts. ■ An inductive approach to research begins with concepts that give a general sense of what to look for, but tends not to be restricted by fixed concepts. ● What are the main steps in the research process? ○ Research questions, theory, deduction of a hypothesis/hypotheses to be tested, selection of relevant research site(s) and participants, data generation, data interpretation and analysis, and findings and conclusion. ● What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative research? ○ Qualitative research ■ Places a strong emphasis on exploring complex social phenomena and understanding individuals' perspectives (meaning) ■ Study how people create meanings of the social world in social processes within specific contexts, and look for rich data showing the dynamism and complexity of social life. ■ Purposive sampling to select participants based on specific criteria that are relevant to the research question (emphasize sampling strategically for gaining access to a relevant (but not necessarily ‘representative’) range of population and contexts) ○ Quantitative research ■ More concerned with testing hypotheses, causality, generalizability, and replicability ■ Addresses different dimensions of social phenomena ■ Random sampling to ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected ● What is the emphasis of research on generalizability? ○ Application to wider populations (beyond the research population) ■ Generalizability refers to the ability to apply research findings to populations beyond the specific group of participants who were studied. ● What is the emphasis of research on replicability? ○ Standardized research processes ■ Replicability refers to the ability to repeat a study using the same methods and procedures and obtain similar results. Standardized research processes help to ensure that studies can be replicated. ● What type of data is likely to be collected in the study on part-time work and alcohol use among university students? ○ ● Numerical data. What type of research is the study on how women and men in Hong Kong understand and make use of dating advice from social media influencers? ○ Qualitative research. Lecture 2: Approaches and design in social research ● What is an intellectual puzzle? ○ ● What is a developmental puzzle? ○ ● The study of how something works or how something is constituted. What is a causal/predictive puzzle? ○ ● The study of how and why something developed over time. What is a mechanical puzzle? ○ ● A question or problem that requires critical thinking and exploration to solve. The study of causality and the likely outcome of a particular event or situation. What is a comparative puzzle? ○ The study of what we can learn from comparing two things and how we can explain the differences and similarities between them. ● What does a good research question do? ○ Appropriately guides you through the different steps of your research and the decisions you need to make along the way ○ Asks what, how, and why ○ Addresses a topic related to developments and changes in society ○ Draws on theoretical perspectives and concepts to make sense of the said developments and changes ● What is originality in research questions? ○ It is original in terms of subject matter of interest, theoretical perspectives and concepts, research design/methods, analysis/interpretation, and implications for policy/practice. ● How to determine whether research questions are researchable? ○ Depends on whether the ideas and concepts contained in the research question can be operationalized, i.e., they can be converted into researchable items. ● What is construct validity? ○ The extent to which a measure reflects and helps capture the idea or concept it is supposed to be denoting 意味著 ● What is internal validity? ○ The extent to which researchers can claim that the independent variable causes variation observed in the dependent variable. ● What is external validity in research design? ○ The extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the research setting, to other populations, contexts, and situations. ● What is ecological validity in research design? ○ The extent to which the research findings reflect real-life situations and contexts, rather than being limited to artificial or laboratory settings. ● What is the relationship between reliability and validity? ○ Reliability depends on validity. ■ Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measure or research design ■ Validity refers to the accuracy and truthfulness of a measure or research design. ■ Reliability depends on validity because a measure or research design cannot be reliable if it is not valid. ● What is a randomized control trial? ○ A research design in which participants are randomly assigned to experimental/treatment vs. control groups. ○ (experimental manipulation) This design allows researchers to establish that the only difference observed between the groups is responsible for variation observed in the dependent variable. ● What are the strengths and limitations of experimental designs? ○ (strength) The manipulation of the independent variable allows the control or elimination of the possible effects of rival explanations of a causal finding. Researchers can be confident of the robustness of the causal finding. ○ (limitation) Many independent variables that interest social scientists cannot be manipulated, such as gender, socio-economic status (SES) or social class, age, etc; Potentially problematic ethics of experimental design, such as the use of an artificial setting and experimental manipulation, ● What is a potential problem with the pre-test in experimental designs? ○ It could influence how participants respond to the post-test, as participants may be aware of what is being tested and may change their behavior accordingly. ● What is quasi-experimental design? ○ Quasi-experimental design is adopted when randomization of groups (experimental vs. control) is not feasible, but still attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables. ○ This is often the case in real-world settings, such as studying students in different classes in schools or employees in different divisions of an organization. ○ (strengths) Ascertaining causality is possible, and there is stronger ecological validity when compared to experimental designs. ○ (limitations) There is no random assignment, which results in weaker internal validity. Variation in the dependent variable cannot be claimed to be exclusively produced by variation in the independent variable. ● Which of the following is a source of variation in the dependent variable(s) that could affect internal validity? ○ Selection bias. ■ A source of variation in the dependent variable(s) that could affect internal validity. ■ This occurs when the participants in the experiment are not randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups, which could lead to differences between the groups that are not related to the independent variable. ● Why are qualitative researchers less likely to use experimental design? ○ They are interested in meanings, processes, and contexts, which may not be easily manipulated in an experimental setting ● What is a cross-sectional design? ○ Data on more than one case is collected at a single point in time. ○ (strengths) Include the feasibility of studying the causal effects of variables that cannot be manipulated in experimental design, standardized and clearly specified research procedures, leading to higher replicability and a good chance of producing generalizable results. ● What are the limitations of using a non-experimental design? ○ (internal validity) No participants are pre-tested, exposed to treatment, and post-tested, and the direction of causal influence is ambiguous. ○ (ecological validity) Participants are likely not acting in the same way as in 'real', natural settings when they respond to an 'artificial' research instrument. ● What are the strengths of a longitudinal design (panel study), compared to cross-sectional design? ○ A panel study involves randomly selecting a sample on at least two or more occasions for data collection, while a cross-sectional design only collects data at one point in time. ○ (strengths) Allows for insight into the time ordering of variables, and thus better facilitates the making of causal inferences when compared to cross-sectional design. Only a panel study can distinguish between age effects (the impact of aging on individuals) and cohort effects (effects due to being born at a similar time). ○ (limitations) Sample attrition can lead to a non-representative sample. ■ Panel studies involve collecting data from the same sample over time, but sample attrition (e.g. due to deaths or withdrawal) can lead to a non-representative sample for later waves of data collection. ■ This can limit the generalizability of the findings and affect the validity of the study. ● What is the panel conditioning effect? ○ Adverse effects on data quality that occur when respondents' behavior is affected by their continued participation in successive waves of data generation. ● What is a case study? ○ A research method that involves a detailed and intensive analysis of a single case, which could be a setting, such as an organization, community, or country. It can employ both quantitative and qualitative research methods and may exhibit elements of a cross-sectional or longitudinal design. ● What is a critical case in case study research? ○ A case chosen for study on the grounds that it will allow a better understanding of the circumstances that critically affect whether a hypothesis will or will not hold. ● What is a revelatory case in case study research? ○ A case that allows the opportunity to observe and analyze a phenomenon previously inaccessible to scientific investigation. ● What is a limitation of making inferences about findings in a comparative design? ○ The selected cases may not exclusively explain variation observed in the findings ● Which of the following is a challenge in ensuring that findings from different cultures are directly comparable? ○ ● Variations in the way questions are asked. What is a potential issue in translating research questions across different cultures? ○ The potential problems of insensitivity to specific contexts when translating research questions. ● What is the main challenge in ensuring that findings from culturally-specific studies can be generalized to other populations? ○ The difficulty of finding comparable data Lecture 3: Conceptualization, operationalization, and measurement ● What is the purpose of social research? ○ To understand and explain social phenomena. ○ It helps to draw upon social sciences perspectives to look for explanations, illuminate relevant issues, and to draw implications. ● What does a theory do? ○ Represents a perspective to look at things. It helps us make sense of social phenomena in particular ways. ● What is the role of literature review in social research? ○ To identify unresolved issues and/or research gaps ■ The role of literature review in social research is to be familiarized with relevant theories and concepts, identify unresolved issues and/or research gaps, and formulate research question(s). ■ It provides the reference for researchers about what has already been studied and what needs to be studied further. ● What is a literature review? ○ An assessment of existing knowledge relating to a research topic. A literature review is a critical evaluation of existing knowledge, both empirical and theoretical, relating to a research topic, issue, or question. ● What are the criteria of a good literature review? ○ Sensitive, critical, coherent, precise, accurate, and relevant. ■ Sensitive to the quality of different sources of literature ■ Critical in assessing the strengths and weaknesses of different sources ■ Coherent in constructing linkages between different sources ■ Precise in selecting relevant sources ■ Accurate in documenting all bibliographic information ■ Relevant in linking the details of the sources reviewed to the current research question. ● What is the purpose of identifying relevant informants for a study? ○ To define the scope of the study and ensure that the data collected is relevant to the research question. ● What is the purpose of identifying relevant strategies for data analysis and interpretation? ○ To ensure that the data collected is analyzed and interpreted in a meaningful way. ● What is the purpose of assessing relevant research designs and methods? ○ To ensure the validity and reliability of the study, as it helps to ensure that the data collected is relevant to the research question and that the methods used are appropriate for the research design. ● What is curate? ○ Able to document all the bibliographic information of the sources used in a research project, such as the author, title, publication date, and publisher. ● What is conceptualization? ○ The process of explicitly defining a concept. ■ Involves both specifying dimensions and identifying the various indicators for each, in order to produce a specific agreed-on meaning for a concept for the purposes of research. ■ (importance) It ensures that all researchers use the same definition of a concept. ■ (disagreement) Different researchers can conceptualize the same concept in different ways, because there can be disagreements about what a concept means. It is the task of the researcher to determine how conceptualization can be done to fit best with their research question and goals. ● What is an operational definition? ○ A definition that specifies precisely how a concept will be measured, i.e., the operations performed by the researchers. ● What is the difference between a working definition and a standardized definition of a concept? ○ A working definition is specific and unambiguous and is used to make them amenable for research ○ A standardized definition is formed when researchers discover the utility of a particular conceptualization and operationalization of a concept, and subsequently adopt it. ● Is open-endedness more obvious in conceptualization and operationalization in qualitative research? ○ Yes. While concepts are continuously refined in all social research methods, open-endedness is more obvious in conceptualization and operationalization in qualitative research. ○ This is because qualitative research often involves exploring new or complex phenomena that may not have clear definitions or measures. ● What is the importance of constant clarification of concepts in social research? ○ As a researcher delves more and more deeply into research participants’ experiences and perspectives, one may come to realize that the definition of the concept at work should be adjusted (e.g., expanded). Lecture 4: Sampling ● What is the purpose of sampling in research? ○ To select a suitable population for the research question(s) ■ Researchers decide what kind of population is suitable for their research question(s), and the sampling strategy also informs the choice/design of research instrument and the decision about the administration of a research instrument. ● What is a sampling frame? ○ The listing of all units in the population from which sample is selected ○ It can be student records or class rosters with information on names, schools, programmes, years of study, etc. ● What is a representative sample? ○ A sample that reflects the research population accurately in terms of relevant characteristics, such as gender, ethnicity, study programmes, levels of engagement in part-time work, etc. ○ It is a 'microcosm' of the research population, meaning that it includes a diverse range of characteristics that are similar to those of the population. ● What is sampling error? ○ The difference between the characteristics of the sample and the research population ○ It is unavoidable to have some sampling error, but it can be minimized by using appropriate sampling methods and increasing the sample size. ● What is the relationship between sample size and sampling error? ○ A larger sample size decreases sampling error, but cannot guarantee precision or be 100% error-free ● What is the compromise that researchers must make when deciding on a sample size? ○ A compromise between the constraints of time/cost and the requirements of the research question. ● What is non-response? ○ When people selected for the sample refuse to participate or cannot be contacted, or for some reason cannot supply the required research data. ○ This can lead to a biased sample and affect the accuracy of the research findings. ● What is a non-sampling error? ○ Non-sampling error happens when the difference between the sample and the research population (in terms of relevant characteristics) is resulted from an inadequate sampling frame or non-response ● What is sampling bias? ○ When the resulting sample does not accurately reflect the research population. ○ This can happen (non-probability sampling) when some members of the research population stand little or no chance of being selected as a sample, which distorts sample representativeness and leads to a biased sample. Lecture 5: Survey research ● What is survey research? ○ A cross-sectional design to collect quantitative data by questionnaire or structured interview on a sample of cases drawn from a wider population and at a single point in time, which are then examined to detect patterns of association. ○ (limitations) Has a major weakness of lower validity of data due to the potential for satisficing behavior and response sets. ● What is satisficing behavior (acquiescence) in survey research? ○ Respondent's reduction of the amount of effort required to answer a particular question, which can lead to lower validity of data. ● What is social desirability bias in survey research? ○ Respondent's tendency to give socially desirable responses rather than truthful responses rather than truthful responses, which can lead to biased data. ● What are the differences among a self-administered questionnaire, a structured interview and a semi-structured interview ○ A self-administered questionnaire with closed-ended questions is completed by the respondent on their own and can be administered under supervised conditions, by post, or online through email or social media ■ (advantages) A self-administered questionnaire is easier to administer, especially when the target population is geographically dispersed; The research process is less influenced by interviewer effects, which produce bias in responses given to questions. The research process is more controlled and standardized, as all respondents are given the same set of questions in the same order. ■ (limitations) ● Low response rates (Respondents cannot clarify what they do not understand; Respondents may not give answers as instructed, respondents can get tired and give up questions which they do not perceive as salient; Questions may not be answered in the intended order; Question order effects could manifest when the questionnaire is read as a whole before questions are answered; Respondents not targeted by the research could be involved in completing the questionnaire) ● May not be suitable for illiterate or non-English speaking populations ● Limit to length, hence coverage, no probing or prompting questions to obtain elaboration or clarification from respondents or to help them give an answer. ○ A structured interview is a method of data collection where the interviewer asks a set of predetermined questions in a standardized manner via face-to-face meetings or phone conversations formats ■ Emphasize standardization in terms of wording, ordering of questions, and how questions are asked. ■ Standardized questions to provide important information for researchers' contextualization of interviewees' answers or responses. These questions should be non-judgmental, use simple and clear language, and avoid jargon and double-barreled questions. They should also be what, why and how questions, and should not be leading or biased ■ (advantages) Higher response rates; Better quality data, and Ability to clarify questions and probe for more information. ■ (limitations) Susceptible to the influence of the interview contexts, which can potentially bias the results. ○ Semi-structured interviews ■ E.g. Follow-up questions to ask for elaboration; Interpreting questions to interpret the meaning of a participant’s response; General and Specific questions to gather background information; Standardization questions asked at the end of the interview ■ Use an interview schedule but do not have a rigidly-sequenced script. The wordings, order of questions, and how questions are asked vary depending on the research context. ■ To obtain data about meanings, processes, and contexts. They are "conversations with a purpose" and involve the co-production of data with the interviewee. ■ Emphasize the perspectives, concerns, and interests of the research participants rather than those of the researchers. ■ Often employed with different research strategies, such as quantitative vs. qualitative ■ (benefits of flexibility) Allows for more insights into the interviewee's perspective, concerns and interests ■ (compared to observational methods) Suitable for studying things not amenable to observation, less intrusive, and permit reconstruction of events including those beyond the confines of the observed setting. They also facilitate direction at a focus relevant to the research question. ■ (limitations) Heavy dependence on interviewees’ capacity to remember and verbalize, researchers tend to have more fleeting 短暫 的 contact with research participants; Access to vulnerable populations, deviant and hidden activities is not as well facilitated when compared to observational methods ● What are some considerations when designing a survey instrument? ○ Include clarity and simplicity of language ○ Avoiding leading questions ○ Ensuring the survey is not too long or tedious ○ Piloting the survey to test for any issues or confusion ■ Allow researchers to pre-test research instruments and check whether they work well, i.e., whether the instruments help measure/capture effectively what one intends to measure/capture. ● What should researchers consider when deciding to conduct a survey research? ○ Nature of their research question(s) ○ Requirements of sample representativeness and generalizability ○ Considerations of practical constraints and ethical issues when deciding to conduct a survey research. ● What is the purpose of designing a survey instrument? ○ To collect data on various topics, including personal information, attitudes, beliefs, normative standards, and values. ● What are filter questions in a survey instrument? ○ Questions that filter out participants who do not meet certain criteria, such as age, gender, or income level. ● What is the difference between open-ended and closed-ended questions? ○ Open-ended questions allow for a range of responses, while closed-ended questions provide a limited set of options for participants to choose from. ○ (advantages of open-ended questions) Allow respondents to provide their own answers and express their thoughts in their own terms, which can lead to more accurate and insightful responses. ○ (disadvantages of open-ended questions) They require greater effort from respondents and generate answers that take a long time to code (categorize for the purpose of analysis). ○ (advantages of close-ended questions) By anchoring a choice in a situation, it encourages a more reflective reply and for sensitive topics, vignette questions provide a less ‘threatening’ context for respondents. ○ (disadvantages of close-ended questions) They force participants to choose between options that may not accurately reflect their views. Use of forced-choice answers and discrepancies in interpretation of questions lowers validity of data ● What is the design consideration for multiple questions in a survey instrument? ○ To consider question order effects, which can influence how participants respond to the questions. ● When designing and asking questions, what should you do to provide a less 'threatening' context for respondents? ○ Offer appropriate options of answers ○ Help respondents feel less judged and more comfortable when offering a response. This can lead to more accurate and reliable data. ● How can response sets in a Likert scale be identified? ○ Can be identified by using distractor items (using reversed coding). ○ Questions using wordings implying the opposite stances can be introduced to help identify and weed out those respondents exhibiting certain response sets, e.g., acquiescence, when they are found to agree to all the items. ● What is interviewer variability in research? ○ The fact that questions are more likely to be asked and responded to in different ways depending on how many interviewers are present and how the respondent reacts to the sociodemographic characteristics of the interviewer, such as gender, ethnicity, and age. ● What is the purpose of using prompts in a questionnaire? ○ To help respondents understand the question and provide an answer. This reduces the chances of non-response and increases the validity of data collected. ● What is the importance of standardized prompts in a closed-ended question in a structured interview? ○ To ensure all respondents receive the same prompt at the same point in time, which helps to eliminate any potential bias or influence from the interviewer. ● What is the consequence of low validity of data collected in a questionnaire? ○ Leads to unusable data, which in turn leads to lower representativeness of the sample and lower generalizability of research findings. ● What are the advantages and limitations of administering surveys online? ○ (advantages) Automatic programming/downloading of data into a database, which reduces the risk of human error in data entry and makes it easier to retrieve data. ○ (limitation) Respondents may not make use of the full range of possible response options when answering surveys online, which can undermine the validity of the data collected. ● What should researchers consider when designing questions for a semi-structured interview? ○ Researchers should be sensitive to the interactional context, broader societal context, subject matter, and research population ● What is the advantage of using interviews as a research strategy? ○ Interviews are suitable for addressing different kinds of research questions, as they allow for more in-depth exploration of participants' perspectives and experiences. ● What are some potential issues that could arise from instrument design/administration in a survey research? ○ Undermine the validity of data/findings, leading to invalid or unreliable results. This comes from inadequate statistical analysis, inconsistent data collection procedures, and confounding variables ○ Response bias occurs when participants provide inaccurate or incomplete responses due to factors such as social desirability or misunderstanding of the question ● How could you address the problem of confounding variables in data analysis? ○ Control for the confounding variable in the study design. ○ This can be done through randomization, matching, or stratification. Using statistical techniques or excluding participants may not fully address the issue. Lecture 6: Experiments in quantitative social research ● What is an experiment in social research? ○ A form of experience involving deliberate human intervention to produce change, distinguishing itself from the form of experience involving the observation of facts in their natural settings. ● What are the typical steps involved in conducting an experiment in social research? ○ Select a group of subjects, do something to them, and observe the effect of what was done. ● What is the focus of experiments in social research? ○ Focus more on determining causation and have explanatory rather than descriptive purposes. ● Which research project is likely to be conducted with an experimental design? ○ Experiments are well-suited for projects involving limited and well-defined concepts and propositions, and are most popular in medical/health-related research, social psychology, organizational studies, and social policy studies. ● What is a double-blind experiment? ○ An experimental design in which neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental and which is the control group. ○ ● To eliminate bias and increase the validity of the results. What is the purpose of setting up a control group in an experiment? ○ Allows the researcher to detect the effects of the stimulus on the experimental group. The control group serves as a comparison group that does not receive the stimulus, allowing the researcher to determine whether any changes observed in the experimental group are due to the stimulus or other external factors. ● What is randomization in experiments? ○ Numbering all the subjects serially and selecting numbers using a random-number table ● What is the matching method in experiments? ○ Matching pairs of subjects based on their similarity in one or more variables (attributes) ● When should randomization be preferred over matching in experiments? ○ When you may not be in a position to know in advance which variables will be relevant for the matching process ● Which of the following is NOT a type of pre-experimental research design? ○ ● Randomized controlled trial. What are problems with experimental design? ○ (limitations) Low ecological validity ○ (potential ethical concern) Cause participants harm ○ (potential problem) Many independent variables cannot be manipulated, such as gender, socio-economic status, and age ● What is a potential problem with pre-testing participants in an experiment? ○ It may influence how participants respond to the post-test, which could affect the validity of the results. ● What is an alternative experimental design (except experimental design) that can be used in social research? ○ Natural experiments occur outside of controlled settings and can be implemented in a similar way to laboratory experiments. ○ Web-based experiments ○ Quasi-experimental designs. Lecture 7: Qualitative research ● According to qualitative researchers, why can social life not be studied in the same way as the natural world? ● ○ Because social phenomena have multiple interpretations ○ Because human beings have the capacity to think and interpret meanings ○ Because social life cannot be explained by a single formula What are the types of non-probability sampling (vs probability: random)? ○ Purposive (strategic) sampling - Theoretical sampling ● Participants are selected based on specific criteria that are relevant to the research question. ○ They prioritize gaining access to a wide range of individuals relevant to their research questions, rather than aiming to generalize their findings to the wider population. These can include people, organizations, communities, documents, events/happenings, and cases. ● What is the grounded theory approach? ○ A qualitative research method where researchers continue to carry out sampling until theoretical saturation is reached, and the sample size is not predetermined ● To develop a theoretical understanding or refine theoretical categories. ● The emphasis is not on precisely mapping correlations (to generate explanations based on what emerges in data analysis), distributions, or trends, but rather on selecting cases and units ■ Generic purposive sampling (Selected more specifically) ■ Snowball sampling ● A technique used to select a sample of participants based on referrals from initial participants. ● (strengths) It is often used to research hard-to-reach populations or subcultures ● (limitation) Provide unreliable data and reflect characteristics similar to the initial recruits only. This can lead to a lack of generalizability and a biased sample, which can worsen reliability and validity of the data/findings. ○ Opportunistic sampling ○ Convenience sampling: Where the researcher selects participants based on who is easy to access. ● Why is flexibility important in moving back and forth during the research process and in revising research question(s) and/or sampling strategy mid-way? ○ Flexibility allows researchers to adapt to new information and insights that emerge during the research process, which can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study.