Forensic Science: Definition, Scope & History PDF

# Chapter 1: Definition and Scope of Forensic Science - Forensic science is the application of science to law. - Forensic science uses the knowledge and technology of science to define and enforce the law. - Forensic science is increasingly necessary to regulate activities that intimately influence...

# Chapter 1: Definition and Scope of Forensic Science - Forensic science is the application of science to law. - Forensic science uses the knowledge and technology of science to define and enforce the law. - Forensic science is increasingly necessary to regulate activities that intimately influence our daily lives. - The growing complexity of society has led to a need for more rules and regulations to be enforced. ## The Scope of Forensic Science - Forensic science is essential for monitoring and enforcing regulations related to food quality, drugs, pollution, environmental protection, etc. - The alarming increase in crime rates has led to a need for more scientific technology and support from the scientific community by law enforcement agencies. - Science cannot provide definitive solutions to social and psychological problems, but it can play a critical role in the criminal justice system. ## The Definition of Forensic Science - The vast array of civil and criminal laws makes the scope of forensic science very broad. - A more practical definition of forensic science is the application of science to criminal and civil laws enforced by police agencies. - Forensic science encompasses various professions that work together to help law enforcement conduct investigations. ## The American Academy of Forensic Science The following are the eleven sections of the American Academy of Forensic Science, the largest forensic science organization: 1. Criminalistics 2. Digital and Multimedia Sciences 3. Engineering Science 4. General 5. Jurisprudence 6. Odontology 7. Pathology/Biology 8. Physical Anthropology 9. Psychiatry/Behavioral Sciences 10. Questioned Documents 11. Toxicology This list is not exhaustive and does not include disciplines such as fingerprint examination, firearm examination, and photography. ## The Importance of Forensic Science in Criminal Justice - Forensic science plays a crucial role in criminal justice. - The field of forensic science is growing in importance due to the increasing amount of evidence that can be analyzed with the help of science. - The use of forensic science is becoming commonplace in criminal cases, as it helps lawyers to defend their clients and prosecutors to convict the guilty. ## The History and Development of Forensic Science Forensic science has its roots in individuals who developed: - **Principles and techniques:** These principles and techniques are used to identify or compare physical evidence. - **A coherent discipline:** This discipline is used to apply the principles of forensic science to criminal justice systems. - Forensic science has been practiced for centuries. - Early examples of forensic science include: - **The Chinese coroner** used observation of evidence and applied basic scientific principles to solve crimes in the third century. - **The first recorded notes about fingerprint characteristics** were prepared in 1686 by Marcello Malpighi. - **The first scientific paper about the nature of fingerprints** did not appear until the 18th century and did not recognize their potential use as a form of identification. ## Initial Scientific Advances - Physicians began to understand the workings of the body, leading to the publication of scientific treaties on forensic science. - ** François-Emanuel Fodéré's "A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health"** was published in 1798. - **Carl Wilhelm Scheele** developed the first successful test for detecting arsenic in corpses in 1775. - **Valentin Ross** discovered a more precise method for detecting small amounts of arsenic in 1806. - **Mathieu Orfila's "The Toxicological Effects of Poisons"** was published in 1914 and established forensic toxicology as a legitimate scientific endeavor. ## The Rise of Forensic Science in the 19th Century - **The development of the polarizing microscope** in 1828 by William Nichol and **the formulation of the first procedures for microscopic sperm detection** in 1839 by Henri-Louis Bayard furthered the development of forensic science. - **The first microcrystalline test for hemoglobin in 1853** and **the first presumptive test for blood in 1863** also contributed to the advancement of forensic science. - **The first use of toxicological evidence at trial** in 1839 by James Marsh helped to establish the importance of science in criminal justice. - **The introduction of photography** in the 1850s and 1860s allowed investigators to document crime scenes and prisoners. ## The Late 19th Century - Anthropometry, developed by Alphonse Bertillon, was the first system of personal identification. - Bertillon's system involved taking body measurements to distinguish individuals from each other. - Bertillon's anthropometry was replaced by fingerprinting in the early 1900s. - **The first suggestions that fingerprints could be used as a means of identification were made by:** - **Thomas Taylor** in 1883. - **Henry Faulds** in 1886. - **Francis Henry Galton's "Finger Prints"** (published in 1892) provided statistical proof supporting the uniqueness of fingerprints and outlined the basic principles of fingerprint identification. - Hans Gross, a public prosecutor and judge in Graz, Austria, published "Handbuch für Untersuchungsrichter als System der Kriminalistik" (later known as “Criminal Investigation”), the first treatise on the application of scientific disciplines to criminal investigation. ## The "CSI" Effect - The fictional detective Sherlock Holmes, created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, became a popular icon of forensic science, influencing public imagination and popularizing scientific crime-detection methods. - Sherlock Holmes's adventures helped to create a demand for real-life forensic investigators, highlighting the usefulness of the scientific method in criminal justice. - Modern television shows like CSI: Crime Scene Investigation have increased public awareness of the use of science in criminal investigations. - These shows, however, have created unrealistic expectations of forensic science skills within both the public and the legal community. - The overdramatization of crime scene investigations in these shows leads to a phenomenon known as the "CSI Effect," the public's belief that every crime scene will yield forensic evidence and every prosecutor's case should be supported by forensic evidence. - This effect detracts from the search for truth and justice by creating unrealistic expectations and contributing to the "CSI Effect". ## The 20th Century Breakthroughs - Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood can be grouped into different categories in 1901. - Leone Lattes developed a procedure for determining the blood group of a dried bloodstain in 1915. - Albert S. Osborn published "Questioned Documents," the first significant text in document examination, in 1910 and helped establish the acceptance of documents as scientific evidence in court. - Edmond Locard advocated for the use of the scientific method in criminal investigations and persuaded the Lyons police department to create a police laboratory in 1910. - Locard's Exchange Principle states that when two objects come into contact with each other, there is exchange of materials between them. - Locard's work led to the formation of police laboratories in Vienna, Berlin, Sweden, Finland, and Holland. - Walter C. McCrone, a preeminent microscopist, published books and journal articles and served as a tireless advocate for applying microscopy to analytical problems in forensic science. - Calvin Goddard's work with the comparison microscope allowed investigators to determine whether a particular gun has fired a bullet. ## Modern Scientific Advances - The development of computer technology has revolutionized the practice of forensic science. - Procedures such as chromatography, spectrophotometry, and electrophoresis are now commonly used to analyze evidence. - The discovery and refinement of DNA typing (first developed by Alec Jeffreys in 1984) has allowed scientists to determine the identity of a suspect with astounding accuracy. - DNA typing has revolutionized the practice of forensic science. - Computerized databases of physical evidence, such as fingerprints, markings on bullets and shell casings, and DNA, have proven invaluable for law enforcement officials to compare evidence quickly and accurately. ## Conclusion - Forensic science has come a long way since its early beginnings. - The advancement of technology and science has enabled investigators to collect and analyze evidence with greater accuracy and speed. - The role of forensic science in the criminal justice system is becoming increasingly important as technology continues to advance. - The field of forensic science is constantly evolving, and new techniques and methods are being developed all the time.