2024F ENSU-3033-FAO - Aquatic Res Plan & Manage PDF

(2024F) ENSU-3033-FAO - Aquatic Res Plan & Manage Water Basics - Lecture 1 Water on earth - 73% of Earth’s surface - Canada has 7% of the world’s renewable freshwater supply Properties of water - All life depends water - H2O is most abundant molecule in cells - Most che...

(2024F) ENSU-3033-FAO - Aquatic Res Plan & Manage Water Basics - Lecture 1 Water on earth - 73% of Earth’s surface - Canada has 7% of the world’s renewable freshwater supply Properties of water - All life depends water - H2O is most abundant molecule in cells - Most chemical reaction in nature involve molecules dissolved in water - Solution: solutes in a solvent - Solute: dissolved in substance - Solvent: the liquid - Aqueous solution: solvent is water - Water is a good solvent because its polar and able to dissolve many molecules Polar covalent bonds - The unequal distribution of electrons creates a polarity ( i.e difference in charge across the molecule) Hydrogen bonds - The hydrogen atom from one polar molecule is attracted to an electronegative atoms of another polar molecule - Individually these are weak bonds but collectively they can be strong Cohesion - Attraction between particles of the same substance ( why water is attracted to itself) - Results in surface tension ( a measure of the strength of water surface) - Produces surface film on water that allows insects to walk on surface of water Adhesion  - Attraction between two different substances - Water will make hydrogen bonds with other surface such as glass, soil, plant tissues and cotton - Capillary action-water molecules will tow each other along when in a thin glass tube - Transpiration process which plants remove water from the soil High specific heat - Amount of heat needed to raise or lower 1g of a substance 1c - Water resists temp change both for heating and cooling - Water can absorb or release large amounts of heat energy with little change in actual temp High heat vaporization - Amount of energy to convert 1g or a substance from liquid to gas - In order for water to evaporate hydrogen bonds must be broken - As water evaporates it removes a lot of heat with it ( cooling effect) Water in 3 states of matter - Changes in state involve an input or release of energy - Water is very stable in the liquid form - Temp at which a solution freezes or boils is influence by dissolved solutes - Addition of solutes to water: lowers the freezing temp and raises boiling temp Homeostasis - Ability to maintain a steady state despite changing conditions - Water is important to this process because : - Makes a good insulator - Resists temp changes - Universal solvent - Coolant - Ice protects against temp extremes ( insulates frozen lake) Water shapes landscapes  - Weathering: erosion and transport of materials - Water has shaped our landscape - Water can freeze between rocks and spilt due to the ice Water uses - Sustains life - Industrial cooling agent - Power generation - Cultural and religious significance Agriculture - Domestication of plants and animals - Led to irrigation systems - People settled near reliable water sources - Altered water slows Global water resources - evaporation ) - Evaporation over land is driven by ration - Transpiration: the movement of water from the soil to the atmosphere via plants (stomata) Water and energy - Water cycle is linked to global energy budget - Water vapor is a greenhouse gas ( 60% of natural greenhouse effect) - Differences in solar radiation across latitudes drive atmospheric and oceanic circulation - Results in climate and weather Precipitation - All liquid and frozen forms of water mainly rain and snow - Most water evaporating from the ocean is precipitated back to the ocean - Water vapor transported from ocean to land = 40% of precipitation on land - Land - surface evapotranspiration = 60% of precipitation on land Climate variability and change - Water cycle varies spatially and temporally - Extreme weather events can be linked to the breakdown of the normal flow of air pattern - Research shows a human contribution to increases extreme weather events Multi-annual timescales - El Nino southern oscillation affects climate in large parts of the world - Occurs every 3-6 years - Intensity varies - Affect climate and water cycle globally Land management and the water cycle - Direct impacts: damns, water extraction, modifying river channels. Affects seasonal water supply, water temp and freshwater biodiversity - Human water use: use 10-15% of renewable freshwater. 80% of the world pop live in or are exposed to water scarcity - Land use changes: desertification, deforestation, reforestation Climate change - Changes in precipitation pattern and freshwater availability - Seasonal considerations not just annual totals: heavy rainfall in winter will not percolate into the soils. Reduces water available in the coming summer - Increased temp increases the evaporation into the atmosphere: leads to intensification of the hydrological cycle. More intensive rainfall in one area leads to less rainfall elsewhere - Strength of feedback mechanisms leads to uncertainty - Climate model projections: increases in precipitation, more intense rainfall, more droughts, wet regions get wetter, dry regions get drier - Midlatitudes: expect drier summers ( more fires) and wetter winter ( floods) - High latitudes - get wetter - Rain ( runoff) vs snow ( freshwater storage): affects soil moisture and freshwater availability in spring and summer ( crop irrigation) Lecture 3 - surface water hydrology Water movement across the landscape - River basins - topographic areas that collect precipitation and transport runoff and sediments to a common outlet. Think of it as a bowl that is sloped. Once it gets to a high point it drains to other basins - Water budget- measure inputs, outputs and stores. Efficiency at turning precipitation into river flow - Factors that affect water resources and flood risk  - Rate or water delivery - Pathways and speed across and through an area - Climate change - Land management activities Drainage basins aka watershed or catchment - Defined by the upslope topographic area which rains to a single point on a river or lake - Large basins carry small basin within them - First order - one mian stream - Second order- when teo first order streams combine - Third order - when two second order streams combine - And so on Use contour lines to mark basins - All drain down toward main lake - The higher regions make big bowl that goes into lake simcoe Infiltration - excess overland flow - Infiltration - process in which water on the ground enters soil - Affected by: - Topography - Vegetation cover - Soil texture - Soil structure - Soil pore space - Surface compaction - Infiltration rate : volume of water passing into soil per unit area per unit time : determines whether it enter the soil or move over land Saturation - excess overland flow - Water table- the highest point which the soil or rock is saturated - Soil is saturated when water table reach soil surface  - Water can then flow out of the soil and over the soil - Can occur in shallow soils or long after it stops raining Throughflow - water moving through the soil or rocks - Can help maintain river flow during dry periods - Matrix flow - the flow of water that happens in those small pore spaces which is slow - Macropore flow - through larger connected pore spaces such as animal burrows or cracks which is faster - Capillary water ( suction forces) remains against force of gravity ( moves from wet to dry area) - Pore water pressure - when all pore spaces filled with water pressure from the water above - Used to determine water flow on hillsides Soil water energy - Dominant hydrological forces - Matric potential - the soil suction effect is inversely proportional to pore spaces size. Large pore means low suction - The narrower a space the adhesion of water is higher - Submergence potential - positive pore water pressure - Elevational potential - the relative effect of gravity Piezometers vs tensiometers - Measuring conduction or pull - tensiometers - Saturated soils - piezometers Water balance - Main input : precipitation - Main output: river discharge or evaporation and transpiration - Remainder are any changes in water stores - soil, rock, vegetation, rivers or lakes - Hard to estimate - River basin water budgets can have large errors  - A lot of unknowns with the storage values River flow - Supplied by throughflow and overland flow - Chartetics of basin and soils can affect river flow rates - Rainfall events - lots of rain all at once will cause higher rate short term - Seasonally - snow melts so higher rate in spring and lower in winter - Faster flows in first and second order streams and slows down in other orders River regime - seasonal variability in river flow 1. Arid zones - occasional intense rainfall, rapid runoff and high flood peaks 2. Dominate snow and ice melt - major peak in spring , lower in winter, strong daily changes as well 3. Temperate oceanic areas - year rounds rainfall - flow rates change due to changes in seasonal groundwater storage/ releases or higher evaporation/ transpiration rates in summer 4. Equatorial rivers - regular flow regimes, follows seasonal pattern of rainfall Impacts of land management on river flow - Dramatic changes to flow - Dams alter river regimes - Colorado river rarely slow to the gulf of california due to dams and abstraction - Deforestation reduction in transpiration increases flow rates - Agriculture impacts soil infiltration - Grazing cattle increase soil compaction reduce vegetation resulting in reduced infiltration and increases flow rates - Drainage ditches can increase base flows and potentially increasing the flood peak Impacts of land management on river flow - Urban development reduces local infiltration capacity to zero which increases risk of downstream flooding - Sustainable urban drainage systems try to minimize downstream impact on river flow  - More permeable surfaces - Pipes discharge into series of ponds or channels ( drain slowly) - Make space for stormwater - tiny ponds, green roofs - Parks near rivers to catch river overflow ( large soccer fields) Flooding - Natural phenomenon - Brings nutrients to terrestrial soils - Residential areas can be devastated - Fluvial flooding is when heavy rainfall leads to concentrated overland flow inundating an area - Common in urban area due to impermeable surfaces - Coastal flooding - very high tides , storm surges, tsunamis - Peaks used to predict flood rates - 100 year flood maps used by insurance companies and management agencies - Flood risk mapping requires climate models with different scenarios - Floodplains: humans like to live in low lying areas ( fertile soils, near waterways) - Nature based solutions - Develop sponge cities - Blue-corridors along major river to allow for flooding without causing sig damage - Catchment- wide solutions River channel dynamics - Rivers change over time - Typically form branching networks - Shapes depend on topography and geology - River channels also vary in shape: braided, meandering , straight River cross- sections - Cross-sections tend to get larger downstream - more efficient at carrying water - Bankside vegetation cna control shape with roots - Close to banks velocity tend to be slower - River bends cna increases pressure on outer bank  - Helicoidal flow ( corkscrew circulation) - water at the outer banks is faster and causes erosion, water returning to inside bank is slow and sediment gets deposited - Meanders become more exaggerated over time - Eventually they can break off and causes oxbow lakes Sediment transport - Sediment transported suspended = less than 1mm wide the water wash load - Sediment transported along the riverbed = bedload ( salting/hopping) - Finer particles preferentially moved downstream - Larger sizes typically upstream - smaller sizes found downstream - Natural sorting by size Lecture 4 - surface water quality Surface waters - All of these have different flow rates - Sizes and shape of water bodies can affect residence time Surface water sources - Runoff - Groundwater: increases during periods of low flow - Solutes increase - Sediment increases - Amounts depend on pathway - Residence time increases undersurfaces - Water chemistry controlled by: geology,vegetation,hydrological processes  - Surface runoff (overland flow) = dilute solutes - Throughflow = medium solutes - Groundwater flow ( concentrated solutes) Waste disposal - Conflicts with drinking water usage - Majority of surface water is polluted - 80% municipal and industrial wastewaters are released without treatment - Impacts to human health and environment - Main areas are high pop density and area of economic growth - Predicted to continue to increase Dissolved inorganic substances - Minerals typically in form of ions or colloids which are more complex ions - Some are highly soluble - Other attach to suspended sediments - TDS ( total dissolved solids is the sum of all dissolved solutes+ silica - Form of elements and oxidation state affects the solubility of toxicity of an element - Some elements can become more toxic when released in water - Combinations of different minerals also cna become a issue Hydrogen ions (h+) - Larger changes in pH will kill organisms - Most between 6.5-9.0 - Stress occurs when out of normal range for water body - Metals are more soluble at low pH and therefore more toxic Suspended sediment - Soil particles, algae, plankton, microbes - Sources: soil erosion, water discharge, runoff - Lakes: decaying matter and bottom feeding fish control suspended sediments  - Consequences: block sunlight, reduce photosynthesis, lower DO, temp increases, increases turbidity ( refers to clarity and how much light can travel through water ), clogs gills in fish Dissolved gasses - O2 and CO2 - DO used as health indicator because is you have no oxygen you don't have life in water - Ranges between 0 and 18 mgL - For fish you need higher then 9 and less than 5 the fish are stressed - 1-2 kills fish within hours - Concentration of dissolved gasses increases with pressure and decreases with temp: has seasonal and daily cycle Organic substances - Carbon based compounds - DOM = dissolved organic matter - DOC = dissolved organic carbon - Part of the carbon cycle and primary food source of aquatic food webs - Increases with wastewater discharge , livestock farming, urbanization Temperature - Major influences on biological activity - Organisms have preferred temp ranges - Mortality Increases outside of these ranges - Stratification alternates with vertical mixing - Changes in concentration of where metals are found can impact abstraction uses - Sometimes changes in water are normal - Lakes have hot and cold areas like the ocean - Eplimion - Thermocline - Hypolimnion - This normal stratification occurs in temperate lakes - Dissolved oxygen is higher at surface due to wind, movement, photosynthesis - Temperic lakes it flips an in winter Trophic status - Phosphorus, chlorophyll and transparency - Eutrophication is the process by which waters become enriched with nutrients ( phosphorus in freshwaters and nitrogen in marine waters) - Disturbs the ecological balance of production between aquatic macrophytes and phytoplankton, shifting systems to the eutrophic end of the spectrum - Can occur naturally but it is widely augmented by human activities - Oligotrophic does have many nutrients and very little plant growth - Mesotrophic lakes are somewhere in the middle - Eutrophic you get regular algal blooms - Low nutrient status to high nutrient status is natural but we quicken it Temporal variations in surface water chemistry - They change temporally so over time - They change spitally as well in larger water bodies - During storms as a result of changes in hydrological flow paths delivering different sources and amounts of solutes - Diurnal ( 24 hour) variation in for ex. pH and dissolved oxygen, resulting from biological processes and changes in daylight - Seasonal variations associated with biological and hydrological cycles - Year-to-year usually as a result of anthropogenic activities in the catchment Lecture 5 - groundwater Groundwater - 22% of the worlds pop rely solely on groundwater - 10% global consumption unsustainable - 10% of global food supply based on unsustainable groundwater consumption Key Aquifer properties - Porosity:percentage volume occupied by voids - Permeability:measures the transmission property of the media and interconnection of the pores - Good aquifer = high porosity + high permeability - Sand and gravel, sandstone, limestone, fractured rock, basalat - Confining bed, aquitard : impermeable unit forming a barrier to groundwater flow ex. Granite,shale, clay Recharge and discharge to groundwater - Recharge - addition of water ex.precipitation,surface runoff, standing water bodies - Flows down topographic gradients - Can intercept ground surfaces ex springs, seeps, contribute to stream baseflow Rainfall recharge should it stay or go? - The properties of the ground surface for ex. Its porosity void space and permeability - Rainfall intensity and duration: the more intense the rainfall the more likely it'll exceed the infiltration capacity of the ground. In tropical regions heavy downpours will have surface overland flow - Gradient Of the ground: steeper ground will encourage greater overland, flat is better infiltration - Vegetative cover: influences infiltration because plant roots create small flow pathways into groin and less rainfall may reach the ground since it is intercepted by plants Groundwater steam interactions - Differences between groundwater and stream level determine direction of flow - Gaining stream -groundwater contributes to stream flow - water table is higher than stream bed - Losing stream - water from stream will recharge groundwater - water table is lower than stream bed Groundwater management - Groundwater catchments are defined area where the in and outflows of water are specified - Surface water catchments can vary from groundwater catchments due to geologic differences underground - Conduct a water balance evaluation - Change in volume of groundwater storage over a year - Management: lineases groundwater abstraction, integrated catchment management, abstraction of groundwater typically had environmental consequences, need to decide if environmental consequences of changes are acceptable Groundwater resources of the world - Groundwater is very heterogeneous in its distribution - Geological conditions and climate affect regional groundwater supplies - Many believe that better groundwater management can resolve many of the water shortages - Certain areas may not have accesses and means to dig a hole and put a pump on it - If there are more limits to how its used and it's more equitable maybe some issues would be resolved Aquifers - Aquifer: refers to a geological stratum which contains water and which allows the movement of water within it - Porous - Permeable Confined and unconfined aquifers - Well A: unconfined - Drilled in the permeable formation the water will rise to the level of the water table and keep refilling ex. Sand or sandstone - Well B : confined - Drilled through low permeability confining layer ex silt and sandstone into the aquifer beneath the water will rise to a greater elevation than the top of the aquifer because this layer contains water under pressure - The water in well B rises towards a piezometric surface this is an imaginary surface determined by the pressure in the aquifer - Well C : artesian well - Because the piezometric surface at well C is above the ground surface , water from this well would overflow naturally Elmvale artesian well - Some of the purest groundwater - free! Sedimentary , igneous and metamorphic rock aquifers  - Sedimentary rocks made the best aquifers ( more pore space) - Igneous and metamorphic rocks usually poor aquifers ( less poor space) - Weathering may increase porosity over time - Tectonic activity can also create fractures for water to travel Groundwater flow principles - Hydraulic head : the fluid potential of groundwater is the elevation to which water will rise ina well ( total energy) - Water flow from high hydraulic head to low hydraulic head - Darcy's law: calculates amount of flow through sand - Darcy's law can be used to predict the drop in level of the water table due to pumping from a well or system of wells Groundwater flow models - Hydrological maps - groundwater flow models - Predict the effects of changing stressors - Recharge rates, pumping rates, river stages - Changes in water levels = changes in storage amounts in aquifers Aquatic ecosystems Ecological concepts community and ecosystem - Defined as the assemblage of interacting living organisms within a location - Adjacent communities may interact terrestrial predators on aquatic critters - The ecosystem may be defined as the biotic and abiotic components which they interact The niche - Terms for the position of species within an ecosystem describing both the range of conditions necessary for persistence of the species and its ecological role in the ecosystem  - Important dimension of the ecological niche for aquatic organisms include temperature, dissolved oxygen, habitat,structure, predation and plant nutrients Biological diversity - Genetic: basis for evolution and adaptation - Species diversity: species richness (S) count of the # of species in an area - Alpha diversity: diversity of species within a given community a single location - Beta diversity: refers to the change in species diversity across habitats or ecosystems - Gamma diversity: refers to the diversity at large geographical scales - Ecosystem diversity: emcompassess the variety of diffrent ecosystem types within a given area Role of biodiversity n eocystsem function - Ecological functioning: the processes by which biological and non-biological elements of an ecosystem interact to generate change - Ecosystem function is now being used as a measure of ecosystem health - Disrupting ecological functioning : human exploitation can affect a single organism but will affect the entire ecosystem due to connectivity Rivers and streams - Lotic systems : flowing waters - Highly variable characteristics so examined at different levels - Whole catchment - River reaches - Segments - patches/microhabitats Lakes - Lentic: still or standing water - Littoral zone: upper part of the water body receives abundant sunlight - Pelagic photic zone: area in the upper part of the water body that receives sunlight but is open water away from the shoreline - Profundal zone: lower and deep open water away from shoreline  - Benthic zone:area at the bottom of the lake at the water/ substrate interface Life in aquatic ecosystems - usually high biodiversity - Amphibians, mammals, birds, macrophy and algae - Organisms grouped by trophic role - Producers - Consumer - Detritivores - Parasites Sources of organic matter - Autochthonous: resources originating within the aquatic ecosystem and provide energy directly into the food web - Allochthonous: resources organizing from the adjacent terrestrial ecosystems Primary producers - Photosynthesis - Rivers- macrophytes: slow water flow increase sediment deposition, algae: influenced by light and water chemistry, temp, herbivores - Lakes: macrophytes in littoral zone - Aquatic algae - Phytoplank On sources of more primary production Consumers - Heterophonic - Herbivory - Frugivory - Detrivore - Carnivory - Parasitism - Process organic matter  - Link energy and biomass from primary producers or terrestrial inputs Food webs - Complexity makes predictions to environmental change difficult - Number of species and biomass decreases with food web height: ieffecentiesinenegry transfer between trophic levels - Food webs vary in space and time - Terrestrial ecosystem feeds aquatic ecosystems Community respiration - The biological process in which organic matter is used by organisms in the presence of DO to provide energy for metabolism, growth and reproduction - Includes plants and animals - Measuring primary production - CR measured from DO taken daily Nutrient spiraling - Differs from nutrient cycling due to downstream flow of water - Measures nutrient flow from dissolved - particulate - consumer - return to water column - Indicates bioavailability of nutrients within ecosystems Nitrogen - Needed by all organisms - Nitrogen limits primary productivity in many ecosystems - Availability depends on microorganisms Phosphorus - One of the most common essential elements on earth - Essential The chemical processes of plants and animals - Supply is limited 130 years remaining - Main users of P is plants and algae - Main source for plants is sediments  - Plant decomposition releases some P into the water and the rest into sediments Stratification hinders nutrient cycling - Vertical mixing of water - Energy input and wind - Turbulent mixing in shallow water and upwelling along coasts - Thermocline - Density and temp Estuaries and salt marshes - High productivity - Due to plentiful supplies of nutrients - Inputs from rovers and tidal flow integrated within ecosystem Fertilization and eutrophication - Over Fertilization - Runoff - Eutrophication: overproduction of organism matter within a lake or river - Consequences: can lead imbalance when decomposers of the excess organic matter consume O2 Faster than it can be regenerated by photosynthesis + O2 depletion Hypoxic zones in estuaries shallow marine ecosystems - Hypoxia : the depletion ofO2to the extent that aquatic organisms can no longer survive - Defined as : < 2mg O2/liter of water ( normal >10) - Reason: high nutrient concentration Nutrients limit production in the oceans - Production in the open ocean is typically low - Lack of nutrients - Temp and climate factors also influence productivity Invasive Species - Can affect trophic interactions: introduce competition, change interaction effect sizes - Ecosystem engineers: pop doubles in 12 days, deprives native plants of space, sunlight, oxygen ,impeds water flow, reduces biodiversity Lecture 7 - Water and health The nature of pollution - Pollution : a substance that causes environmental degradation from a human perspective - The solution to pollution is dilution - dump into the ocean who cares - Two issues with dumping waste into environment: the amount is so much now that the environment can deal with it, new products that are not biodegradable - 1972, congress enacted the marine protection, research and sanctuaries Act, sometimes referred to as the ocean dumping act - Before 1972, attitude that oceans had unlimited capacity to hold wastes, pacific ocean 55,000 container of radioactive waste dumped and 34,000 containers into atlantic ocean Types of pollutants 1. Biodegradable materials : sewage, agriculture products, these will go through microbial breakdown and go away 2. Non-biodegradable material: remain unaltered 3. Nutrients 4. Energy: heated water - add warm water into to naturally warm water alters ecosystems Point sources and diffuse discharges - Point source - single location : sewage outflow  - Diffuse discharge : no clearly identifiable location , acid raid when is occurs the source of it is usually downwind, fertilizer from farmland Effects of pollution - Toxic - have a direct effect on aquatic critter metabolism - Indirect effects: alter the physical habitat or chemical habitat through the addition of pollutants - Sensitive species are removed , tolerant ones move in - Ecological shifts: in areas of continuous pollution, tolerant species stay and ecosystems changes, alternate stable state - Intermittent pollution causes the most damage to environment: sensitive species removed/affected but not enough for tolerant one to move in , community processes are disrupted Biodegradable wastes - Human waste - pumping into water bodies for very long time - Water in pipes dilute waste and allow for it to be moved away - Todays waste includes gray water from cooking and cleaning, industrial discharge Direct effects of sewage - Changes the physical environment: if the water is sessile it'll covers organism, clouds water, promotes bacterial growth - Oxygen concentration goes down - Biological oxygen demand : amount of O2 consumed by bacteria - As towns grow the effluent does not have time to neutralize before the next town starts Ecological effects of sewage discharge - At the outfall: increased BOD, suspended solids, nutrients and salts - Lowered O2 decreases sensitive species - Change in species composition - Biofilms of bacteria and protist - Spread diseases - Water can clean itself unless too much input Oil - Half of the world's oil production is transported by seas - 3 billion - 30% of oil is from natural seeps in bottom of ocean floor - Mian destinations are the US, Europe and eastern Asia - Natural seeps account for 30% of fossil hydrocarbons into the sea - Many transportation inputs come from accidents - It will break down naturally but very slowly - Where the input of the oil is location shows how it'll behave - Which way the tide , current and winds effects where the oil goes - The oil will also weather and lots of things happen to it - In middle of ocean probably won't have large ecological impacts but closer to shore it'll have huge impacts - Acute impacts : oil spill and if critters ingest it'll make them sick Biological effects of oil - Direct toxic effects of ingestion - Can taint fish caught nearby spills - Sea birds can become oiled - Shorelines vary in sensitivity - Fish and marine can move out of the area - Smothered areas result in complete loss of fauna - Nearshore species can be negatively impacted if they cannot move - Can shift to alternative states before gradually returning to pre-spill state Deep water horizon oil spill - Gulf of Mexico 2010 - 134 million gallons - 1300 miles of shoreline  - 167000 sea turtles killed - >8 billion oysters died - 50% decline in dolphin pop in barataria bay, LA Nutrients - Can be limiting factors to plant and algae growth : phosphate ( frsh) and nitrate 9 marine) - Eutrophication - Sewage - Fertilizer - Algae respond rapidly - Decompose and remove oxygen - anoxia Accumulating toxic wastes - Resistant to breakdown - conservative pollutants - Heavy metals - PCBs, radioactive discharges,solid waste - Builds in tissues if not metabolized bioaccumulation - Biomagnification - accumulates by eating pollutant enriched sources Pesticides, PCBs and CHCs - Pesticides can be toxic: cause fish kills, nearly impossible to remove from groundwater - Chlorinated hydrocarbons: DDT, long-term subacute effects, very fat soluble - PCBs- polychlorinated bi-phenyls, flame retardants: may cause sterility in some seal populations - Forever chemicals Endocrine disruptors  - Chemicals that mimic and disrupt hormone mediated process - Estrogen - exposure during developments can lead to female characterics - feminization - Declining fertility rates in fish, birds and mammals Inert solids - Physically affect the environment - Natural particles from geological processes - Sediments from agriculture - TSS ( total suspended solids) increase - Sometimes water treatment doesn't get all these particles out - The concern is for smaller particles is that those particles that have chemical properties that may allow viruses and bacteria to bond to them easier - Inert solids behave like normal suspended soils like clouding water Microplastics and nanoplastics - Now a global contaminate - Sources: waste disposal, fibers released from washing clothes, soaps etc - Plastic can cross the gut barrier into tissues - Impacts on animals and human health are still being studied Mine wastes - TSS - Toxic metals - In the US 100km of streams buried in waste material - Decreases biodiversity and abundance - Loss of spawning grounds - Bioaccumulation - Downstream of many mining sites we see waste material Acidification - freshwater - Atmospheric deposition of acids exceeds the buffering capacity of the water - Most closely associated downwind of industrial activity - Lower pH has physiological effects on aquatic organisms - Aluminum is toxic to many aquatic organisms and high concentrations releases it into the environment - Fish and bivalves are sensitive Marine acidification - Increases uptake of CO2 in the ocean - Impacts of calcifying organism - There has been a 30% increases in ocean acid concentration since pre-industrial times - Serious loss to corals - Shellfish pop will decline and may not recover - Buffer system so they can go back and forth - But we have high co2 levels and pushing out hydrogen ions 4 categories of infectious diseases - Waterborne disease: infections spread by water  - Water washed diseases: infections spread by lack of water ( for personal hygiene) and unsanitary conditions - Water based diseases : infections transmitted by aquatic invertebrates - Vector based water related diseases: infections spread by insects that need water to compete their life cycle World wide - Water related infections are main causes of death from pathogenic infections worldwide - Most pathogens also affect a wide number of mammals including cattle and sheep - Disease outbreaks can have important consequences for the livelihoods of farming communities particles in non-industrialized countries - Livestock can be source of contamination particularly in rural areas where surface water runoff to drinking water sources can be contaminated Water borne disease - Cholera : occur after natural disasters, spread through fecal contamination of drinking water - E Coli: used as a water quality indicator for fecal contamination - Norovirus - Polio - Hep A and E Water - washed disease - Many waterborne can also be water-washed - Human to human contact - Adequate water supplies to support good hygiene : wash hands, clean clothes - Airborne diseases ( flu), bacterial ( leprosy), parasitic ( scabies) - Trachoma ( blindness after infection) - Insects ( fleas, bubonic plague) Water - based diseases  - Flukes or trematodes - Schistosomiasis: chronic illness - Fish tapeworm - When organisms have life cycle tied to aquatic life - Organism can burrow into skin and go into blood and liver and og into intestine to mate and you will release eggs Water-vector disease - Diseases vectors need water to complete their life cycle - mosquito/malaria - Human altered water bodies such as irrigation canals can cause outbreaks - Mosquitos / lymphatic filariasis - Zika virus Natural disasters - Affect water quality and quantity - Increases disease , deaths - Flooding - Hurricanes - Droughts - Wash everything into the water and add pollutants Cleaning up pollution - Reduction - make sure it doesn't get discharged - Buffer strips for sediments - help catch sediments and not make them suspended solids - No dumping of biological material within 12 miles of shore - Don't let livestock stand in the rivers/streams - Treat sewage before releasing it , dispose of sludge in landfills - Treat sewage before releasing , dispose of sludge in landfills - Biological cleaning - construct wetlands BPEO - best practicable environmental option - Some waste will always need to be disposed of  - Make the best decision based on the total environment impact - Not always cost effective - BATNEEC : the best available technology not entailing excessive costs - Sewage treatment is driven by cost Midterm