2024 ENEL2ENH2 Environmental Engineering Student Handout PDF

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC & COMPUTER ENGINEERING 2024 ENEL2ENH2 Environmental Engineering Prepared by: Dr. Troy Govender Pr. Sci. Nat./C.P.R.P. Environmental Engineering UKZN July 2024 1 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © TABLE OF CONTENTS COURSE OUTLINE 3 SECTION A: Sustainability Science 7 Module 1: Environmental Challenges for Business 7 Module 2: Sustainable Development 11 Module 3: Environmental Problems (Global, national, local) 17 SECTION B: A Climate of Change 26 Module 4: Climate Change 26 Tutorial 1: “Power Surge – Climate Change” Part 2 45 Module 5: Carbon Footprint Calculations 47 SECTION C: Sustainability Tools 49 Module 6: Environmental Legislation 49 Module 7: Environmental Assessments (EAs) 66 Module 8: Environmental Management Plans (EMPrs) 70 Module 9: Environmental Management System (EMS)/ISO14001 75 SECTION D: Business and the Environment 84 Module 10: Sustainable Finance and the Equator Principles 84 Module 11: Environmental impacts of an electricity utility 90 Compulsory Readings 95 a) Compulsory Reading 1 (Moodle): “As the world burns...” Charleen Clarke, SHEQ Management, May/June 2016. b) Compulsory Reading 2: “CODE RED FOR HUMANITY. United Nations, 2021 c) Compulsory Reading 3: Case Study: Utilities seek to save birds from power lines (and vice versa), Kari Lydersen, 03/11/2014. d) Compulsory Reading 4: Environmental Capacity Building (training and awareness) e) Africa 2063 Agenda CONCLUDING THOUGHTS 104 REFERENCES 105 2 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © COURSE OUTLINE Course Name: Environmental Engineering (20L-5T-0P-40H-10R-0F-0G-5A-13W-8C) Course code: ENEL2EN H2 Course Background and Purpose This module introduces the idea that environmental, social and ethical issues are no longer peripheral to mainstream engineering but that they should be incorporated into core strategic planning and integrated into all engineering aspects, to minimise risks and leverage competitive advantage. The purpose of the course is to: provide an introduction to Environmental Engineering concepts; teach and educate engineering students various key environmental issues; make engineering students aware of the importance of sustainable development; demonstrate to engineers how to successfully manage engineering activities that have the potential to negatively impact on the natural environment. Course Outcomes Assessment Criteria: 1. Impacts on the physical environment 2. environmental and sustainability, and impact of engineering activity. To assess the competency in the above four components of the outcome, the student has to complete and pass the two assignments and the course at the end of the semester. Questions related to these four components are included in the two assignments and the two tests. At the end of the course, students will be able to: Engage in critical debates associated with sustainable development at local, national and international levels; Critically consider drivers and trends in environmental management at local, national and international levels, including the recent developments in the climate change agenda; Understand the concept of ‘sustainable development’ and the need for it; Monitor the environment; Understand environmental legislation in the SA; Incorporate appropriate environmental management strategies into projects; Analyse and implementing various environmental management strategies and tools, such as Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs); 3 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Understand what an Environmental Management System (EMS) based on ISO 14001 (2015) standard is and the implementation of this standard for business; Appreciate the environment they are going to operate in as engineers. ENEL2EN covers Exit-level Outcome 7 (ELO7): Sustainability and impact of engineering activity which requires a student in this course to demonstrate critical awareness of the sustainability and impact of engineering activity on the social, industrial and physical environment. Range Statement: The combination of social, workplace (industrial) and physical environmental factors must be appropriate to the discipline or other designation of the qualification. Comprehension of the role of engineering in society and identified issues in engineering practice in the discipline: health, safety and environmental protection; risk assessment and management and the impacts of engineering activity: economic, social, cultural, environmental and sustainability. It is important to note that you are required to complete and pass Assignment 01 and 02 to achieve ELO 7. If you fail the ELO 7, you will fail the course regardless of other marks achieved in this course. Course Assessment Final Course Mark: 75% (Nov. Exam) + 25% (Semester Mark) Semester Assessment Mark: 10% (Assignment 01) + 20% (Test 1) + 35% (Test 2) + 35% (Assignment 2) Student MUST pass Assignment 02 AND obtain an average of 50% in the Semester Assessment Mark to write the November 2024 examination for ENEL2ENH2. CONTINUAL ASSESSMENT Assignment 01 Complete the MCQs on the SDGs, Africa 2063 Agenda and NDP2030 on Learn. Due date: 21h00, Friday, 16 August 2024 Compulsory Assignment 02 Download assignment from Learn, complete and hand deliver during the lecture. Due date: 13h00, Thursday, 17 October 2024 4 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Course Presenter Dr Troy Poobalan Govender is an Environmental Scientist and a Chartered Public Relations Practitioner by profession. He holds a Phd in Climate Change and Business, a Masters’ Degree in Environmental Management, a Bachelor of Science degree in Natural Science and a Bachelor of Technology degree in Public Relations Management and Communications. He is currently an Independent Sustainability and Environmental Scientist. He was previously employed as the Manager, Environmental Management for Eskom, Distribution Division for 30 years. Dr Govender was also the Special External Advisor in the Communications and Public Information Division of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) from 1997 to 2010. In this capacity, he undertook 35 international missions for the UNEP. He is one of the contributing authors to the UNEP 2002 Global Environment Outlook 3 (GEO3) and African Environmental Outlook (AEO) reports, as well as the Youth version of the AEO. He was also the editorial co-ordinator for the “Imvelo Yethu: The Youth version of the South Africa Environment Outlook 2006 (YSoER)”. Dr Govender has also been engaged by the World Bank on four Climate Change projects from 2008 to 2011 in S.E. Asia. Dr Govender lectures (part-time), the Environmental Engineering course in the undergraduate and postgraduate Engineering programme at the University of KwaZulu-Natal since 1999, and was a guest lecturer for two years, at the Rhodes University Investec Business School, “Leadership for Sustainability” for the MBA Programme. Former Council member (2011 - 2021) of the South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions (SACNASP), appointed by the Minister of Science and Technology, the Chairperson of SACNASP’s Professional Advisory Committee for Environmental Science and the Professional Conduct (Ethics) Committee, and serves on various other subcommittees of SACNASP. Dr Govender was appointed by the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries onto the SA National Forests Advisory Council and the Committee for Sustainable Forest Management (2018 – 2021). Since March 2022, he was appointed onto the UNESCO SA Natural Science Sector Committee by Minister of Higher Education for a 4-year term from 2022 to 2025. On 01 July 2023, he was appointed to the Agricultural Research Council by the Minister of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development for a 3-year term. Deputy chair of the Research, Development and Evaluation Committee of the ARC. 5 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Contact details E-mail: [email protected] Teaching and Learning Approach (a) Formal lectures will be presented in English, to cover the material of the course. However, due to time constraints, not all the modules will be covered in the lectures; students are required to study, on their own, those modules not covered/completed during lectures. (b) Tutorials will be in the form of compulsory environmental DVDs. (c) Students will have to complete two compulsory assignments during the semester. (d) Two one-hour tests will be conducted during the semester. (e) Final course completion will be 2 hours examination (75%) + semester assessment (25%). Prescribed Text/Reading 1. A student hand-out (notes) and additional reading will be uploaded on Learn for all students. 2. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 3. The Africa 2063 Agenda 4. The National Development Plan (NDP) 2030 Recommended Reading (a) Clarke, J & Holt-Biddle, D. Coming Back to Earth, South Africa’s Changing Environment. (b) Miller (Jr.),T.G.: Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions. 17th edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company. (c) RSA: National Environmental Management Act (Act 107 of 1998) (d) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Sources of GHGs and Climate Change Impacts Available at: http://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ (e) Current media articles on environmental issues (f) Environmental section of company annual reports. 6 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © SECTION A: SUSTAINABILITY SCIENCE Module 1: Environmental Challenges for Business 1. Some thoughts “No longer is the environment the concern of a few specialist industries, but it now shapes the future of the world. Whilst the need to consider environmental issues is accepted, now is the time to convert this into positive action.” Duncan Matthews, NatWest Technology Unit “Industry has a real contribution to make to help this process (environmental well-being and economic development) by giving greater focus to environmental education and training initiatives.” Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 2. The World at a Glance 2.1 Demographic and social change (a) Consumption power of growing population; (b) Innovative potential of a diverse workforce; (c) Global mobility – more diverse world; (d) Rising life expectancy and declining birth rates drives dependency upwards. 2.2 Shift in global economic power (a) Purchasing power of emerging economies, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia and Turkey – will overtake that of the G7 by 2030; (b) Significant changes in consumption patterns; (c) China’s growth will represent nearly 60% of global infrastructure spending by 2025; (d) Emerging markets will challenge developed economies in the production of high- end consumer durables. 2.3 Rapid urbanisation (a) In 1800, 2% of the world’s population lived in cities; in 2015 50% lived in cities; (b) Every week 1.5 million people join the urban population, through a combination of migration and childbirth; (c) Pressure on cities’ infrastructure, environment and social fabric; (d) Cities occupy 0.5% of the world’s surface, but consume 75% of its resources; (e) Focus on keeping cities growing and liveable in a sustainable manner. 7 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © 2.4 Climate change and resource scarcity (a) demand for energy, food and water will rise; (b) Planet’s natural resources to satisfy demand are finite/limited; (c) Two scenarios: either a global agreement that severely penalises carbon emissions; or a climate or resource shock, where a natural event causes massive environmental and economic damage; (d) Governments’ response likely to be unpredictable, inconsistent and reactive; (e) Businesses must take the lead in mitigating environmental damage and tackling climate and resource challenges, while simultaneously striving to make their organisations more agile and resilient. (f) Important area of focus for businesses worldwide is understanding, measuring and reporting on the environmental and social impacts of the decisions and actions they take. 2.5 The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) The First Industrial Revolution used water and steam power to mechanize production. The Second used electric power to create mass production. The Third used electronics and information technology to automate production. Now a Fourth Industrial Revolution is building on the Third, the digital revolution that has been occurring since the middle of the last century. It is characterized by a fusion of technologies that is blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and biological spheres. (a) Price of new technologies is falling rapidly; (b) Digitisation via the internet has created extraordinary value, as exemplified by Google. (c) Social media is steadily strengthening its position as a dominant force in the day- to-day lives of people across the globe, enabling many of the world’s top brands to capitalise on it to deepen their relationships with customers. (d) breakthroughs in technologies, e.g. artificial intelligence (AI), agricultural drones, ‘neuromorphic’ chips configured like human brains, 3D printing, agile robots that can walk or even run across uneven terrain, ultra-accurate, big data-enabled weather forecasts that will boost the contribution from renewable energy, and genome editing that will help tackle previously baffling brain disorders. 2.6 Population and Poverty (a) World population – 8.124 billion BUT 9.2% (700 million) live in poverty! 8 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © (b) Africa’s population – 1.427 billion (2022), BUT 60% (856 m) live in poverty (c) South Africa’s population – 60.42 (2023) BUT 55.5% (33.5 m) live in poverty 3. What do mean by the term, “Environment”? ENVIRONMENT means: the surroundings within which humans exist and that are made up of: (a) The land, water and atmosphere of the earth; (b) Micro-organisms, plant and animal life; (c) Any part or combination of (1) and (2) and the interrelationships among and between them; and (d) The physical, chemical, aesthetic and cultural properties and conditions of the foregoing that influence human health and well-being. 4. What then is environmental management in a business/industry context? Environmental management is not about the management of the environment by an environmentalist, but rather about the organisation controlling its activities that have or could have a negative impact on the environment. 5. Environmental Rights According to the S.A. Constitution (Act 108 of 1996) Chapter 2, Section 24: “everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to his or her health or well-being and to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative measures that: (a) Prevent pollution and ecological degradation; (b) Promote conservation; and (c) Secure ecological sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development”. 6. Why Care for the environment (a) Great number of environmental problems/impacts on the planet (global warming, ozone depletion, desertification, waste, pollution, over- population, destruction of forests, killing of animals, over-fishing, hazardous chemicals, water scarcity, erosion, litter, etc.). (b) Strong link between poverty and the environment 9 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © The poor suffer the most in highly degraded environments; damaged environments mean less natural resources for poor people; environmental care is a low priority for poor people, due to other life threatening needs, such as food, shelter and clothing. (c) Health issues are related to and are influenced by the environment Quality of the environment impacts on the health of a nation (and its ability to manage diseases and epidemics). (d) Moral obligation (ethical reasons) Mankind has caused the much of destruction through development and greed, and is therefore obliged to do something positive for the environment. 7. Why does business/industry have to get involved in environmental issues or what factors motivate good corporate governance in business? (a) public pressure, e.g. consumer pressure, lobbying, influencing, voting, etc. (b) new standards and legislation, e.g. Constitution, NEMA, etc. (c) new business opportunities, e.g. attracting and retaining customers, reducing, re- using and recycling materials, consultancies, etc. (d) reduction of risk, e.g. financial, legal, ecological and reputational (publicity) (e) ethical considerations, viz. humans have caused all the environmental damage, humans must not be the source of the solutions 8. The three main challenges for environmental management in industry are to: (a) make business more effective and its environmental impact more acceptable; (b) identify and realise potential for environmental good practice; (c) change management practice to address the new challenges. 9. Global Trends in Environmental Management (a) Technological (east - Eastern Tigers, e.g. China, India, Korea, Taiwan) (b) Command and control (west – USA, Singapore) (c) Self-regulation (north – Europe, e.g. Sweden, Canada, Norway) (d) Muddling along (south – Africa, e.g. Zimbabwe, Kenya, South Africa) 10 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © 10. The Way Forward (a) Trust + Control = k where k = good environmental performance Trust: honesty, transparency, disclosure Control: laws, policies, directives, instructions, job compacts High trust requires low controls and vice versa; High trust is much more desirable than high controls; If trust is lacking, high controls will be required. (b) Risk = Hazards + Outrage Risk: financial, legal, environmental and publicity risks Hazards: environmental damage (hazardous substance spills, indigenous/protected trees cut, air, land and water pollution, etc.) Outrage: media, community, government, NGO response, anger, dissatisfaction A company’s risk is directly proportional to the sum of its hazards and outrage Outrage can be managed through better relations with communities and all stakeholders. (c) Most companies now focus on the triple bottom-line (prosperity, people, planet) (d) Sense of community: “Sense of community is a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together (McMillan, 1976). 11 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Module 2: Sustainable Development 1. Introduction The need for a co-ordinated effort between governments and industry to practice sustainability and environmental awareness increases has increased significantly in the past two decades. The constant aim must be to encourage the main actors to co-operate in a manner that not just encourages sustainability but makes it economically viable. The current buzzwords in environmental debates are “sustainability” or “sustainable development”. What exactly do these terms mean? Simply put, it means, living in the environment and using resources that do not compromise their use in the future. 2. Some definitions 2.1 Biodiversity (biological diversity) The variety of different living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the variety of different ecosystems that they form. This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems, and the genetic variability of each species. 2.2 Renewable Resources Natural resources that have the capacity to be naturally replenished despite being harvested (e.g. forests, fish). The supply of natural resources can, in theory, never be exhausted, usually because it is continuously produced. 2.3 Non-renewable resources Natural resources that are not naturally replenished once they have been harvested. Non-renewable resources can be used up completely or else used up to such a degree that it is economically impractical to obtain any more of them, e.g. fossil fuels, metal ores. 2.4 Carrying capacity (K) Maximum population of a particular species that a given habitat can support over a given period of time. 2.5 Circular Economy A new production and consumption approach that is increasingly adopted in many countries, including SA to share, lease, re-use, repair, refurbish and 12 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © recycle existing materials and products as long as possible. Not only does this have great environmental benefits, it is an important contributor to the economy as it greats jobs, is an additional resource for new products, reduces waste disposal costs and the need to create more costly landfill sites for waste disposal. One of the key tools used in the circular economy is management of waste using the waste hierarchy approach which is described as follows: (Source: TRANSTECH: Technology for the Environment, June 2022) 2.6 Just Energy Transition (JET) “A just energy transition is all about defunding fossil fuels in a way that reduces inequality, shifting the costs of climate action onto wealthy polluters while prioritizing economic, racial, and gender justice.” (Katie Constantine, December 2023) Adopting the JET approach means gradually moving away from fossil fuels to clean energy, but at the same time ensuring that there is no negative impact on jobs, livelihoods and communities, e.g. will all workers in coal mines and fossil fuel power stations lose their jobs as SA moves towards cleaner technologies, or will only the big businesses and the rich benefit from investments in renewable energy? 3. Sustainable Development The concept of sustainability relates to the maintenance and enhancement of environmental, social and economic resources, in order to meet the needs of current and future generations. Sustainable development is integral to Intergenerational equity, Intergenerational equity and carrying capacity. 13 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © The three components of sustainability are: (a) Environmental sustainability (Planet): this requires that natural capital remains intact. This means that the source and sink functions of the environment should not be degraded. Therefore, the extraction of renewable resources should not exceed the rate at which they are renewed, and the absorptive capacity to the environment to assimilate wastes should not be exceeded. Furthermore, the extraction of non-renewable resources should be minimised and should not exceed agreed minimum strategic levels. (b) Social sustainability (People): this requires that the cohesion of society and its ability to work towards common goals be maintained. Individual needs, such as those for health and well-being, nutrition, shelter, education and cultural expression should be met. (c) Economic sustainability (Prosperity): this occurs when development, which moves towards social and environmental sustainability, is financially feasible. (Source: Gilbert, Stevenson, Girardet, Stren,1996). Sustainable development also means that: (a) human-created capital such as roads, schools, historic buildings (b) human capital such as knowledge and skills, and (c) natural/environmental capital such as clean air, fresh water, rainforests, the ozone layer and biological diversity are available to future generations. It is therefore, important that environmentally harmful developments are managed as carefully as possible. It is important to realise that, even if such developments are closed down (which, in extreme cases, they sometimes are); they can still leave residual environmental problems for decades to come. 4. Sustainable Development Tools Some of the tools currently in to in the pursuit of sustainability include: Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), Environmental Management Programmes (EMPrs), Environmental Education, Environmental Law, Environmental Management System (EMS/ISO14001), Local Agenda 21 (LA21), Cost-benefit analysis (CBA), Ecological Footprints (EF), Environmental Risk Assessments (ERA), Social Impact Assessments (SIAs), Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs), inter alia. 14 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © 5. Industry’s view on Sustainable Development Most industry view sustainable development as achieving a balance between economic, social and environmental issues. The larger the overlap between the environmental, social and economic dimensions, the more sustainable will developments be. There will always be some trade-offs between the environmental, social and economic dimensions. The key is to not let one dimension dominate to the exclusion of the other two. For example, should the economics of the project be the only considerations, the environment and social dimensions will suffer. Should the environment be the only consideration, there will be no or little economic and social development, leading to poverty and over-reliance on natural resources. Sustainability approach in Business Corporate sustainability.... is a business approach to create long term shareholder value by embracing opportunities and managing risks deriving from economic, environmental and social developments. Long-term successful companies … integrate economic, environmental and social-responsibility criteria into the corporate strategy and culture make use of the resulting sustainability opportunities and simultaneously minimize risks achieve long-term shareholder value 15 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © 6. The United Nations 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 7. 2063 Agenda To give effect to the 17 SDGs for Africa, the African Union developed a programme, called the 2063 Agenda to work towards achieving all the SDGs. The seven (7) aspirations (ambitions/goals) for the Africa we want: 1. A prosperous Africa based on inclusive growth and sustainable development 2. An integrated continent, politically united based on the ideals of Pan Africanism and the vision of Africa’s Renaissance 3. An Africa of good governance, democracy, respect for human rights, justice and the rule of law 4. A peaceful and secure Africa 5. An Africa with a strong cultural identity, common heritage, values and ethics 6. An Africa, whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people, especially its women and youth, and caring for children 7. Africa as a strong, united, resilient and influential global player and partner 8. Benefits of Sustainability (a) Building the future through sustainable development strategies; (b) Reducing poverty and improving living conditions; (c) Expanding education and environmental awareness; (d) Transforming agriculture and managing key resources on a sustainable basis; (e) Curbing pollution; (f) Planning for the uncertainty of climate change; 16 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © (g) Regional co-operation and the peace dividend; (h) Biodiversity – the mainstay of a tourism mecca. 9. Living sustainably 9.1 Some of the broad trends required to change our unsustainable lifestyles: There needs to be more focus and effort on: (a) pollution prevention rather than pollution clean-up; (b) waste prevention and reduction rather than waste disposal (mostly burial and burning); (c) habitat protection rather than on species protection; and (d) increased resource conservation instead of increased resource use. 9.2 Some of the guidelines we can adopt to live sustainability include: (a) Leave the earth as good as or better than we found it; (b) Take no more than we need; (c) Try not to harm life, air, water, or soil; (d) Sustain biodiversity; (e) Help maintain the earth’s capacity for self-repair; (f) Do not use potentially renewable resources (soil, water, forests, grasslands, and wildlife) faster than they are replenished; (g) Do not release pollutants into the environment faster than the earth’s natural processes can dilute or assimilate them; (h) Slow the rate of population growth; (i) Reduce poverty. (j) R3 = reduce + reuse + recycle. 10. Conclusion The last two decades have witnessed a remarkable public awakening. There has been revolution in awareness and understanding of environmental issues, a growing sense of urgency, a knowledge that environmental protection is not the luxury of the rich, a realisation that we share one, finite earth and that all of us are responsible for what happens to it. A growing number of people – ordinary citizens, executives, government officials, religious leaders, and journalists – are beginning to recognise that their long- term aims and activities and environmental conservation are mutually dependent, not mutually exclusive. 17 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Module 3: Environmental Problems 1. Introduction There is no denying the growing worldwide attention relating to environmental matters. Even if you miss the headlines about the doubling of the world’s population in the next 40 years, the destruction of invaluable tropical rain forests, the poisoning of rivers, lakes and oceans, the droughts, floods, cyclones… even if you are able to ignore these issues, you will find it difficult to turn a blind eye to the closing down of your favourite beach or fishing site due to pollution, or to freak weather patterns which bring snow or searing heat in the wrong seasons. Far too many people assume that when it comes to solving complicated environmental problems, the government or the numerous conservation bodies will take the responsibility. It is a mistake to underestimate the growing role you and I can play in the preservation or destruction of the world around us. 2. Root causes of the present environmental crisis (a) Rapid population growth (b) Rapid and wasteful use of resources with little emphasis on pollution prevention and waste reduction (c) Simplification and degradation of parts of the earth’s life-supporting systems (d) Poverty, which can drive poor people to use potentially renewable resources unsustainably for short-term survival and often exposes the poor to health-risks and other environmental risks (e) Failure of economic and political systems to encourage earth-sustaining forms of economic development and discourage earth-degrading forms of economic growth (f) Failure of economic and political systems to have market prices include overall environmental cost of an economic good or service (g) Our urge to dominate and manage nature for our use with far too little knowledge about how nature works. A simple model to explain how environmental problems and their root causes are connected (Paul Ehrlich), is as follows: P x A x T = I, where P = number of people A = number of units of resources used per person 18 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © T = environmental degradation and pollution per unit of resource uses I = environmental impact of population 3. The Problems 3.1 Population Explosion Without a doubt the biggest issue facing the environment is over population of humans. All other major environmental issues flow from the very fact that we are overpopulating the planet. The world’s population has tripled in the last 60 years placing stress on every aspect of the environment. More land is developed every day to accommodate the urban spread. In 1950 the population stood at 2.5 billion and in 2017 it is over 7.52 billion, an increase of almost 3 times in just 67 years! The current world population is approx. 8.124 billion in 233 countries and rapidly growing. China (1.425 billion) and India (1.442 billion) make up about 36.4% of the world’s population. Africa (1,427 billion) has the highest growth rate with the population doubling every 24 years. World Growth rate: 1.09% 4.56 million in 1980 8.55 billion by 2030 9.74 billion by 2050! Causes of Overpopulation (a) Decline in the death rate (b) Better medical facilities (c) More hands to overcome poverty (d) Technological advancement in fertility treatment (e) Immigration (f) Lack of family planning Effects of Overpopulation (b) Depletion of natural resources (c) Degradation of environment (d) Conflicts and wars (e) Rise in unemployment (f) High cost of living 19 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Solutions to Overpopulation (b) Better education (c) Family planning (d) Tax benefits or concessions (e) Sex education 3.2 Climate Change Recently an overwhelming majority of climate scientists believe that human activities are currently affecting the climate and that the tipping point has already been passed. In other words, it is too late to undo the damage that climate change has done to the environment. Excess carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases generated by industry and agriculture act to heat up the atmosphere. The gradual warming of the earth, similar to the effects in a greenhouse, causes freak weather conditions (e.g. El Niño phenomenon) that impact on crops, ecosystems, populations, and triggers off a significant change in the climate. The main cause of rising CO2 levels is the ever-growing quantity of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas that industrialised society burns. Emissions from motor vehicles and the burning of forests and firewood aggravate the problem. CFC’s and methane from swamps, rice paddies and marshes, cattle, sheep, goats, termites, etc. also contribute to the build-up of greenhouse gases. The key response to climate change must focus on: (a) developing more environmentally friendly methods of energy production; (b) reducing the mining and burning of fossil fuels; (c) reducing our consumption patterns. 3.3 Loss of biodiversity The loss of biodiversity on the planet can be directly related to the behaviours of human beings. Humans have destroyed and continue to destroy the habitats of species on a daily basis. When we exterminate one species, it has a knock-on effect in the food chain which in turn upsets the eco-systems inter dependent on one another. The catastrophic impact of loss of biodiversity is likely to affect the planet for millions of years to come. But we are currently using 25% more natural resources than the planet can sustain. As a result species, habitats and local communities are under pressure or direct threats (for example from loss of access to fresh water). 20 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © The current loss of biodiversity is also being named “The Sixth Extinction”. Causes (a) Alteration and loss of the habitats: the transformation of the natural areas determines not only the loss of the plant species, but also a decrease in the animal species associated with them. (b) Introduction of exotic species and genetically modified organisms: species originating from a particular area, introduced into new natural environments can lead to different forms of imbalance in the ecological equilibrium. (c) Pollution: human activity influences the natural environment producing negative, and direct or indirect effects that alter the flow of energy, the chemical and physical constitution of the environment and on all species. (d) Climate change: heating of the Earth’s surface affects biodiversity because it endangers all the species that adapted to the cold due to the latitude (the Polar species) or the altitude (mountain species). (e) Overexploitation of resources: when the activities connected with capturing and harvesting (hunting, fishing, farming) a renewable natural resource in a particular area is excessively intense, the resource itself may become exhausted, for example, sardines, tuna and many other species that man captures without leaving enough time for the organisms to reproduce. Consequences: (a) Biological diversity is the resource upon which families, communities, nations and future generations depend. It is the link between all organisms on earth, binding each into an inter-dependent ecosystem, in which all species have their role. Loss of biodiversity leads to the damage to the web of life. (b) The Earth’s natural assets are made up of plants, animals, land, water, the atmosphere AND humans! Together we all form part of the planet’s ecosystems, which means if there is a biodiversity crisis, our health and livelihoods are at risk too. 21 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Biodiversity underpins the health of the planet and has a direct impact on all our lives. 3.4 The Phosphorus and Nitrogen Cycles Although the effect of human activities on the carbon cycle is better known, the lesser-known effect on the cycle of Nitrogen actually has a greater impact on the environment. The human race’s use and abuse of nitrogen has been one of the most beneficial technologies for our own species for decades. Every year, humans convert an estimated 120 million tons of nitrogen from the atmosphere into reactive forms such as nitrates, mainly in the production of nitrogen-based fertilizer for crops and in the use of food additives. The runoff from crops into our oceans has a negative effect upon phytoplankton which is responsible for the production of most of the oxygen in our air. 3.5 Water scarcity Many experts believe that in the near future water will become a commodity just like gold and oil. Some experts say that wars will be fought over who owns the water supply. Over population, climate change, demand and pollution from industry are some of the main contributing factors. Humanity’s use of freshwater increased six-fold over the last century and continues to rise. Demand is expected to increase by over a third over the next 25 years – and to almost double for drinking water. And yet it is getting scarcer. Already one-third of the world’s people live in countries where water is in short supply; by 2025 two-thirds of them will do so, including South Africa. About one in every five people on Earth now lacks safe drinking water. Although abundant on a regional scale, water is unevenly distributed by nature and unfairly allocated by man. It is clear that water is becoming one of the critical natural resource issues in Africa. The potential water crisis in Africa is caused by, inter alia: (a) The effects of climate change (b) the contamination of water resources by human waste (c) the destruction of wetlands (d) pollution of large volumes of our fresh water by chemicals, oils, toxic wastes, household detergents, pesticides, herbicides, etc. 22 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © (e) the careless waste of water by many and the wasteful ignorance across our land. Too few people care and conserve water in South Africa. It is common to see taps dripping or left open with water gushing out, people using too much water to wash cars or for gardening, or are not concerned about burst pipes, or worse still not educating family and friends on using water wisely. 3.6 Ocean Acidification A direct effect of excessive CO2 production is the acidification of the ocean. The oceans absorb as much as 25% of all human carbon dioxide emissions. The gas then combines with other elements to form compounds such as carbolic acid. Over the last 250 years, surface acidity of the ocean has increased by an estimated 30%. The acidity is expected to increase by 150% by 2100. The effect of over acidification of the oceans on sea creatures such as shellfish and plankton are similar to osteoporosis in humans. The acid effectively is dissolving the skeletons of the creatures. The effect of ocean acidification may soon challenge marine life on a scale that the planet has not seen for millions of years. 3.7 Pollution Pollution of air, water and soil by chemical compounds that take many years to breakdown. Most of these chemicals are the by-products of our modern lifestyle and are created by industry and motor vehicles. Pollution is not limited to the air. Soil is another place where pollution is starting to take hold. Common toxic substances include heavy metals, nitrates and plastic. Most of the plastics that are discarded by humans end up the ocean. These plastics tend to go unseen by humans as the pollution is usually blown out to sea by prevailing winds. The dumping of wastes, e.g. litter and domestic rubbish, is emerging as a major environmental problem in S.A. as it is just “dispersed” into the environment. Litter left unattended to, is also a breeding ground for disease and pests. Terrestrial and marine animals are prone to injury or death through ingestion (of some types of litter) or entanglement. 23 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Littering is a serious environmental problem, as: (a) Litter is easily dispersed by wind or water (b) Littering is an aesthetic issue (visual pollution) which affects people’s well-being (c) Litter is a breeding ground for pests and diseases which affects people’s health (d) Animals die from ingestion of or entanglement in litter, e.g. turtles or whales that accidentally swallow plastic floating on the water 3.8 Ozone Layer Depletion Ozone is created when ultraviolet light from the sun breaks up oxygen molecules, thereby creating free atoms of oxygen. Some of these free atoms combine with still intact oxygen molecules to form ozone (O 3). The ozone layer is situated approx. 17 to 26 km above the earth and absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun. The atmosphere blocks many of the harmful UV rays from the sun that can damage living tissue. Ozone depletion by certain chlorine- and bromine-containing chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) emitted into the atmosphere by human activities is a serious long-term threat to human health (skin cancer, cataracts, etc.), animal life, and the sunlight-driven primary producers (mostly plants) that support the earth’s food chains and webs. Depletion of our ozone layer has been mainly attributed to the release of chemical pollution containing the chemicals Chlorine and Bromide. Once the chemicals reach the upper atmosphere, they cause ozone molecules to break apart causing a hole to form, the largest of which is over the Antarctic. In an effort to reduce the depletion of the ozone layer, CFCs have been banned in many manufacturing processes and products. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, one atom of chlorine can break down more than 100, 000 ozone molecules. Serious problems caused by the depletion of the Ozone Layer (a) Skin cancer in humans (b) Eye cataracts in humans (c) sunlight-driven primary producers (mostly plants) and hence impact on food chains and food webs 24 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © 3.9 Over-fishing It is estimated that by 2050 that there will be no fish left in the sea! The extinction of many fish species is due to humans over-fishing the oceans to supply an ever-increasing population’s demand for sea food. The collapse of the Atlantic Cod Fishery is one such example of how humans have exploited the planet’s natural resources to the brink of extinction. 3.10 Deforestation Forests are one of nature’s most effective instruments for getting rid of carbon dioxide. The rate at which the global green belt is being diminished is frightening: each minute an area of tropical rain forest equal to the size of 20 football fields is destroyed. Deforestation contributes directly to global warming. Since 1990 half of the world’s rain forests have been destroyed. To add to the worry a recent phenomenon has been added to the list. Trees are now dying globally at a rate never before seen. Also of concern is the rapid loss of habitat of many species that live in forests. If deforestation continues at the present rate, in the next decade 20% of the plant and animal species known to man will be extinct. 3.11 Noise pollution Noise is not only a nuisance, but is also a health issue. Noise pollution is displeasing or excessive noise may disrupt the activity or balance of human or animal life. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas. Indoor noise is caused by machines, building activities, music performances, and in many workplace activities. There is no great difference whether noise-induced hearing loss is brought about by outside (e.g. trains) or inside (e.g. music) noise. Noise can have a detrimental effect on wild animals, increasing the risk of death by changing the delicate balance in predator or prey detection and avoidance, and interfering with the use of the sounds in communication, especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing. 25 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © An impact of noise on wild animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that noisy areas may cause, which in the case of endangered species may be part of the path to extinction. Noise pollution has caused the death of certain species of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar. “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed it is the only thing that ever has.” Margaret Mead (1901-1978) 4. Recommended Reading Miller, G.T., Jr. and Spoolman, S.E. Living in the Environment: Concepts, Connections, and Solutions, 17e. Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA, USA. Chapter 1: Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 26 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © SECTION B: A CLIMATE OF CHANGE Module 4: Climate Change Introduction Climate change refers to a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. A natural blanket of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm enough for life as we know it — at a comfortable15°C today. Human-caused emissions of Greenhouse gases have made the blanket thicker, trapping heat and leading to a global warming. Fossil fuels are the single biggest source of human-generated greenhouse gas emissions. The poorest communities are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The average global sea level is projected to rise by 28-58 cm due to ocean expansion and glacier melt by the end of the 21st century (compared to 1989-1999 levels). 20-30 per cent of species are likely to face an increased risk of extinction. There will be greater heat waves, new wind patterns, worsening drought in some regions, heavier precipitation in others. Climate change is one of the major challenges of our time and adds considerable stress to our societies and to the environment. From shifting weather patterns that threaten food production, to rising sea levels that increase the risk of catastrophic flooding, the impacts of climate change are global in scope and unprecedented in scale. Without drastic action today, adapting to these impacts in the future will be more difficult and costly. Climate change will disproportionately affect many of the world’s poorest populations, who are least prepared to deal with the consequences The Greenhouse Effect In a greenhouse, energy from the sun passes through the glass as rays of light. This energy is absorbed by the plants, soil, and other objects in the greenhouse. Much of this absorbed energy is converted to heat, which warms the greenhouse. The glass helps keep the greenhouse warm by trapping this heat. The earth's atmosphere acts somewhat like the glass of a greenhouse. About 31 % of the incoming radiation from the sun is reflected directly back to space by the earth's atmosphere and 27 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © surface (particularly by snow and ice), and another 20 % is absorbed by the atmosphere. The rest of the incoming radiation is absorbed by the earth's oceans and land, where it is converted into heat, warming the surface of the earth and the air above it. Particular gases in the atmosphere act like the glass of a greenhouse, preventing the heat from escaping. (US EPA, 2012) These greenhouse gases absorb heat and radiate some of it back to the earth's surface, causing surface temperatures to be higher than they would otherwise be. The most important naturally occurring greenhouse gas is water vapour and it is the largest contributor to the natural greenhouse effect. However, other gases, although they occur in much smaller quantities, also play a substantial and growing role in the greenhouse effect. These include carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Without this natural greenhouse effect, the earth would be much colder than it is now – about 33 °C colder – making the average temperature on the planet a freezing -18 °C rather than the balmy 15 °C it is now. The warmth of our climate is crucial because on earth and in the atmosphere, water can exist in all three of its phases - frozen as snow or ice, liquid as water, and gaseous as water vapour. The cycling of water from one phase to another is critical to sustaining life since it is this cycling of water through the land-ocean-atmosphere system that replenishes the water available to life on earth. The water cycle is also an important part of what drives our weather and the climate system generally. 28 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Greenhouse gases (GHGs) Greenhouse gases refer to gases in the atmosphere that absorb heat radiated from earth. Together, greenhouse gases act like a blanket reducing heat loss, similar to the way the glass of a greenhouse warms the air inside the greenhouse. This greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that creates warmer conditions on Earth and makes life, as we know it, possible. Concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have grown significantly since pre- industrial times largely because of the burning of fossil fuels and permanent forest loss. The rise in greenhouse gas concentrations is amplifying the natural greenhouse effect and warming the planet, affecting wind patterns, precipitation, and storm events. All countries emit greenhouse gases through natural and human activities. Because they have gone through the process of industrialization over the past 150 years, and depend on energy to operate vehicles, heat homes, and operate industries, developed countries tend to produce more emissions than developing countries. Current international rules do not require developing countries to regularly report their greenhouse gas emissions. However, some developing country emissions are now believed to have surpassed developed country emissions. China is now estimated to be the largest emitter of greenhouse gases. Other major emitters include the United States, the European Union, Russia, Japan, and India. Sources of GHGs Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased by almost 40% since pre-industrial times, from approximately 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in the 18th century to 390 ppmv in 2010. The current CO2 level is higher than it has been in at least 800,000 years. Some volcanic eruptions released large quantities of CO 2 in the distant past. However, human activities now emit more than 135 times as much CO 2 as volcanoes each year. Human activities currently release over 30 billion tons of CO 2 into the atmosphere every year. This build-up in the atmosphere is like a tub filling with water, where more water flows from the faucet than the drain can take away. The main GHGs are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases and water vapour. Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon dioxide is constantly being exchanged among the atmosphere, ocean, and land surface as it is both produced and absorbed by many microorganisms, plants, and animals. However, 29 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © emissions and removal of CO2 by these natural processes tend to balance. Since the Industrial Revolution began around 1750, human activities have contributed substantially to climate change by adding CO2 and other heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere. The main human activity that emits CO2 is the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) for energy and transportation, although certain industrial processes and land-use changes also emit CO2. The main sources of CO2 emissions in the United States are described below. (a) Electricity. Electricity is a significant source of energy in developing countries and is used to power homes, business, and industry. The combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity is the largest single source of CO2 emissions in the USA (b) Transportation. The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel to transport people and goods is the second largest source of CO2 emissions. This category includes transportation sources such as highway vehicles, air travel, marine transportation, and rail. (c) Industry. Many industrial processes emit CO 2 through fossil fuel combustion. Several processes also produce CO2 emissions through chemical reactions that do not involve combustion, for example, the production and consumption of mineral products such as cement, the production of metals such as iron and steel, and the production of chemicals. Note that many industrial processes also use electricity and therefore indirectly cause the emissions from the electricity production. Methane (CH4) CH4 is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas emitted in most countries. CH 4 is more efficient at trapping radiation than CO2. Pound for pound, the comparative impact of CH4 on climate change is 25 times greater than CO2 over a 100-year period. (a) Industry. Natural gas and petroleum systems are the largest source of CH 4 emissions from industry. Methane is the primary component of natural gas. Some CH4 is emitted to the atmosphere during the production, processing, storage, transmission, and distribution of natural gas. Because gas is often found alongside petroleum, the production, refinement, transportation, and storage of crude oil is also a source of CH 4 emissions. (b) Agriculture. Domestic livestock such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels produce large amounts of CH4 as part of their normal digestive process. Also, when animals' 30 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © manure is stored or managed in lagoons or holding tanks, CH 4 is produced. Because humans raise these animals for food, the emissions are considered human-related. Globally, the agriculture sector is the primary source of CH4 emissions. (c) Waste from homes and businesses. Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes and in the treatment of wastewater. (d) Methane is also emitted from a number of natural sources. Wetlands are the largest source, emitting CH4 from bacteria that decompose organic materials in the absence of oxygen. Smaller sources include termites, oceans, sediments, volcanoes, and wildfires. Nitrous oxide (N2O) Nitrous oxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's nitrogen cycle and has a variety of natural sources. However, human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, wastewater management, and industrial processes are increasing the amount of N2O in the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide molecules stay in the atmosphere for an average of 114 years before being removed by a sink or destroyed through chemical reactions. The impact of 1 pound of N2O on warming the atmosphere is almost 300 times that of 1 pound of carbon dioxide. Globally, about 40% of total N2O emissions come from human activities. Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, transportation, and industry activities. (a) Agriculture. Nitrous oxide is emitted when people add nitrogen to the soil through the use of synthetic fertilizers. Nitrous oxide is also emitted during the breakdown of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine, which contributed to 5% of N2O emissions in 2013. (b) Transportation. Nitrous oxide is emitted when transportation fuels are burned. Motor vehicles, including passenger cars and trucks, are the primary source of N 2O emissions from transportation. The amount of N2O emitted from transportation depends on the type of fuel and vehicle technology, maintenance, and operating practices. (c) Industry. Nitrous oxide is generated as a by-product during the production of nitric acid, which is used to make synthetic commercial fertilizer, and in the production of adipic acid, which is used to make fibres, like nylon, and other synthetic products. (d) Natural emissions of N2O are mainly from bacteria breaking down nitrogen in soils and the oceans. 31 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Nitrous oxide is removed from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by certain types of bacteria or destroyed by ultraviolet radiation or chemical reactions. Fluorinated gases (F-gas) Unlike many other greenhouse gases, fluorinated gases have no natural sources and only come from human-related activities. They are emitted through a variety of industrial processes such as aluminium and semiconductor manufacturing. Many fluorinated gases have very high global warming potentials (GWPs) relative to other greenhouse gases, so small atmospheric concentrations can have large effects on global temperatures. They can also have long atmospheric lifetimes--in some cases, lasting thousands of years. Like other long-lived greenhouse gases, fluorinated gases are well-mixed in the atmosphere, spreading around the world after been emitted. Fluorinated gases are removed from the atmosphere only when they are destroyed by sunlight in the far upper atmosphere. In general, fluorinated gases are the most potent and longest lasting type of greenhouse gases emitted by human activities. There are four main categories of fluorinated gases: - hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs) - perfluorocarbons (PFCs) - sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) - nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) (a) Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances. Hydro fluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents, and fire retardants. The major emissions source of these compounds is their use as refrigerants, e.g. in air conditioning systems in both vehicles and buildings. These chemicals were developed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) because they do not deplete the stratospheric ozone layer. HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with long atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs, and they are released into the atmosphere through leaks, servicing, and disposal of equipment in which they are used. (b) Industry. Perfluorocarbons are compounds produced as a by-product of various industrial processes associated with aluminium production and the manufacturing of semiconductors. Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs. Sulphur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing and semiconductor manufacturing, as well as a tracer gas for leak detection. HFC-23 is produced as a by- product of HCFC-22 production. 32 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © (c) Transmission and Distribution of Electricity. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6) is used in electrical transmission equipment, including circuit breakers. The GWP of SF 6 is 22,800, making it the most potent greenhouse gases. Water vapour Water Vapour is the most abundant greenhouse gas and also the most important in terms of its contribution to the natural greenhouse effect, despite having a short atmospheric lifetime. Some human activities can influence local water vapour levels. However, on a global scale, the concentration of water vapour is controlled by temperature, which influences overall rates of evaporation and precipitation. Therefore, the global concentration of water vapour is not substantially affected by direct human emissions. Climate change impacts 1. Weather (a) Many of the costliest impacts of climate change--in terms of both life and property--will result from more frequent, longer-lasting, or more intense extreme weather events and associated natural disasters, such as heavy precipitation events, floods, heat waves, droughts, and wildfires; (b) A shift in average conditions to a warmer climate is expected to be accompanied by a shift in extreme temperature conditions, with increases in hot extremes and decreases in cold extremes; (c) A warmer atmosphere will hold more moisture, which means that when it does rain or snow, more water will be available to fall. Precipitation is therefore projected to be concentrated into more intense events, with periods of little precipitation in between. 2. Agriculture and Food Supply (a) Higher CO2 levels can increase yields. The yields for some crops, like wheat and soybeans, could increase by 30% or more under a doubling of CO 2 concentrations. However, some factors may counteract these potential increases in yield. For example, if temperature exceeds a crop's optimal level or if sufficient water and nutrients are not available, yield increases may be reduced or reversed; (b) More extreme temperature and precipitation can prevent crops from growing. Extreme events, especially floods and droughts, can harm crops and reduce yields. Dealing with drought could become a challenge in areas where summer temperatures are projected to increase and precipitation is projected to decrease. As water supplies are reduced, it may be more difficult to meet water demands; 33 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © (c) Many weeds, pests and fungi thrive under warmer temperatures, wetter climates, and increased CO2 level. This will trigger off an increase use of pesticides and fungicides may negatively affect human health and have other negative environmental impacts. 3. Impacts on Livestock (a) Heat waves, which are projected to increase under climate change, could directly threaten livestock; Heat stress affects animals both directly and indirectly. Over time, heat stress can increase vulnerability to disease, reduce fertility, and reduce milk production; (b) Drought may threaten pasture and feed supplies. Drought reduces the amount of quality forage available to grazing livestock. Some areas could experience longer, more intense droughts, resulting from higher summer temperatures and reduced precipitation. For animals that rely on grain, changes in crop production due to drought could also become a problem; (c) An increase in the prevalence of parasites and diseases that affect livestock due to warmer conditions. The earlier onset of spring and warmer winters could allow some parasites and pathogens to survive more easily. In areas with increased rainfall, moisture-reliant pathogens could thrive; (d) Increases in carbon dioxide (CO2) may increase the productivity of pastures, but may also decrease their quality. Increases in atmospheric CO 2 can increase the productivity of plants on which livestock feed. However, studies indicate that the quality of some of the forage found in pasturelands decreases with higher CO 2. As a result, cattle would need to eat more to get the same nutritional benefits. 4. Impacts on Fisheries (a) Many fisheries already face multiple stresses, including overfishing and water pollution. Climate change may worsen these stresses. In particular, temperature changes could lead to significant impacts; (b) The ranges of many fish and shellfish species may change. Many marine species have certain temperature ranges at which they can survive. For example, cod in the North Atlantic require water temperatures below 12°C. Even sea-bottom temperatures above 8°C can reduce their ability to reproduce and for young cod to survive. In this century, temperatures in the region will likely exceed both thresholds; (c) Many aquatic species can find colder areas of streams and lakes or move northward along the coast or in the ocean. However, moving into new areas may put these species into competition with other species over food and other resources; (d) Some diseases that affect aquatic life may become more prevalent in warm water; 34 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © (e) Changes in temperature and seasons could affect the timing of reproduction and migration. Many steps within an aquatic animal's lifecycle are controlled by temperature and the changing of the seasons; (f) The world's oceans are gradually becoming more acidic due to increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Increasing acidity could harm shellfish by weakening their shells, which are created from calcium and are vulnerable to increasing acidity. Acidification may also threaten the structures of sensitive ecosystems upon which some fish and shellfish rely. 5. Climate Impacts on Coastal Areas (a) Climate change could put additional stress on coastal areas, which are already stressed by human activity, pollution, invasive species, and storms; (b) Coastal development reduces the ability of natural systems to respond to climate changes; (c) Sea level rise could erode and inundate coastal ecosystems and eliminate wetlands; (d) Warmer and more acidic oceans are likely to disrupt coastal and marine ecosystems. 6. Climate Impacts on Ecosystems (a) Climate change can alter where species live and how they interact, which could fundamentally transform current ecosystems; (b) Impacts on one species can ripple through the food web and affect many organisms in an ecosystem; (c) Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly sensitive to climate change; (d) Projected warming could greatly increase the rate of species extinctions, especially in sensitive regions. 7. Energy (a) Climate change is likely to both increase electricity demand for cooling in the summer and decrease electricity, natural gas, heating oil, and wood demand for heating in the winter. New infrastructure investments may be necessary to meet increased energy demand, especially peak demand during heat waves; (b) Climate change could affect the amount of water available to produce electricity or extract fuel. In areas where water is already scarce, competition for water between energy production and other uses could increase; (c) Sea level rise and more frequent intense storms could disrupt energy production and delivery by damaging electricity infrastructure, fuel delivery infrastructure and equipment, power plants, or storage facilities. 35 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © 8. Forests (a) Climate change will likely alter the frequency and intensity of forest disturbances, including wildfires, storms, insect outbreaks, and the occurrence of invasive species; (b) The productivity of forests could be affected by changes in temperature, precipitation and the amount of carbon dioxide in the air; (c) Climate change will likely worsen the problems already faced by forests from land development and air pollution. 9. Human health (a) A warmer climate is expected to both increase the risk of heat-related illnesses and death and worsen conditions for air quality; (b) Climate change will likely increase the frequency and strength of extreme events (such as floods, droughts, and storms) that threaten human safety and health; (c) Climate changes may allow some diseases to spread more easily; (d) Increased smog and heat waves resulting in more temperature-related illness and death; (e) the spread of infectious diseases such as malaria‚ dengue and yellow fever across countries as insects carrying these diseases migrate with the warming climate. 10. International (a) Countries around the world will likely face climate change impacts that affect a wide variety of sectors, from water resources to human health to ecosystems. (b) Impacts will vary by region and by population; (c) Many people in developing countries are more vulnerable to climate change impacts than people in developed countries; (d) Impacts across the globe can have national security implications. 11. Society (a) Climate change will affect certain groups more than others, particularly groups located in vulnerable areas and the poor, young, old, or sick; (b) Cities are sensitive to many impacts, especially extreme weather impacts; (c) Climate change may threaten people's jobs and livelihoods; (d) There will be mass migration of people within countries and between countries and small islands. 12. Transportation (a) Climate change is likely to damage transportation infrastructure through higher temperatures, more severe storms, and higher storm surges; 36 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © (b) Coastal roads, railways and airports are vulnerable to sea level rise, which could lead to delays as well as temporary and permanent closures; (c) Warmer winters can alleviate the costs of clearing ice and snow, especially in northern areas. 13. Water (a) Warming temperatures, changes in precipitation, and sea level rise have affected and will likely continue to affect water supply and quality; (b) Potential effects include increased flooding and drought, water quality impairment, and saltwater intrusion to coastal water supplies; (c) Changes to water resources will affect many sectors, including energy production, infrastructure, human health, agriculture, and ecosystems. Key responses required to address climate change There is no single solution to climate change — The IPCC concludes that no single economically and technologically feasible solution would, on its own, suffice for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from different sectors. At the same time, it is clear that co-ordinated action at the international level is needed to harness the full effect of clean technologies and energy efficiency. Energy —US$ 20 trillion is expected to be invested in upgrading global energy infrastructure from now until 2030 to meet rising demand, which will grow by about 60 per cent in that time according to the International Energy Agency. The additional cost of altering these investments in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is estimated to range from negligible to an increase of 5-10 per cent. The way in which these energy needs are met will determine whether climate change will remain manageable. Mitigation efforts over the next two to three decades will determine to a large extent the long-term global mean temperature increase and the corresponding climate change impacts that can be avoided. The wide deployment of climate-friendly technologies is critical. Existing clean technologies need to be rapidly adopted by the private sector and deployed widely, including through technological cooperation between industrialised and developing countries. Addressing climate change will, however, require continuous improvement through innovation and the development of new technologies. Cleaner technologies and energy efficiency can provide win-win solutions, allowing economic growth and the fight against climate change to proceed hand in hand. With the continued dominant role of fossil fuels in the global energy mix, energy efficiency, cleaner fossil fuel and carbon capture and storage technologies are needed to allow their continued use without jeopardising climate change objectives. 37 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Renewable energy can help. According to UNEP and New Energy Finance (NEF), sustainable energy investment has increased markedly over the past couple of years, with wind, solar and biofuels attracting the highest levels of investment. This reflects technology maturity, policy incentives and investor appetite. Investor appetite suggests that existing technology is ready for scale-up and that renewable energy can become a larger part of the energy mix without waiting for further technology development To fully meet the mitigation challenge across the globe, such a scale-up needs to be promoted and the further diffusion of technologies needs to be supported, including through enhanced cooperation between industrialised and developing countries. For this to happen, governments need to further concretize and support a market-friendly, clear and predictable playing field for private investors. Governments need to promote a range of energy options — These could include encouraging natural gas over more carbon-intensive fossil fuels as well as mature renewable energy technologies such as large hydro, biomass combustion and geothermal. Other renewable sources include solar assisted air conditioning, wave power and nanotechnology solar cells, although they all still require more technological or commercial development. Yet another option could be carbon capture and storage technology, which involves capturing carbon dioxide before it can be emitted into the atmosphere, transporting it to a secure location, and isolating it from the atmosphere, for example by storing it in a geological formation. Buildings — Approximately 30 per cent of the projected baseline emissions in the residential and commercial sectors – the highest rate amongst all sectors studied by the IPCC – could be reduced by 2030 with a net economic benefit. Energy consumption and embodied energy in buildings can be cut through greater use of existing technologies such as passive solar design, high-efficiency lighting and appliances, highly efficient ventilation and cooling systems, solar water heaters, insulation, highly reflective building materials and multiple glazing. Government policies on appliance standards and building energy codes could further provide incentives and information for commercial action in this area. Transport — Technologies that could help reduce emissions range from direct injection turbocharged diesels and improved batteries for road vehicles to regenerative breaking and higher efficiency propulsion systems for trains to blended wing bodies and unducted turbofan propulsion systems for airplanes. Biofuels also have the potential to replace a substantial proportion of the petroleum that is currently being used by transport. Providing public transport systems and promoting non-motorised transport can also reduce emissions. Management 38 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © strategies for reducing traffic congestion and air pollution can also be effective in reducing private-vehicle travel. Industry — The greatest potential for reducing industrial emissions is located in the energy- intensive steel, cement, pulp and paper industries and in the control of non-CO2 gases such as HFC-23 from the manufacturing of HCFC-22, PFCs from aluminium smelting and semiconductor processing, sulphur hexafluoride from use in electrical switchgear and magnesium processing, and methane and nitrous oxide from the chemical and food industries. Agriculture — Sequestering carbon in the soil represents about 89 per cent of the mitigation potential in this area. Other options include improved management of crop and grazing lands (e.g. improved agronomic practices, nutrient use, tillage and residue management), restoration of organic soils that are drained for crop production, and restoration of degraded lands. Lower but still significant reductions are possible with improved water and rice management; set-a-sides, land use change (e.g. converting cropland to grassland) and agro-forestry; and improved livestock and manure management. Forests — Arresting today’s high levels of deforestation and planting new forests could considerably reduce greenhouse gas emissions at low costs. About 65 per cent of the total mitigation potential for forests lies in the tropics and 50 per cent can be achieved by simply avoiding deforestation. In the longer term, the best way to maintain or increase the ability of forests to sequester carbon is through sustainable forest management, which also has many social and environmental benefits. A comprehensive approach to forest management can ensure an annual sustained yield of timber, fibre or energy that is compatible with adapting to climate change, maintaining biodiversity and promoting sustainable development. Waste — post-consumer waste makes up almost 5 per cent of total global greenhouse gas emissions. Technology can directly reduce emissions by recovering gases emitted from landfills but also through improved landfill practices and engineered wastewater management. Controlled composting of organic waste, state-of-the-art incineration and expanded sanitation coverage can also help avoid generating these gases in the first place. It is estimated that 20-30 per cent of projected emissions from waste for 2030 can be reduced at negative cost and 30-50 per cent at low costs. 39 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Business response to climate change Business and industry must review the policies and practices to consider the following: Energy and water efficiency Measure and manage carbon emissions Minimise the generation of waste and re-use or recycle wherever possible Use procurement influence to deliver more sustainable outcomes Monitor and continually improve the environmental impact of business travel Use organisation’s skills and strengths to tackle the climate change challenge Citizen response to climate change (a) Reduce energy use Adopt energy-saving habits. Make it a habit to turn off the lights as you leave a room; Replace standard light bulbs with energy-efficient compact fluorescent bulbs. Turn off your computer and unplug electronics when they are not in use. (b) Change the way you think about transportation Walk or bike whenever possible. Not only will you reduce your carbon footprint, but your overall level of health will improve and you will save money on parking and gasoline; Take public transit or carpool whenever possible; When purchasing a vehicle look for one with better mileage; Increase your fuel economy when driving by sticking to posted speed limits and avoiding rapid acceleration and excessive braking; Plan and combine trips and errands. This will save you both time and money as well as reduce wear and tear on your vehicle; When travelling long distances, try to take a train or bus rather than flying or driving. (c) Insulate your home Insulate yourself and your home. By properly insulating your home, you can ensure that heat stays in or out depending on the season. You can do this by purchasing windows and window coverings that will block out or keep in warmth, and by sealing any existing cracks; Reduce reliance on heaters in winter, or air cons in summer, by dressing appropriately; In summer, use fans to circulate air, and set air conditioners to make your home a comfortable temperature; 40 ________________________________________________________________________ 2024 ENEL2EN Environmental Engineering. Rev 0 Dr Troy Govender. July 2024.Copyright © Lowering the temperature on your water heater/geyser to between 55 and 60 °C and insulating your pipes also makes a difference. (d) Make every drop count Conserve water by fixing drips and leaks, and by installing low-flow shower heads and toilets; Challenge yourself to a speed shower; Turn off water while brushing teeth or shaving; Treating and transporting water requires energy, while water conservation results in reduced energy requirements and carbon emissions. (e) Cool wash and hang to dry These are not just washing instructions on a label anymore, but an equation for energy savings. Wash clothing in cold water and hang clothing to dry outside, or indoors on a drying rack. Taking these steps will reduce your electricity bill and also prolong the life of clothing by reducing wear on the fabric caused by dryers. (f) High efficiency appliances When replacing appliances, look for high efficiency units; Appliances with ENERGY STAR ratings, an international standard for energy-efficient consumer products, typically utilize a minimum of 20 % less energy. This means savings for you and the environment. (g) Switch to "green power" Research where your power is coming from - wind, water, coal, or solar - and talk to your power provider to determine if a greater percentage could be coming from renewable resources; Encourage power providers to switch to green power and, if possible and/or economically viable, switch to a company offering power from renewable resources. (h) Recycle Make recycling part of your daily routine; Recycle all packaging and consumer goods that you can; Aim to purchase items with minimal and recyclable packaging; For certain items with large amounts of packaging, ask retailers if they can recycle or re-use it;

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