Psychology Learning Objectives

Long Term Memory 1.​ Define autobiographical memory and the problems (and solutions) by measuring it Autobiographical Memory: Autobiographical memory is a memory about ourselves that consists of episodic (a personal record of events that have happened to you) and semantic memories (long-term mem...

Long Term Memory 1.​ Define autobiographical memory and the problems (and solutions) by measuring it Autobiographical Memory: Autobiographical memory is a memory about ourselves that consists of episodic (a personal record of events that have happened to you) and semantic memories (long-term memory that stores general knowledge, facts, and concepts). -​ Problem Of Measuring: researchers are concerned with quality, not quantity (hard to verify so hard to study) -​ Solutions: Measure memory for public events, confirm with family members, use diary studies 2.​ Define the reminiscence bump and explain the four theories to explain it Reminiscence Bump: Memories of life events tend to peak in adolescence or early adulthood (also observed for semantic memory) Four Theories To Explain: (Mnemonic: Crafting Stories Makes Communities) 1.​ Cognitive Hypothesis: memories in early adulthood occur during periods of rapid cognitive change followed by stability. Therefore, elaborate and distinct cues are likely (deeper encoding). 2.​ Self-Image Hypothesis: The formation of personal identity strengthens memories for that time period. Self-reference effect (people remember information better when they relate it to themselves.). 3.​ Maturational Account: During the reminiscence bump, biological and cognitive processes are at their maximum, potentially attracting a mate. 4.​ Cultural Life Script Hypothesis: Memory is improved for positive culturally shared experiences (usually during adolescence), resulting in increased elaborative rehearsal. 3.​ Describe and provide an example of the repeated reproduction technique Barlett’s Repeated Reproduction: We use general knowledge and expectations based on past experiences to organize memories Example: Frederic Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" study (1932) -​ Participants read a Native American folk story that had unfamiliar concepts. -​ When asked to reproduce the story multiple times over weeks, their memories:​ - Were altered to fit their own personal cultural expectations/knowledge.​ - Left out unfamiliar details and replaced them with more familiar ones 4.​ Describe the DRM procedure and its link to source monitoring errors DRM Procedure: Semantically related lists of words lead participants to remember non-presented semantically related words falsely. We activate a schema and then falsely attribute the source to episodic memory. (used to study false memories) -​ This is a classic example of a source monitoring error Source monitoring error refers to our inability to identify the origin of a memory (e.g., "Did I actually see this word, or did I just think about it?").​ - In the DRM task, people fail to monitor the source of the memory accurately.  -​ They confuse a thought or association (internally generated) with an experienced event (the actual word being presented). 5.​ Describe the misinformation effect and implanted memories; provide experimental evidence of each Misinformation Effect: If told misleading information, people tend to recall what they were told rather than the actual event. Eye-witness testimony issues. -​ Experimental Evidence: Loftus & Palmer (car crash, misleading post-event information) -​ Loftus (False Memory) Implanted memories: The misinformation effect concerns memories about someone else, created through suggestion, usually by others, or through exposure to misleading information. -​ Experimental Evidence: Loftus and Pickrell’s “Lost In The Mall” experiment [Participants were given descriptions of four childhood events, three of which were real and one which was fabricated (being lost in a mall). Many participants reported remembering the fabricated event despite it not actually happening.] -​ Wade et al. (2002) exposed 20 subjects to a false childhood event via a fake photograph and imagery instructions. Over three interviews, subjects thought about a photograph showing them on a hot-air balloon ride and tried to recall the event by using guided imagery exercises. 50% of participants created a false memory due to the implanted information. Knowledge 1.​ Define categories (including the 3 types), concepts, and exemplars Category: A group of things that go together because they have something in common -​ Categories allow us to predict what is likely in new situations because they treat all exemplars similarly. -​ A list of necessary and sufficient features defines categories. -​ Necessary: an item must have all defining features to be included in the category -​ Sufficient: any other attributes are not required for category membership 3 Theories -​ Prototype Theory: We determine category membership by matching items with prototypes stored in memory. Categories have a central tendency where exemplars with the most characteristic features are found. -​ Exemplar Theory: Instead of storing a prototype and matching specific exemplars to it, we store particular exemplars and can create a prototype if necessary.  -​ Explanation-Based Theories: We have complex implicit ideas about categories and concepts.Accounts for why we judge some features as more important than others for category membership 3 Types Of Categories -​ Subordinate: one level below basic; include a specific instance of a basic level category (poodle, Steinway, maple) -​ Basic Level: Moderately specific, not too broad or too narrow; they are informative and distinctive (dog, piano, tree) -​ Superordinate: one level above basic; a broad category (mammal, musical instruments, plants) 2.​ Describe the classical view of categories and their problems Classical View Of Categorization -​ We categorize things based on a list of necessary features Problems With The Classical View Of Categorization -​ Not all categories have a list of defining features -​ Some items are more typical examples of a category than others, leading to typical effects (this shouldn’t be the case) -​ Example: we can rate animals by how “birdy” an animal is 3.​ Describe the prototype theory, including associated important terms -​ Categories have a central tendency where exemplars with the most characteristic features are found -​ All category members share a family resemblance, even if they are not typical members -​ Family resemblance: an exemplar shares one feature with another category member; the more features shared, the more family resemblance, and the more typical the category 4.​ Explain how exemplar theory is similar to and different than prototype theory -​ Both deal with categorization and stored knowledge -​ Prototype Theory = average, abstract ideal of a category -​ Exemplar Theory = comparison to real examples you've encountered -​ Both are useful in different ways: prototype for efficiency and speed, exemplar for flexibility and accuracy 5.​ Describe the problems with similarity-based theories of categorization -​ People can typically give ratings to clearly defined categories -​ Like “How are a television and a banana similar?”  6.​ Explain Collins & Quillian’s semantic network model and how it addressed the C&Qs problem Collins and Quillian’s Hierarchical Model -​ Property Inheritance: moving down the hierarchy, concepts inherit properties from concepts higher in the hierarchy -​ Concepts are arranged in levels -​ More general concepts (e.g., "animal") are at the top, and more specific ones (e.g., "bird," "canary") are below. -​ Cognitive economy – Instead of storing the same information at multiple levels, standard features are kept at the highest relevant level. For example, "can fly" is stored at the bird level, so it applies to all birds. -​ Retrieval takes time – The farther apart two concepts are in the hierarchy, the longer it takes to recall their relationship. For instance, it’s quicker to confirm "a canary is a bird" than "a canary is an animal", because "bird" is closer to "canary" in the hierarchy -​ Each concept is a node (like "bird" or "canary"). Links connect nodes and represent relationships (e.g., "is a", "has", "can"). Example: "Canary" is a "Bird" "Bird" can "Fly" 7.​ List and explain the differences between representational theories of knowledge representation and embodied cognition Embodied Cognition -​ Barsalou’s situated simulation theory is a type of embodied cognition view of knowledge stemming from the idea of mental simulations (similar to the functional equivalence hypothesis) -​ The body and sensorimotor system have a causal role in generating intelligent behavior -​ Cognition requires the reactivation/simulation of the sensorimotor system -​ Distributed brain activations from sensory and motor centers serve as a representation of concepts but not of the amodal, abstract kind  -​ Knowledge is flexible and goal-driven -​ mental stimulation and situated cognition 8.​ Provide evidence to support an embodied view of cognition -​ Within Zwaan, Stanfield & Yaxley, 2002 -​ Zwaan, Stanfield, & Yaxley wanted to know whether people mentally simulate perceptual details (like shape or orientation) of objects when they read about them. -​ Participants read sentences like: “The egg is in the frying pan” → implies a flat egg “The egg is in the egg carton” → implies a whole/round egg (They had to judge whether the image showed an object that had been mentioned in the sentence). Proved -​ Showed that sentence comprehension involves mental simulations of perceptual details. -​ It supports the embodied view of cognition, which holds that language understanding taps into sensory and motor systems, not just abstract symbolic representations. 9.​ Explain Barsalou’s situation simulation theory of knowledge and experimental evidence to support it -​ Barsalou’s situated simulation theory is a type of embodied cognition view of knowledge stemming from the idea of mental simulations (similar to the functional equivalence hypothesis) Pecher, Zeelenberg, & Barsalou (2003) — Modality Switching Cost: -​ Participants verified concepts across different sensory modalities (e.g., "leaves rustle" — sound, then "cucumber is cool" — touch). -​ Finding: It took longer to respond when switching between modalities (e.g., sound → touch) than when staying in the same one. → This suggests that accessing knowledge activates specific sensory systems, supporting embodied simulation. 10.​Provide experimental evidence from brain imaging that supports an embodied view of semantic knowledge representation (Hauk et al) Brain Activity -​ Hauk et al.’s (2004) influential study demonstrated modality-specific brain activations for verbal labels 1.​ Participants performed actions using their foot, finger, tongue 2.​ Participants read action words kick, pick, lick -​ When people read action words like “kick,” “pick,” or “lick,” different parts of the motor cortex are activated depending on the body part involved (foot, hand, mouth). -​ It shows that language processing activates sensorimotor areas, which is consistent with simulating action. Imagery 1.​ Define imagery, symbolic and arbitrary representations, and propositions -​ One of the earliest debates in psychology concerns how information is represented in our minds -​ Imagery: a mental representation of perceptual experience -​ Paivio’s dual-code theory describes imagery/symbolic representation dichotomy -​ Thoughts can be represented in 2 ways: -​ As words (symbolic code) -​ As images (analog code) -​ Everything can be represented verbally, but not everything can be represented as an image For example, we can describe a cat, but it’s easier just to picture it. We can describe freedom, but it’s not so easy to picture it. -​ Pylyshyn proposed propositional theory, which believes images are an byproduct of underlying propositional networks and are stored as propositions (abstract language) 2.​ Describe individual differences in imagery ability and how it can be measured -​ Some patients demonstrate category-specific deficits -​ Damage to visual areas is frequently associated with a loss of knowledge of living things -​ Damage to motor areas is frequently associated with a loss of understanding of manipulable objects (e.g., tools) -​ Neuroimaging research in healthy adults finds similar results Imagery Ability Can Be Tested Via -​ Mental Rotation: the ability to rotate a drawn 3-D shape in your head -​ Image Scanning: (look at the slide) -​ Image Scaling: Asked to imagine a cat, everyone will imagine a similar size scale of a cat -​ Perceptual Interference: If imagery is analogous to real perception, then real and imaged stimuli should interact with each other -​ Difficult and Ambiguous Figures: be able to view and identify them Perception and Imagery -​ PPA (faces) vs FFA (objects) 3.​ Describe Paivio’s dual-code theory and how it can account for the effects of imagery on memory -​ Paivio’s dual-code theory describes imagery/symbolic representation dichotomy Thoughts can be represented in 2 ways: -​ As words (symbolic code) -​ As images (analog code) -​ Everything can be represented verbally, but not everything can be represented as an image  For example, we can describe a cat, but it’s easier just to picture it; we can describe freedom, but it’s not so easy. -​ If you encode something in both verbal and imagery systems, you’re more likely to remember it. -​ Explain why concrete words are remembered better. 4.​ Define the imagery debate and describe experimental evidence that supports both the functional equivalence hypothesis and propositional theory -​ The imagery debate is a long-standing disagreement in cognitive psychology about how we represent mental images. Functional Equivalence Hypothesis: -​ Proposed by Stephen Kosslyn -​ Argues that mental images are picture-like and function similarly to actual perception. -​ Mental imagery and visual perception use the exact brain mechanisms. -​ Bower & Winzenz, 1970 (interactive images help encode better) Proof -​ Mental Rotation (Shepard & Metzler, 1971) -​ Participants saw pairs of 3D objects and decided if they were the same or different. -​ Result: Response time increased the more the objects were rotated. -​ Conclusion: People mentally rotate images in a continuous, analog fashion—similar to how they’d rotate real objects. Propositional Theory: -​ Proposed by Zenon Pylyshyn -​ Argues that mental imagery is not like pictures at all. -​ Instead, it’s abstract and symbolic, using propositions (language-like representations) to store and process information. -​ Slameka & Graf, 1978 (when people generate info it is better encoded) Proof -​ Ambiguous Figures (e.g., Reed, 1974) -​ Participants were shown simple shapes (e.g., a star inside a parallelogram) and asked to identify hidden components. -​ Result: Even when people had a clear mental image, they couldn’t reinterpret it like they could with a real picture. -​ Conclusion: Mental images lack the flexibility of real images—supporting the idea that they’re not truly picture-like.  5.​ List and explain the differences between representational theories of knowledge representation and embodied cognition 6.​ Explain the hub-and-spoke model of semantic representation -​ How we store and organize the meanings of words, concepts, and objects in the brain. -​ It suggests that meaning is represented through two components: The Hub and The Spokes The Hub -​ The hub is a modality-independent concept center that allows information to be combined across situations into a coherent category -​ Integrates information from all modalities. -​ Acts like a convergence zone, combining all the "spokes" into a unified concept. The Spokes -​ The spokes are modality-specific sensory and motor areas involved in representing specific instances of category members in an active simulation -​ These are modality-specific areas of the brain (such as visual, auditory, and motor areas) that store sensorimotor and perceptual details of a concept. -​ Each “spoke” handles one type of information: -​ Visual (what it looks like) -​ Auditory (what it sounds like) -​ Motor (how you interact with it) -​ Olfactory/taste (how it smells/tastes) Decision Making 1.​ Describe the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning Deductive Reasoning -​ Definition: involves starting with a general principle or rule and applying it to reach a specific conclusion. -​ Characteristics: Top-down approach If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Leads to logically certain conclusions (validity matters) -​ Example: Premise 1: All mammals are warm-blooded Premise 2: A dolphin is a mammal -​ Conclusion: A dolphin is warm-blooded Inductive Reasoning -​ Definition: Inductive reasoning involves using specific observations or examples to make generalizations or predictions. -​ Characteristics: Bottom-up approach The conclusion is likely, but not guaranteed Leads to probabilistic reasoning -​ Example: Observation 1: The sun rose in the east yesterday. Observation 2: The sun rose in the east today -​ Conclusion: The sun always rises in the east -​ The conclusion is likely, but we can’t be 100% certain—it’s based on patterns and experience. 2.​ Describe what a syllogism is and the factors that influence how easily they can be solved -​ It can only be correct if the premises are true all of the time -​ Syllogisms: concluding 2 statements that we assume are true -​ Categorical syllogisms are identified by the use of quantifiers -​ Example: All mammals are animals. All dogs are mammals. Therefore, all dogs are animals. -​ Syllogisms with definite quantifiers are easier to solve -​ Syllogisms with negations are harder to solve -​ Sometimes, we cannot draw a logical conclusion from syllogism-it is indeterminate -​ We can solve syllogisms by using mental models (mental  representation of the given info and all possible outcomes) -​ Mental models used to solve syllogisms are limited by the same types of things that limit other cognitive tasks (logic in the real world is not fully based on reasoning) -​ Working memory -​ Prior knowledge -​ Visual imagery 3.​ Explain how we can use mental models to solve syllogisms -​ They allow us to visually or spatially organize abstract relationships -​ We can test possibilities and catch errors 4.​ List and explain (with examples) the cognitive factors that affect syllogistic reasoning -​ Working memory (working memory is limited, so people might lose track of a premise, accept invalid conclusions, or fail to test counterexamples.) -​ Prior knowledge (can also lead to belief bias, where people accept conclusions that seem true even if they're logically invalid.) -​ Visual imagery (Strong visual imagery skills help people create mental models of the premises, allowing them to visualize relationships and spot invalid conclusions.) 5.​ Describe conditional reasoning and the rules we can use to come to a valid conclusion -​ If conditional reasoning, we are given a set of propositions using an “if…then..” structure and asked to draw a logical conclusion from the propositions. If p, then q. P. Therefore,? “…If you don't remove the garbage, the kitchen will smell. You didn’t take out the garbage. Therefore, the kitchen smells.” -​ The antecedent is the statement that comes first and contains the “if…” statements -​ The consequent is the statement that follows and contains the “then…” statement -​ We can perform 1 of 2 actions in a conditional reasoning tasl: -​ Affirm part of the statement (say it's true) -​ Deny part of the statement (say it's false) Four Possible Kinds Of Reasoning During Conditional Reasoning Tasks 6.​ Affirm the antecedent: the “if…” part of the sentence is trye 7.​ Affirm the consequent: the “then…” part of the sentence is true 8.​ Deny the antecedent: the “if…” part of the sentence is false 9.​ Deny the consequent: the “then…” part of the sentence is false Valid Conclusions: Affirm Antecedent, Dency consequent 10.​Describe the Wason selection task and what it teaches us about our ability to reason Conditional Reasoning: Wason Selection Task -​ Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other -​ If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side -​ Select the fewest cards you need to turn over the discover whether the rule is valid or invalid What It Teaches Us  -​ People tend to look for information that supports a claim but tend not to look for information that refutes it- this is known as confirmation bias. -​ Teaches us that reasoning tasks are more difficult if they involve abstract concepts -​ We can use pragmatic reasoning schemas (goal based reasoning) to help reduce the resources required to solve the task 11.​Explain how knowledge can help or hinder reasoning 12.​Define inductive reasoning and hypothesis testing -​ Inductive reasoning is based on our observations of the world we make inferences about what is likely true -​ Reaching a logically certain conclusion is impossible (e.g., I wake up every day and look outside my window to see if the sun has come up. I see the sunrise. Therefore, the sun rises every day.) -​ The same cognitive resources limit inductive reasoning as deductive reasoning -​ Many of the decisions we make every day are based on inductive reasoning - we make decisions based on the probability of outcomes -​ That means our decisions are based on conclusions drawn from observations that can never be proven true. -​ Hypothesis Testing on the other hand: Testing a specific, testable idea using evidence and analysis (CAN BE PROVEN TRUE). 13.​Explain Expected Utility Theory -​ Assumes people are rational and want to make the optimal choice -​ Decisions based on subjective utility and subjective probability -​ Amanda likes pizza more than subs. She thinks there is a 90% chance Pizza Pizza and Subway both be open. Amanda decides to eat pizza. -​ Jason likes subs more than pizza. He thinks there is a 90% chance pizza pizza will be open and a 30% chance Subway will be open. Jason decides to eat pizza (based on utility) -​ According to the normative model of decision making all decisions should be made methodically and rationally 14.​Describe and give examples of heuristics and biases that affect decision-making -​ Most of the time, we make decisions using heuristics and often display biases Biases Framing -​ Decisions can be influenced by the background context of the choice and the way the choice is worded  -​ Two equal choices can seem “psychologically different.” -​ People would rather buy met that is 80% lean than meat that is 20% fat Prospect Theory -​ We evaluate outcomes as changes from a reference point (the current state) -​ We choose perceived gains over perceived losses -​ Perceived losses are more important than gains Heuristics Representativeness Heuristic -​ Small samples will more frequently demonstrate extreme results -​ We often commit the small-sample fallacy when we believe that small samples are indeed representative of the population -​ The small-sample fallacy plays a role in prejudice -​ When judging category membership, we rely almost exclusively on category representativeness and ignore information about base rate; this is known as the base rate fallacy Availability Heuristic -​ We judge frequency based on ease of retrieval from memory -​ If a random word is taken from an English text, it is more likely that the word states with a K, or that K is the third letter -​ Anything that influences ease of retrieval affects our likelihood 15.​Describe the dual-process theory of decision-making -​ Two systems are involved in decision-making: -​ System 1 is automatic and implicit -​ System 2 is controlled and conscious -​ System 2 can override System 1 to perform rationally and optimally -​ Making heuristic everyday decisions is not always a bad thing -​ Experts are more likely to use heuristic responses than novices Language Phonology and Semantics 1.​ Describe Hockett’s language universals -​ Semanticity: language conveys meaning -​ Arbitrariness: The signal doesn’t resemble what it represents -​ Flexibility and Naming: referents have labels, and they can be changed (dollar coin - loonie) -​ Duality of Patterning: the signal can be broken down into smaller units -​ Productivity: we can create an infinite number of new meaningful utterances from a finite number of meaningful signals -​ Displacement: we can communicate about things that aren’t present 2.​ Define the different levels used to study language -​ Phonology: the study of how sounds function within a particular language or languages, including their organization, patterns, and rules. (understanding words) -​ 2Morphology: the study of the structure, formation, and classification of words, including their roots, prefixes, suffixes, and how they change to convey different meanings. (understanding words) -​ Semantics: the study of meaning in language, including how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning in different contexts (understanding words, understanding sentences, and understanding stories) -​ Syntax: the set of rules that defines the structure and arrangement of symbols, words, and phrases in a language to form correctly structured statements or expressions. (understanding sentences and understanding stories) -​ Pragmatics: the study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in communication. (understanding sentences and understanding stories) 3.​ Explain what a phoneme is and what characteristics make phonemes special -​ A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that makes a difference in meaning -​ Ex. cat vs. bat (c-a-t-b are each phoneme) -​ Phonemes can be consonants or vowels What Makes Them Special? Lack of invariance problem -​ Phonemes are different depending on the context they’re in -​ Phonemes are unique because visually, mouth movements making sounds can not be properly perceived without an audition Segmentation Problem -​ We hear clearly separated words, but there aren’t any clear breaks between words in the acoustic signals -​ We use vision to help us hear The McGurk Effect  -​ An example of the importance of vision in speech -​ When vocal cords vibrate when you say a phoneme, it is voiced (e.g., b) -​ When vocal cords don't vibrate when you say a phoneme, it is unvoiced (e.g., p) 4.​ Explain the different types of morphemes -​ A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in language -​ E.g., the table is a morpheme (snowman contains 2 morphemes) -​ Morphemes are not the same thing as words Different Types -​ Free morphemes have meaning on their own -​ Bound morphemes contribute to word meaning but aren’t words by themselves -​ E.g., quickly contains two morphemes (one free and one bound) -​ Birds contain two morphemes (one free and one bound) 5.​ Describe the effects of context on lexical access -​ The meaning of words is stored in the mental lexicon -​ The mental dictionary in LTM stores words, their meanings, and their relation to other words -​ Lexical access depends on bottom-up and top-down processing -​ People respond more quickly to high-frequency (common) words than to low-frequency words -​ People notice lexical errors better when they appear in a predictable context -​ (Ex., She drove her rental “gar” home; please wash the “gar” today) -​ People recognize letters better in context than in isolation due to phonemic restoration -​ The phonemic restoration effect (our brain fills in missing sounds) demonstrates that context can affect our perception of language, not just comprehension -​ “The state governors met with their respective lego*latures convening in the capital city” (Warren, 1970) 6.​ Describe Swinney’s famous study of the timing of context on lexical access -​ Swinney (1979) demonstrated that the effect of context isn’t immediate Immediately after the ambiguous word (bugs): -​ Participants were faster to recognize both ant and spy compared to unrelated words. -​ This suggests that both meanings were activated, regardless of context. A few hundred milliseconds later: -​ Only the contextually appropriate meaning (e.g., ant) remained active. -​ The irrelevant one (spy) was suppressed. 7.​ Describe the three levels of discourse processing -​ Discourse is set of language unites larger than sentences  -​ Discourse is most often studied in the context of reading (we can control what people read, not what they say) 3 Levels of Discourse 1.​ Surface Level (the exact wording of a text) 2.​ Proposition Level (maintains important information in a propositional network) 3.​ Situation Model Level (an elaborated representation that represents what is being described) 8.​ Define coherence and provide examples of how inferences help achieve coherence -​ Successful discourse processing requires that the comprehender establish coherence -​ Local coherence related to the connection between adjacent sentences -​ Global coherence relates to connecting all of the sentences to a theme -​ This is particularly important for situation models -​ Simple reference is necessary for local coherence -​ Anaphor is a term that gets its meaning from another expression -​ The term to which the anchor refers is called the antecedent -​ Maria took the pen out of her purse. It was out of ink. -​ If we fail to find an explicit antecedent, we make a bridging inference -​ Herb unpacked some picnic supplies. The beer was warm. -​ Processing sentences that require a bridging inference takes more time than processing sentences where an explicit antecedent can be found. 9.​ Describe how making inferences influences the time it takes to process discourse -​ Different types of inferences require different amounts of processing resources 1.​ Mary went into her office. It was very dirty. 2.​ Mary went into her office. The floor was very dirty. 3.​ Mary went into her office. The African violet had bloomed. -​ Processing sentences that require a bridging inference takes more time than processing sentences where an explicit antecedent can be found. -​ Instrument inferences refer to the process of inferring the tool or means used to perform an action based on given information. This is a type of pragmatic inference where readers or listeners deduce an implicit detail not explicitly mentioned in a sentence. -​ Causal inferences: conclusions drawn about the cause-and-effect relationship between events based on given information. -​ Instrument interferences involve people making inferences about which tool was used to act (Bill dug a deep hole. He put in the young tree and covered the hole.) -​ Causal inferences explain that events in one sentence were caused in a previous sentence (John looked around then jumped from the window in a panic. He wished he hadn’t because the cast on his leg was very uncomfortable.” Language Syntax 1.​ Define grammar -​ Syntax encompasses the tactic rules of grammar -​ Grammars are the set of implicit syntactic rules that make a language system regular and productive -​ Prescriptive grammar describes what you ought to do to use language correctly -​ Descriptive grammar is what linguists are interested in, it is a description of language users' tacit knowledge of the rules of language -​ grammar refers to the set of rules that govern how words are arranged to form phrases, clauses, and sentences in a language. -​ Syntax: the rules for structure and order—how words combine to form valid sentences. 2.​ Define the immediacy principle -​ Readers or listeners try to interpret each word in a sentence as soon as they encounter it. Example -​ While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap. -​ At first, your brain might attach “the sock” as the object of “mending.” But then you hit “fell” and realize your initial interpretation doesn’t work. That’s because you interpreted the sentence immediately, before having all the information. -​ The Immediacy Principle shows that language comprehension is an incremental and active process. 3.​ Provide examples of how temporary syntactic ambiguities and garden path sentences are used to study parsing -​ In linguistics, parsing refers to the mental process of analyzing the structure of a sentence as it is read or heard. -​ A garden-path sentence leads the reader/listener toward an initial (but incorrect) interpretation, forcing them to backtrack and reanalyze when they realize they were wrong. -​ Temporary ambiguities and garden-path sentences are powerful tools for studying how the brain processes language in real-time, especially how we deal with unexpected syntax and how quickly we commit to a particular interpretation. 4.​ Explain the syntax-first approach to parsing and list some evidence to support and refute it -​ Some argue that syntax is special and processed separately from semantics -​ Support for a syntax-first view comes from observing temporary ambiguities -​ (1) The horse raced past the barn fell (2a) The warehouse fires were set by an arsonist Is Syntax Special? -​ Trueswell, Tanenhaus & Garnsey (1994) -​ To test whether sentence parsing is guided only by syntactic principles (like Minimal Attachment or Late Closure), or whether semantic/contextual cues—especially verb bias—play a role too. -​ Parsing is influenced by more than just syntactic simplicity. -​ Lexical (verb) bias plays a significant role in parsing decisions.