GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY PDF

1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Pharmacognosy Pharmacognosy is derived from two Greek words, Pharmakon & Gnosis Pharmakon – means ‘drug’. Gnosis – means ‘knowledge’. In brief, Pharmacognosy means ‘knowledge of drugs’. This term...

1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Pharmacognosy Pharmacognosy is derived from two Greek words, Pharmakon & Gnosis Pharmakon – means ‘drug’. Gnosis – means ‘knowledge’. In brief, Pharmacognosy means ‘knowledge of drugs’. This term was used for the first time by the Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811 and 1815 by Anotheus Seydler in a work titled Analecta Pharmacognostica. Pharmacognosy is a branch of pharmacy which deals with the basic resources of medicines from nature (plants & animals) and their uses as medicaments from ancient time to present day. Pharmacognosy may be defined as an important branch of Pharmacy which deals with the study of structural, physical, chemical, biochemical and sensory characters of natural drugs of plant animal and marine origin. It also includes a study of their history, distribution, cultivation, collection, identification, preparation, evaluation, preservation, use and commerce. At present pharmacognosy involves not only the crude drugs but also their natural derivatives (pure compounds or constituents). Digitalis leaf and its isolated glycoside, digitoxin; Rauwolfia root and its purified alkaloid, reserpine; and Thyroid gland with its extracted hormone, thyroxine, are all part of the subject matter of pharmacognosy. Pharmacognosy – History History of pharmacognosy is actually the history of medicine that is medicinal plants. Pre-history: The first or beginning of pre-history on use of medicinal plants or herbs or animals, and the place where and how used were not well known, and those information were unwritten for a long time. As a result, the pre-history on herbs was almost lost. 1  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK However, some information was recorded by oral transmission from generation to generation. Written History: The written history has originated which was based on region, religion and culture etc. The written history was divided into the following: The western medicine The Unani (Islam) The Ayurveda (Indian) The orient The Greek History The African System 1. The western medicine:  This is originated in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Mesopotamia is considered as the first origin of human civilization. The Sumerians (people of ancient Mesopotamia) developed cuneiform tablet of herbal medicines. Those tablets are preserved in British museum.  In Egypt, information had been written on paper – Papyrus ebers (1600BC). It consisted of 800 prescriptions, mentioning 700 drugs.  The first pharmacopoeia named London Pharmacopoeia was published in 1618 and then British Pharmacopoeia was published in 1864. Cuneiform tablets: 2  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK 2. The Unani (Islam) This herbal system was developed by Arabian Muslim Ibn Sina (980 – 1037 AD). He was a prince and ruler. He was a very brilliant pharmacist and physician who wrote a book – “Kitab-Al-Shifa”, meaning ‘Book of Healing’. The book was written in Arabic language. This is a great contribution of Ibn Sina towards medical and pharmaceutical sciences. 3. The Ayurveda (Indian, 2500-600 BC): Ayurveda is the term for traditional medicine of ancient India. The word “Ayur” means ‘Life’ and “veda” means ‘The study of’; that is “Study of Life”. The Ayurvedic writings were divided into three systems: 1) Charaka Samhita, 2) Sushruta Samhita and 3) Astanga samhita. The oldest writing was Charaka Samhita (6-700 years BC). The book describes uses of many metallic drugs e.g., iron, mercury, sulphur, copper etc with herbs. 4. The orient (2700 BC):  This is originated from Chinese, Japanese and Tibetians etc. The orient herbalism was very old (142 – 220 BC) and called “Kampo”. The written documents were made by the King ‘Shen Nung’ (2700 BC) and Shang dynasty (1766 – 1122 BC) etc.  Shen Nung investigated medicinal value of several herbs and wrote a book – “Pen T-Sao” or native herbal. 5. The Greek History: Some of the early naturalists, scientists and physicians who contributed enormously to the development of human knowledge about medicinal plants include following:  Hippocrates (Father of Medicine, 460-370 BC) ‫ بابائے ادویات‬٬ ‫بقراط‬: He was the first natural doctor who utilized simple remedies such as vinegar, honey, herbs etc. in healing. He is also known to have collected and identified a number of medicinal plants. 3  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK  Aristotle (384-322 BC) ‫ارسطو‬: He gave the philosophy of medicine. He listed more than 500 plants of medicinal importance.  Theophrastus (371-287 BC): gave scientific basis of use of plants as medicine.  Galen (131-200 AD): a Greek pharmacist-physician. He developed the methods of preparing and compounding medicines by mechanical means. He was the originator of the formulae for a cold cream. 6. The African System (Tropical Africa, North and South America):  They kept information in their groups or tribes. The information is transmitted from one generation to another.  These regions are richest sources of medicinal plants and need to be explored for new drugs. Scope of Pharmacognosy Pharmacognosy deals primarily with information on the sources and constituents of natural drugs. 1. Primary source of medicines (from ancient time to present day), for example – hyoscine, morphine, ergotamine etc. 2. Providing Template/guide for the discovery of new drugs, for example – Pathidine (analgesic drug) designed from morphine. Scope of Pharmacognosy Pharmacognosy is one of the five major divisions of the pharmaceutical curriculum which represents the oldest branch of the profession of pharmacy. The ancients gathered herbs, animals, plants, and minerals and concocted them into ill-flavored pungent mixtures. Innumerable remedies were known to the early practitioners of pharmacy and medicine, a fact indicated by the writings of Theophrastus, Pliny, 4  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Dioscorides, and their contemporaries. Thousands of plant and animal products used for the treatment of ills were described by Dioscorides in his book "De Materia Medica." Of these a surprisingly large number are still of importance in modern therapeutic practice: Cinnamon, Ergot, Hyoscyamus, and Opium were used in much the same manner as today. Most of the crude drugs are obtained from plants & only a small number comes from animals & mineral origin. Drugs obtained from plants consist of entire plants or their parts. Ephedra & datura are entire plants. While senna leaves & pods, nux-vomica seeds & cinchona bark are parts of plants. Crude drugs may also be obtained by physical processes like drying (opium) or extracting with water (catechu, agar). Several other useful substances affecting health of animals & human being are also included along with crude drugs in the study of pharmacognosy. These substances include allergens, anti-biotics, flavouring agents, colours, pesticides, immunizing agents, vehicles & diagnostic aids. Terms & Phrases used in Pharmacognosy Drug: Standard dictionaries define drug as “an original, simple medicinal substance, organic or inorganic, used by itself or as an ingredient in medicine”. According to WHO, definition of drug is – “any substance used in a pharmaceutical product that is intended to modify or explore physiological systems or pathological states for the benefit of the recipient”. According to Pharmacology drug is a chemical substance used in the treatment, cure, prevention and diagnosis of disease or to enhance physical and mental well being. Pharmaceutical Product/ Medicine Pharmaceutical product/Medicine means “a dosage form (tablet/capsule/syrup/Inj - IV/IM) containing one or more drugs along with 5  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK other substances included during the manufacturing process intended for therapeutic effect”. Crude Drug: The term “Crude”, as used in relation to natural products, a crude drug is a natural drug of plant or animal origin which has undergone no treatment other than collection and drying, that is, the quality or appearance of the drug has not been advanced in value or improved in condition by any physical or chemical treatment beyond that which is essential for its proper packing and prevention from deterioration. For example: Digitalis leaf, Rauwolfia root etc. Application of Drug Prevention of a disease : for example, vaccine. Fight against an infection: for example, antibiotics. Temporary blocking of a normal function: for example, general & local anesthetics Detoxification of the body: for example, antidotes. Diagnostic agents: for example, radioisotopes. Correction of dysfunction: for example, cardiotonics (digoxin) for the treatment of congestive heart failure. Correction of hyperfuntion: for example, Rauwolfia root (reserpine) for the treatment of hypertension. Indigenous vs Naturalized Indigenous : Plants growing in their native countries are said to be indigenous to those regions. For example: Aconite (Aconitum napellus) in the mountainous region of Europe. It is highly poisonous used as diuretic in Homeopathic preparations. 6  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Naturalized: Plants are said to be naturalized when they grow in a foreign land or in a locality other than their native homes. For example: Datura (Datura stramonium) which was introduced into the USA from Europe. Official Books It provides guideline for the manufacturing, quality control, packaging, storage, dose regimen, indication, contraindication etc of different pharmaceutical products/medicine for the treatment of diseases. USP – United States Pharmacopoeia BP – British Pharmacopoeia NF – National Formulary BNF – British National Formulary BDNF – Bangladesh National Formulary BPC – British Pharmaceutical Codex Martin Dale Extra Pharmacopoeia Materia Medica Physician’s Index Goodman’s & Gilmann’s: The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. Official vs Unofficial vs Non-official drug Official drug: Any drug (crude or prepared) which is included in pharmacopoea or in national formulary or in recognized books is called an ‘official drug’. For example: quinine, morphine, codeine, paracetamol are included in BP, USP, NF and so on. Unofficial drug: A drug which has been recognized earlier in the pharmacopoeia or in national formulary or in recognized books but not found in the current issue is 7  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK designated as an ‘unofficial drug’. Those substances were excluded from the recognized books due to their severe toxic effects on humans. For example: Sucralfate (hyperacidity), mercurial compounds (diuretics), benzoic acid (preservative) etc. Non-official drug Substance that has never been appeared in either of the official books may be called non-official. Such types of compounds may be published in current journals having proven clinical value, but we do not know about their side effects. For example - Curcumine (sinusitis), etc. Extractive The crude mixtures of chemical constituents that are removed from plants or animals by various extraction processes are called extractives or derivatives. Secondary metabolites These are substances synthesized or produced as by-products by plants during their metabolic activities. Apparently they are of no primary use to plants. They are therefore also regarded as ‘waste products of metabolism, which are usually accumulated in some parts of the plant and are physiologically active on living organisms. 8  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Dried Juice: The juices are obtained from fleshy leaves (aloes) or from stems of the trees (kino). In all cases, incisions are made to respective part of the plant and juices coming out are collected and dried. Latex : Latex is a product present in special tissue of plant. It is white, aqueous and suspension. The suspended particles are protein, sugar, minerals, alkaloid, resin, starch etc. e.g. opium, papain. Monograph The descriptive material pertaining to any drug, therapeutic agent included in the pharmacopoeia is known as the monograph. The monograph of a drug includes: official title, synonyms, definition, description, collection or preparation, identity tests, tests for adulterants, method of assay, storage, uses and dose of the drug. [email protected] 03349306305 9  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Monograph of Trigonella foenum-graecum (Family: Papilionacacae) Common name: Fenugreek (Eng.), Methi (Bengali) Cultivation: It is cultivated in different areas of Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Middle East, Africa. Description: The Latin species name foenum-graecum means ‘Greek hay’, which is a dried plant's (leaves or seeds) and has a strong hay-like scent. It has a strong, pleasant and a peculiar odor and grows best in well-drained soils with a low rainfall into brownish- yellow rhombic shape seeds. Parts used: Ripe, dried seeds Chemical constituents: Seeds are rich in mucilage (mainly galactomannans), fixed oil, fatty acids and protein. They also contain alkaloids, saponine, glycosides etc. Uses: Seeds are diuretics, astringent. They are popularly used in the treatment of loss of appetite, weight loss, menstrual disorder. Also used in hypertension, diabetes, etc. It lowers TG, cholesterol, LDL. Dose: Daily dose, 18 g. 10 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Pharmacognosy & Modern Medicine  Simultaneous advancement in the field of chemistry, biochemistry, biosynthesis and pharmacology has developed pharmacognosy.  Various active compounds have been isolated from plants which are used in modern medicine.  With the advancement of synthetic organic chemistry most of the active constituents of plants have been synthesized.  100s of plants are used in modern medicine in various parts of the world. Important active constituents of plants used in medicine Active Plants Pharmacological constituents activity Morphine, Papaver Sedative, smooth Codeine, somniferum L. muscle relaxant Papaverine Quinine, Cinchona sp. Antimalarial, Quinidine antiarrthythmic Hyoscine, Datura sp., Parasympatholytic Atropine Digitoxin, Digitalis lanata Cardiotonic Digoxin Reserpine, Rauwolfia sp. Hypotensive, Rescinamine vasodialator Vincristine, Catharanthus Anticancer Vinblastin roseus 03349306305 11 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Active Plants Pharmacological constituents activity Caffeine Camellia CNS stimulant sinensis Cocaine Erythroxylum Anaesthetic coca Ephedrine Ephedra sp. Sympathomimetic Pilocarpine Pilocarpus Parasympathomimetic jaborandi Ergometrine Oxytocic Ergotamine Claviceps Vasoconstrictor purpurea Ergotoxine Vasodialator Active Pharmacological constituents activity Plants Psyllium Laxative mucilage Plantago ovata Sennosides Laxative Cassia angustifolia 12  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Theophylline CNS stimulant Caffea Diuretic Arabica Steroid Anti-inflammatory, hormones antiarthritic Solanum sp. Application of Pharmacognosy Plants always provide novel molecular structure, which played important role for the molecular design and development of novel potent, less toxic or nontoxic drugs e.g. natural morphine has got analgesic & narcotic effect but meperidine – a synthetic drug originates from morphine basic skeleton is non-narcotic. Plant & animal products give potential biological effect without any undesirable effects. Plant & animal products can be taken with very ease. Limitation of Pharmacognosy Drugs obtained from natural sources have a variety of limitations. The majors are; A natural compound may be highly active but usually this is associated with high toxicity problem, ex- the toxic and therapeutic dose of digitalis are very close which create serious problem to use this medicine by the patient alone. Some compounds are found in nature that give beneficial pharmacological actions but their potencies are too low to be employed therapeutically. The yield of active natural products may be very low and thus the production cost of those drugs will be very high The source of a natural drug may be very limited with respect to geography, season and climate etc. 13  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Sources of Medicaments Medicines are synthesised in the laboratory by organic chemist. Only a few of compounds are isolated from plants, which cannot be replaced by synthetic method. For example: morphine isolated from Papaver somniferum; vincristin & vinblastin (anticancer drug) from Vinca rosea, the most potent anticancer drug taxol from Texus brevifolia; the constituents of digitalis cannot be properly replaced by any synthetic drug like quinidine which is used for the treatment of arrhythmia. Classification of Drugs In pharmacognosy, drugs may be classified in different ways – 1. Alphabetical classification 2. Morphological classification 3. Taxonomical classification 4. Therapeutic/ pharmacological classification 5. Chemical classification Each of these methods of classification has merits and demerits. 1. Alphabetical classification: Alphabetical classification is the simplest way of classification of any disconnected items. Crude drugs are arranged in alphabetical order of their Latin and English names (common names) or sometimes local language names (vernacular names). Some of the pharmacopoeias, dictionaries and reference books which classify crude drugs according to this system are as follows. 1. Indian Pharmacopoeia 2. British Pharmacopoeia 3. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia 14  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK 4. United States Pharmacopoeia and National Formulary 5. British Pharmaceutical Codex. 6. European Pharmacopoeia In European Pharmacopoeia these are arranged according to their names in Latin whereas in U.S.P. and B.P.C., these are arranged in English. Merits: It is easy and quick to use There is no repetition of entries and is devoid of confusion. In this system location, tracing and addition of drug entries is easy. Demerits: There is no relationship between previous and successive drug entries. Examples: Acacia, Benzoin, Cinchona, Dill, Ergot, Fennel, Gentian, Hyoscyamus, Ipecacuanha, Jalap, Kurchi, Liquorice, Mints, Nuxvomica, Opium, Podophyllum, Quassia, Rauwolfia, Senna, Vasaka, Wool fat, Yellow bees wax, Zeodary. 2. Morphological classification In this system, the drugs are arranged according to the morphological or external characters of the plant or animal parts i.e. which part of the plant is used as a drug e. g. leaves, roots, stem etc. The drugs obtained from the direct parts of the plants and containing cellular tissues are called as organized drugs e. g. Rhizomes, barks, leaves, fruits, entire plants, hairs and fibres. The drugs which are prepared from plants by some intermediate physical processes such as incision, drying or extraction with a solvent and not containing any cellular plant tissues are called as unorganized drugs. Aloe juice, opium latex, agar, gelatin, tragacanth, benzoin, honey, beeswax, lemon grass oil etc. are examples of unorganized drugs. BSM 15  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Merits: Morphological classification is more helpful to identify and detect adulteration. This system of classification is more convenient for practical study especially when the chemical nature of the drug is not clearly understood. Demerits: The main drawback of morphological classification is that there is no co-relation of chemical constituents with the therapeutic actions. Repetition of drugs or plants occurs. 3. Taxonomical classification Taxonomical classification is purely a botanical classification and is based on principles of natural relationship and evolutionary developments. In this system crude drugs are arranged according to the natural groups of their source (e.g. Families). Family Drugs Solanaceae Solanaceous drugs. eg. Tropane alkaloids Umbelliferae Umbelliferous drugs. eg., volatile oils Merits:- Taxonomical classification is helpful for studying evolutionary developments. Drawback: This system also does not co-relate in between the chemical constituents and biological activity of the drugs. WWW.FACEBOOK.COM/BILALSAGARMALIK555 16  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK 4. Pharmacological classification: Grouping of drug according to their pharmacological action or of most important constituent or their therapeutic use is termed as pharmacological or therapeutic classification of drug. This classification is more relevant and is mostly followed method. Drugs like digitalis, squill and strophanthus having cardiotonic action are grouped together irrespective of their parts used or phylogenetic relationship or the nature of phytoconstituents they contain. Next is an outline of pharmacological classification of drugs. Pharmacological action Drugs Anticancer Vinca Analgesic Opium, cannabis Purgatives Senna, Aloe, Castor oil, Plantago husk Cardiotonic Digitalis, strophanthus Tranquillizer Rauwolfia root Anti-inflammatory Turmeric, colchicum Merits: This system of classification can be used for suggesting substitutes of drugs if they are not available at a particular place or point of time. Demerits: Drugs having different action on the body gets classified separately in more than one group that causes ambiguity and confusion. Cinchona is antimalarial drug because of presence of quinine but can be put under the group of drug affecting heart because of antiarrythymic action of quinidine. DR HAROON KHAN ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR 17  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK 5. Chemical classification The crude drugs are divided into different groups according to the chemical nature of their most important constituent having biological activity. Since the pharmacological activity and therapeutic significance of crude drugs are based on the nature of their chemical constituents, the chemical classification of drugs is dependent upon the grouping of drugs with identical constituents. Chemical constituents Drugs 1. Carbohydrates - Dextrose, fructose, galactose a) Monosaccharidase - Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose b) Disaccharide - Starch c) Polysaccharide - Acacia, Tragacanth Gum - Plantago seed Mucilages - Cotton Cellulose 2. Glycosides - Digitalis, strophanthus a) Cardiac - Aloe, Cascara, senna b) Anthraquinone - Arjuna c) Saponins - Wild cherry bark d) Cyanophore 3. Tannins Amla, Bhera, Ashoka bark 4. Volatile oil Clove oil, rose oil, peppermint oil, tulsi etc 5. Lipids - Olive oil, castor oil, coconut oil etc a) Fixed oils & fats - Bees wax b) Waxes 18  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Chemical constituents Drugs 6. Resins ginger, capsicum etc. 7. Alkaloids a) Nicotiana, areca nut a) Pyridine & piperidine b) Coca, Belladonna, Datura b) Tropane c) Cinchona c) Quinoline d) Opium, Ipecac d) Isoquinoline e) Ergot, Nuxvomica, Rauwolfia, catharanthus, Physostigma e) Indole f) Kurchi f) Steroidal g) Tea, Coffee g) Purine 8. Protein Gelatin, gluten etc 9. Vitamins Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Ascorbic acid etc 10. Antibiotics Penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline etc 11. Hormones Adrenaline, thyroxine etc Merits : It is a popular approach for phytochemical studies Demerits: Ambiguities arise when particular drugs possess a number of compounds belonging to different groups of compounds. “TRYING AND DOING ARE TWO DIFFERENT THINGS.WHEN YOU TRY, YOU HOPE.WHEN YOU DO,YOU SUCCEED” 19  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Homeopathy Introduction to Homeopathy Principles A system of medicine based on the principle of “like cures like” Uses the smallest dose possible to produce a response Origins This principle was first described in Hindu writings over 3000 years ago Also mentioned by Hippocrates , Galen and Paracelsus in16th century More recently researched by a German physician Samuel Hahnemann who developed “Homoeopathy He initiated the treatment of a disease with a low dose of those drugs which produce disease symptoms in normal individuals. So a medicine producing disease in healthy ind. Will treat the same symptoms in patients. The principal of like with like is quite reverse of the allopathic system. Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843) considered to be the father of Homeopathy Hahnemann Disappointed physician Tried cinchona bark Gave preparations to family and students to prove Diluted medication Remedies Discovery of the modern system of Homoeopathy The founder of the modern system of homoeopathic treatment was a brilliant German physician, Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, born on the 10-th of April 1755 in the town of Meissen in Saxony (Eastern Germany) 20  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK It was during this difficult time that Hahnemann performed an epoch-making experiment that was to lay the foundation for his new system of medicine – Homoeopathy. It arose when he was translating a book from English into German written by a distinguished Scottish physician, Dr.William Cullen "A treatise on Materia Medica". It was an account of a drug Cinchona or Peruvian bark (Cortex Peruvianus) which had been used for the treatment of malaria, first in South America and subsequently in Europe, which prompted the experiment, for several days he took large doses of the drug and carefully noted the symptoms:  his feet and finger tips became cold,  he became drowsy,  his heart began to palpitate,  his pulse quickened,  he experienced trembling in all his limbs with a thirst  and redness of cheeks. The symptoms lasted only for a few hours and recurred each time he repeated the dose. Thus the drug cinchona, when taken by a healthy person induced symptoms similar to malaria, the disease for which the drug was used to cure. Hahnemann noted in the book "cinchona bark" which is used as a remedy for intermittent fever in healthy people. He had established the basic precept of homoeopathy, fore shadowed by Hippocrates, Galen Stahl and Paracelsus. Examples of the similia principle in medicine Radiotherapy which is used to treat cancer also causes it Amphetamines (CNS stimulant) which produce hyperactivity, are used to treat hyperactive children Immunisation 21 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK treatment of erythromelalgia (neurovascular peripheral pain disorder) with Praxilene? Basis of Treatment Homeopathy works with the body’s response to illness and remedies are prescribed according to the symptoms one remedy can be used to treat several ailments one ailment may need to be treated with different remedies in different patients Materia medica Known symptoms produced by poisonings Symptoms relieved when remedy given for other symptoms Examples of the similia principle Peeling an onion leads to painfulnes, runny eyes, itchy nose and sneezing - Allium cepa used to treat hayfever and colds nettle stings (Urtica dioica) produce a burning, itchy wheal on the skin - Urtica urens is a good remedy for similar skin lesions arsenic poisoning causes severe vomiting and diarrhoea with burning pains and chilliness - Arsenicum album (diluted sol. Of arsenic trioxide) effective in gastroenteritis and food poisoning Selecting the remedy Detailed Homeopathic history Repertorization( in homeopathy, the use of a list of symptoms and their corresponding remedies to help in the selection of an appropriate remedy based on details) Materia medica Homeopathic history Details of presenting complaint - aetiology, aggravations, ameliorations, modalities 22 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Aetiology : trauma, pregnancy, menopause, glandular fever Aggravations : conditions that make symptoms worse Ameliorations : improve symptoms Modalities : conditions qualifyingHomeopathic history General symptoms - patients’ reaction to their environment, heat, cold, weather Food likes or dislikes periodicity - frequency of symptoms - monthly, weekly, yearly. Mind or Mental symptoms: Placid, anxious, Anxious on anticipation Depressed Weepy Consolation Easily bored. Jealous Tidy Fears Company Shy Routine Resentments General appearance: Vivacious red-head. Nervous 23 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Laid-back absent minded professor Prim and proper Scruffy Extremely neat and colour co-ordinated Weepy blonde Lacks energy Flabby handshake Closed Shy, hides behind mother Anxious to please, maintain eye contact The relevant kingdom Animal, Mineral or Vegetable (Plant) Animal – hunter/ hunted, prey, pursued, escaping, nurturing, flying, pouncing, caged, free Mineral – structural terms, cracking, crumbling, stable/ unstable, falling apart Plant – sensitive to surroundings e.g light, warmth, smells, cold, damp, Repertorization Repertory contains details of symptoms produced by remedies listed under bodily systems e.g. mind, vertigo, head, eye, vision, ear, hearing, nose, face etc. e.g. heartburn after eating - Aesc. agar. Am.c. anac. Calc. Calc. p. carl. Chin. Cocc.c. con. Croc. Graph. Iod. Lyc. Merc. Nat. mur. Nit. Ac. Nux v. Sep. Sil. Strong features of the history in each area - mind, generals and local symptoms 24 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK The strength of a symptom as indicated by the type, i.e. bold type-strongly present, italic - moderate, ordinary type - symptom present for that remedy Further considerations Aetiology Peculiar symptoms e.g. burning sensation > warm applications asthma > lying down feels exceptionally well day before headache Symptoms can then be fed into a computer Remedies These are prepared from :- minerals, plants, fish, insects, snakes and disease products Sepia - ink sac of the cuttle fish: Irritable, intolerant of contradiction Weepy, depressed, easily offended Can’t be bothered, can’t cope Indifferent to family, wants to run away Brunettes, butterfly rash on face 25 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Pulsatilla - wind flower Mild, yielding disposition, shy, blush Fair, fat, forty, blue-eyed Laughs and cries easily, craves sympathy < for heat > fresh air, < damp > gentle movement, restless Absence of thirst, dislike and upset by fat, pork, spicy food Sulphur Absent minded professor Scruffy with dirty skin Desires fat, salt, sweet Skin ailments Lazy, selfish, irritable Hungry 11a.m. Case History: 40 yr old lady Depressed, indifferent to family lacks affection anxious about finances wants to be alone > dancing,walking quickly desire vinegar Indifferent to loved ones : Acon. Ars. Fl.ac.Hell. Merc. Nat.p. Phos. Plat. Sep. 26 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Fear of poverty:Ambr.Bry.Calc Calc.f.chlor. Meli. Nux v. Psor. Puls. Sep. Sulph. > alone: Bar.c.Lyc. Nat c. Nat m. Plb. Sep.Stann. Staph. > walking fast: Arg n.Canth. Carb ac. Ign. Nat m. Petr. Sep. Stann. Sul ac.Tub. Desires vinegar: Apis.Arn. Ars. Hep. Kali p. Sep. Sulph Preparation of the Remedies: Whole plant is macerated in alcohol 1 drop added to 9 or 99 of solution results in 1X or 1C potency Standard potencies :- 6C, 30C, 200C, 1M, 10M, 50M Prescription 6C for local symptoms e.g. joint pain, skin eruptions 30C for acute illness e.g. influenza, diarrhoea and vomiting, childhood illnesses 200C if giving glandular fever, measles vaccine 1M or 10M for strong emotional symptoms e.g. grief, depression, anxiety etc. Instructions for taking remedies Homeopathic remedies are very delicate and should not be handled. They are absorbed from the mouth and so are sucked not swallowed. Should not be taken near food or drink as these may interfere with the absorption. Store away from strong smells. Direction of cure From top to bottom 27 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK From inside to outside From an important organ to a lesser one May develop “old symptoms” The clinical place for homeopathy Where there is no effective allopathic alternative Where conventional medication is unsafe Where allopathy has unacceptable side-effects To minimise the use of allopathy No effective allopathic treatment: Allergies Anger Bruises Colic Fear/phobias Glandular fever Grief Influenza Mastalgia M.E./chronic fatigue Nightmares Premenstrual syndrome Teething Urethral syndrome Warts 28 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Where conventional medication is unsafe: Pregnant women Young children and babies The elderly Anticipatory anxiety Where the side effects of allopathy are unacceptable Anxiety Depression Menopausal symptoms Osteoarthritis Situations requiring repeat antibiotics To minimise the use of allopathy Asthma/eczema Constipation Dysmenorrhoea Hypertension Migraine Neuralgias Recurrent otitis media/ U.T.Is/ sore throats The rewards of homeopathy Patient satisfaction Effects on consultation technique Intellectual achievement The joy of detective work Understanding aetiology 29 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Personal satisfaction and fulfillment Overall Outcome of Treatment with Homoeopathy – GHHOS: 1 = No change 2 = Slight change Improvement in wellbeing but not PC 3 = mod improvement 4 = good improvement No symptoms as long as continue with remedies 5 = cure Asymptomatic without remedies 68% range from 3-5. Outcome 2002 40 40 35 30 25 22 No. of 19 19 19 20 patients Series1 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Outcome measure 30  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Conditions referred for homeopathy in 2004 Asthma/eczema/allergies/hayfever - 17% Menopausal and PMT symptoms – 16% Rheumatological symptoms - 13% Chronic fatigue syndrome - 10% ADHD, IBS, UTIs, neuralgia, candidiasis, depression and anxiety, headaches, migraine, etc. Audit of Homeopathic treatment for Rheumatology diseases: 1 – No Change 2 – Sl Improvement 3 = Mod Improvement 4= Good Improvement 5 = Complete Cure Outcome of Homeopathic Treatment for Rheumatology Symptoms 14 12 10 No. of Patients 8 Series1 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 Outcome measure 31  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Outcome of Menopausal Symptoms: 20% no change 10% improvement in wellbeing 30% some improvement 34% asymptomatic - on remedies 6% asymptomatic - no remedies. Outcome of Treatment for Menopausal symptoms 25 20 No. of patients 15 Series1 10 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Improvement The evidence for homoeopathy RCTs - the meta-analyses Kleijnen J, Knipschild P, Ter Riet G. Clinical trials of homeopathy. British Medical Journal 1991; 302 (Feb 9) : 316-323. Linde K, Clausius N, Ramirez G, Melchart D,et al. Are the clinical effects of homeopathy placebo effects? A meta-analysis of placebo- controlled trials. The Lancet 1997; 350 (Sep 20): 834-843. Kleijnen’s conclusion They found that of 107 trials with interpretable results, 77 were positive. They then looked at a sub-group of the most rigorous trials and discovered that 15 out of 22 found homeopathy to be superior to placebo. 32 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK One of Kleijnen’s conclusions was that the evidence found : would probably be sufficient for establishing homeopathy as a regular treatment for certain conditions. Linde’s conclusion Linde’s conclusion is “The results of our meta-analysis are not compatible with the hypothesis that the clinical effects of homeopathy are completely due to placebo”. A reading of the study shows a clearly positive result for homeopathy 42% of the trials were clearly positive and a further 39% showed a positive trend Why learn homeopathy Your patients will be using it Your colleagues will be using it There is a clinical need for it It is rewarding Ayurveda  Ancient system of healing developed in India. It focuses on unbalances in “life energies” as etiologic for disease states. By eliminating unbalanced states, to cure the root of disease, not simply the “symptoms,” broadly defined as nearly ANY physical manifestation of disease (pain, fever, CHF, pneumonia, etc). The Doshas  The life energies previously mentioned are encapsulated into three entities known as Doshas: Vata, Kapha, and Pitta. Vata Dosha  Defined by movement- sometimes referred to as the wind or air.  The senses 33 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK  Motion  Creativity  Action Pitta Dosha  Defined by its relation to Fire  Metabolic  Digestive  Perception of the outside world after mediation by the senses (i.e. mental status). Kapha Dosha  Defined by preservation and solidity.  Physical strength  Immunity  Emotion  Regeneration Prakriti  Our Nature- does not change  There is an ideal proportion of doshas for each person. The key is determining the individual’s balance and bringing him in line with it. There is no “perfect formula” for everyone. The Ayurvedic Encounter  Consists of long (1 hr to often 2 hrs) interview and physical examination.  Determine entire course of one’s day.  Find how each activity affects the individual and when it began.  Individualize a treatment plan based on the information Taken Treatment 34 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK  Individualized  Determine best method for rebalancing the Doshas based on lifestyle and individual characteristics. Diet  Critical to Ayurveda  Food alters our doshas based on the interaction of its intrinsic categories with our Prakriti.  Altering intake can greatly alter the balance  Includes supplements and everyday food  Certain combinations must be  avoided Exercise  Our imbalances often depend upon certain physical strengths/weaknesses.  We can alter some of these through targeted exercises or elimination of certain activities. Yoga  Yoga simply means “path” in Sanskrit  There are many “Yogas” in addition to the physical one we see on TV.  The most important is breathing Yoga.  Spiritual paths (i.e. Yoga of faith) are critical as well. Daily Habits  Sleep  Regularity of activities  Work  Worldview and stress 35 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK Trials?  western trials are ill suited for evaluation of this system  These trials rely on a certain reproducibility.  The Ayurvedic system is so individualized and complex that it cannot be encompassed into protocols.  Individual doctors will assess patients differently and recommend diverse treatment plans.  These plans are all valid, however, in their ability to rebalance the doshas. Does it work?  It has survived for at least 6000 years (despite the failure of many different systems).  Patients tend to show improvement according to many sources.  It has always been popular. UNANI MEDICINE:  Unani medicine is one of the oldest medicine in the world. It is still practiced in all parts of the world but mostly is it practiced in Indopak.  Unanimedicine is an ancient form of medicine first developed by the Greeks in 460 BC. It then spread throughout the Roman empire by notable scientists such as Galen (201 AD). With the fall of the Roman empire a decline came in the practice of unani medicine.  It re-emerged later in Iran, where Muslim physicians translated the unani texts into Arabic. While in the middle east, Muslim physicians begin to refine and further develop unani medicine.  IndoPak was then introduced to unani medicine in the 13th century through the numerous Muslim invasions. Today, unani medicine is practiced across the country by Hakims.  Unaani (in Arabic, Hindustani, Persian, Pashtu, Urdu, etc) means "Greek". It derives from the Greek word Ionia, the Greek name of the Asia Minor coastline, from the Arabic word for Greece: "al-Yunaan". 36  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK  Hippocrates freed the medicine from empire of Superstition (false notion) and Magic and gave it the status of Science. Hippocrates is regarded as the "Father Of Unani Medicine”  The word "Unani" (meaning "Ionian") reflects the strong Greek influence to this tradition of medicine, but the origins of the traditional Oriental medicine known as "Unani - Tibb" begin with the famous physician, Avicenna. Also known by the name Hakim Abu Ali Abdullah Husayn Ibn-e-Sina. PRINCIPLES OF UNANI SYSTEM The Unani medicine is divided into two parts  Theory  Practice Theory is divided into three parts:  The theory of Naturals  The theory of Causes  The theory of Signs NATURALS: There are seven things which are natural, they are  Elements  Temperaments  Humors  Organs  Forces  Actions  Spirits ELEMENTS There are four basic elements on which unani system of medicine depends:  Fire  Air 37  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK  Water  Earth The force of fire is hot and dry. The force of air is hot and wet. The force of water is cold and wet. The force of earth is cold and dry. TEMPERAMENTS:  There are nine kinds of temperaments in which eight are non-equable and one is equable. Of the eight non-equable, four are single: hot, cold, wet, and dry; and four are compound: hot and dry, hot and wet, cold and dry, and cold and wet.  Unanihakims can classify patients according to their temperament. hot temperament individuals are physically strong, have good digestion, and  a quick temper moist temperament individuals are obese and excessively salivate  cold and dry temperament individuals have a good appetite and prominent blood vessels. HUMORS: There are four kinds of humors:  Blood  Phlegm (balgham)  Yellow bile  Black bile The force of blood is hot and wet. The force of phlegm is cold and wet. The force of yellow bile is hot and dry. The force of black bile is cold and dry. ORGANS: There are four kinds of organs:  Some are principal organs, comparable to elements and metals; these are four: the brain, the heart, the liver, and the two testicles (in the female, the two ovaries).  Others are servants to these principal organs. 38 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK FORCES: There are three kinds of forces:  Natural  Vital  Psychic ACTIONS: There are two kinds of actions:  Some are single: These are the actions that are achieved each by a single force, like attraction, retention, digestion, and propulsion.  Others are compound- These are achieved by two or more forces. SPIRITS: There are three kinds of Spirits:  Natural spirit: Emanates from the liver, penetrates through the veins into the whole body, and is servant to the natural forces  Vital spirit: Emanates from the heart, penetrates through the arteries into the whole body, and is servant to the vital forces.  Psychic spirit: Emanates from the brain, penetrates through the nerves into the whole body and is servant to the psychic forces.  Emanates is a feeling, quality, or sensation. PREPARATIONS:  Remedies are often provided by the practitioner or are obtained from a specialized herbalist.  The ingredients are mainly herbs and honey. It must be noted that the honey used will be raw and unadulterated, which is usually heat-treated.  A famous and widely used medicinal herb is black cumin (Nigella sativa) seed. 39 1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK  Black cumin is said to strengthen the immune system when taken over a period of time. Research has proved that it has the ability to slow the division of cancer cells. FOOD AS MEDICINE:  In common Unani-Tibb emphasizes the use of flavors and tastes to adjust the imbalances which contribute to disease.  The choices of foods and their preparation are considered to be the most important issues to improve health.  Skillful use of warming and cooling spices and herbs contribute heavily to the appropriateness of the meal to correct the root causes of imbalances.  The tastes, salty, sweet, bitter, pungent, and sour also affect the humeral system. It is in this way that Hippocrates intended physicians to "make food your medicine". FOOD AS POISON:  From a traditional perspective, the primary agenda for any meal is to benefit from the medicinal quality of food.  Any factor which interferes with this agenda degrades the value of the meal as much as nutrition is concerned.  Eating while reading, watching television, driving, or talking on the phone will all effect the nutritional value of a meal, according to the traditions of Unani-Tibb.  It is observed that when patients engage in these distractions, they not only fail to observe the pleasure and satisfaction of eating, but there is also a tendency to overeat. DIAGNOSIS:  The diagnosis of diseases in Unani system of medicine is through examination of pulse, urine and stool.  This system observes the influence of surroundings and ecological conditions such as air, food, drinks, body movement, psychic movement, sleep and wakefulness and excretion and retention on the state of health. 40  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK  This influence causes a dominance of one of the four humours in every human body. Unani believes that it is this dominance which gives a man his individual habit and complexion i.e his temperament. MAINTENCE OF GOOD HEALTH: Unaniphilosophy dictates that good health can be maintained if the relative proportions of 4 humors are kept stable. Keeping this in mind, hakims advocate 6 methods to keep these humors in balance:  Inhalation of pure air.  Moderate intake of foods and drinks -- too much or too little of certain foods and drinks can stimulate an imbalance in the proportions of the humors.  Proper excretion is necessary.  Adequate sleep is needed -- excess or deficiencies can both lead to poor health.  Moderate exercise  Mental peace. MEDICAL INNOVATIONS INTRODUCED BY UNANI SYSTEM:  Avicenna was the first to describe meningitis, intubation (surgical procedure to facilitate breathing), contamination of the body by "foreign bodies" prior to infection, tuberculosis as being a communicable disease,surgical treatment of cancer.  Al Razi was the first to describe smallpox and measles.  The Arab surgeon, Al Zahrawi was the first to describe hemophilia and also the first surgeon in history to use cotton. TREATMENTS: The Hakims (Unani physicians) believe in four lines of treatment: Regimental therapy (Haj bit tadbeer) - this includes  Exercise- regular and correct massage, steam baths etc  Diet-o-therapy (hajbilghiza)- this covers a normal diet, liquid diet for flushing out the system, and a semi-solid diet that will allow the digestive 41  1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY BILAL MALIK system a rest without resorting to the comparative extreme of a liquid diet.  Pharmacotherapy (haj bid dawa) - the prescription of medicines derived from animal, mineral or plant sources. Most of the drugs are of herbal origin. These are prepared such that there are no side- effects.  Surgery (jarahat) - this includes cupping, leeching and cauterization. PREVENTION AND CURE: Looking more to prevention than cure, Unani medicine holds that close attention to six essential factors will ensure a “Disease-and-stress-free life”.  These factors are: air, food and drink, physical activity and rest, mental activity , sleeping habits, and retention & evacuation. BENEFITS: Unani- tibbipractitioners still treat people with herbal remedies, for a variety of illnesses. In the Islamic world, many of the poorer people who cannot afford“Allopathic medicine” still use traditional medicine. There are also people who prefer unani- tibbi to allopathic medicine, as indeed, the traditional unani-tibbi remedies do not cause side effects commonly experienced with allopathic drugs. DR HAROON KHAN ( ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR AWKUM) CR BILAL MALIK PHARAMCOGONSY NOTES 2ND PROF ABDUL WALI KHAN UNIVERSITY MARDAN 03349306305 [email protected] 42  2.CRUDE DRUGS BY BILAL MALIK Crude Drug: The term “Crude”, is used in relation to natural products. A crude drug is a natural drug of plant or animal origin which has undergone no treatment other than collection and drying, that is, the quality or appearance of the drug has not been advanced in values or improved in conditions by any physical or chemical treatment. For example: Digitalis leaf, Rauwolfia root etc. Preparation of Drugs for Commercial Market Following are different steps performed for preparation of drugs for market. Collection Harvesting Drying Garbling Packaging, storage, and preservation 1. Collection Collection of drugs from cultivated plants always insures a true natural source and a reliable product. This may, or may not, be the case when drugs are collected from wild plants. Carelessness or ignorance on the part of the collector can result in complete or partial substitution. This is especially true when drugs are difficult to collect or the natural source is scarce. Many drugs are collected from wild plants sometimes on a fairly extensive scale (tragacanth, senna) when collection is the vocation of the gatherer, and sometimes on a limited scale when collection is an avocation (podophyllum, hydrastis). Because drugs come from all over the world, collection areas are almost universal, and collectors may vary from uneducated natives to highly skilled botanists. BILAL MALIK 43  2.CRUDE DRUGS BY BILAL MALIK Time of collecting: The proper time of collecting is particularly important because the nature and quantity of constituents vary greatly in some species according to the season. The most advantageous collection time is when the part of the plant that constitutes the drug is highest in its content of active principles and when the material will dry to give the maximum quality and appearance. 1. Collecting of medicinal plants A. Suitable time for collection The amount of a constituent is usually not constant throughout the life of a plant. The stage at which a plant is collected or harvested is, therefore, very important for maximizing the yield of the desired constituent. The differences are sometimes not only quantitative but also qualitative. B. Rules for collection The following general rules are based on assuming that the material is best collected when the organ in question has reached its optimal state of development: 1. Roots and rhizomes are collected at the end of the vegetation period, i.e. usually in the autumn. In most cases they must be washed free of adhering soil and sand. 2. Bark is collected in the spring. 3. Leaves and herbs are collected at the flowering stage. 4. Flowers are usually gathered when fully developed. 5. Fruits and seeds are collected when fully ripe.. Methods of collection Medicinal plants must be largely collected by hand. This is especially true in the case of wild plants. 44  2.CRUDE DRUGS BY BILAL MALIK With cultivation on a large scale, it may be possible to use modern agricultural harvesters, but in many cases, e.g. barks, manual collection is unavoidable. Thus, the cost of drug production is largely the cost of the labor involved. 2. Harvesting The mode of harvesting varies with each drug produced and with the pharmaceutical requirements of each drug. Some drugs may be collected by hand labor; however, when the cost of labor is an important factor, the use of mechanical devices is often more successful in economic production of the drug. With some drugs, where the skillful selection of plant parts is an important factor (digitalis), mechanical devices cannot replace hand labor. 3. Drying By drying the plant material, one removes sufficient moisture to ensure good keeping qualities and to prevent molding, the action of enzymes, the action of bacteria, and chemicals or other possible changes. Drying fixes the constituents, facilitates grinding and milling, and converts the drug into a more convenient form for commercial handling. Proper and successful drying involves two main principles:  Control of temperature.and  Regulation of air flow.  Control of the drying operation is determined by the nature of the material to be dried and by the desired appearance of the finished product. The plant material can be dried either by the sun or by the use of artificial heat.  With some natural products, such as vanilla, processes of fermentation or sweating are necessary to bring about changes in the constituents. Such drugs require special drying processes, usually called "curing." “You only live once, but if you do it right, once is enough.” 45  2.CRUDE DRUGS BY BILAL MALIK  4. Garbling  Garbling is the final step in the preparation of a crude drug. Garbling consists of the removal of extraneous matter, such as other parts of the plant, dirt, and added adulterants.  This step is done to some extent during collection, but should be carried out after the drug is dried and before the drug is baled or packaged. Although garbling may be done by mechanical means in some cases, it is usually a semiskilled operation. A. Drying The most common method for preserving plant material is drying. Enzymatic processes take place in aqueous solution. Rapid removal of the water from the cell will, therefore, largely prevent degradation of the cell constituents. Drying also decreases the risk of external attack, e.g. by moulds. Living plant material has a high water content: leaves may contain 60- 90% water, roots and rhizomes 70-85%, and wood 40-50%. The lowest percentage, often no more than 5-10%, is found in seeds. To stop the enzymic processes, the water content must be brought down to about 10 %. Drying must be done quickly, in other words at raised temperatures and with rapid and efficient removal of the water vapor. The most efficient drying is achieved in large driers of the tunnel type. The plant material is spread out on shallow trays, which are placed on mobile racks and passed into a tunnel where they meet a stream of warm air. The air temperature is kept at 20-40 °C for thin materials such as leaves, but is often raised to 60-70 °C for plant parts that are harder to dry, e.g. roots and barks. 46  2.CRUDE DRUGS BY BILAL MALIK When the crude drug has been collected under primitive conditions, without access to a drier, it must be dried in the open air. Even then, the material should be spread out in shallow layers with good ventilation to facilitate the drying. The choice of sunshine or shade is determined by the sensitivity to light of the constituents. In a dried drug the enzymes are not destroyed but only rendered inactive due to the low water content. As soon as water is added, they become active again. Hence, dried drugs must be protected from moisture during storage.  5: Packaging, storage, and preservation  The packaging of drugs depends on their final disposition.  In commerce, if transportation, storage, and ultimate use for manufacturing purposes are involved, it is customary to choose the type of packaging that provides ample protection to the drug and gives economy of space.  Leaf and herb material is usually baled with power balers into a solid compact mass that is then sewn into a burlap cover.  Senna leaves from India come in bales of 400 lb; stramonium from Argentina in bales of 700 lb.  Drugs that are likely to deteriorate from absorbed moisture (digitalis, ergot) are packed in moisture-proof cans. Gums, resins, and extracts are shipped in barrels, boxes, or casks.  Proper storage and preservation are important factors in maintaining a high degree of quality of the drug. Hard-packed bales, barks and resinous drugs usually reabsorb little moisture. But leaf, herb and root drugs that are not well packed tend to absorb amounts of moisture that reach 10, 15, or even 30% of the weight of the drug. Excessive moisture not only increases the weight of the drug, thus reducing the %age of active constituents, but also favors enzymatic activity and facilitates fungal growth.  Light adversely affects drugs that are highly colored, rendering them unattractive and possibly causing undesirable changes in constituents. 47  2.CRUDE DRUGS BY BILAL MALIK  The oxygen of the air increases oxidation of the constituents of drugs, especially when oxidases are present. Therefore, the warehouse should be cool, dark, and well ventilated with dry air. The protection of drugs against attacks by insects must not be overlooked. The insects that infest vegetable drugs belong chiefly to the orders Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. For destruction of insects and prevention of their attacks, a number of methods have been employed.  The simplest & the most efficient method is to expose the drug to a temperature of 65°C which not only prevents insect attacks, but also many other forms of deterioration.  For the fumigation of large lots of crude drugs, such as those stored in warehouses and manufacturing plants, the use of methyl bromide has met with considerable success.  Small lots of drugs may readily be stored in tight, light-resistant containers e.g. tin cans, covered metal bins, or amber glass containers.  Drugs should not be stored in wooden boxes or in drawers and never in paper bags. Not only is deterioration hastened, but odors are communicated from one drug to another, attacks by insects are facilitated, and destruction by mice and rats may occur.  If drugs in small quantities are stored in tight containers, insect attack can he controlled by adding to the container a few drops of chloroform or CCl4 from time to time.  In the case of digitalis and ergot, whose low moisture content must be maintained at all times, the insertion of a suitable cartridge or device containing a non-liquefying, inert, dehydrating substance may be introduced into the tight container.  Because high temperatures accelerate all chemical reactions, including those involved in deterioration, drugs must always be stored at as low temperature as much as possible. 48  2.CRUDE DRUGS BY BILAL MALIK  The ideal temperature is just above freezing, but since this is impractical in most cases, the warehouse or other storage place should be as cool as possible.  Certain drugs such as the biologicals, must be stored at a temperature between 2 and 8ċ. 49  3.Genral plants THE STUDY OF THE CRUDE DRUGS BE;ONGING TO VARIOUS FAMILIES OF MEDICINAL IMPORTANCE: Name Families Crude Drugs Aconitum, Larkspur, Pulsatilla, Hydrastis A Ranunculaceae Fennel, Carum, Coriander, Conium, Asafoetida B Umbelliferae Papaver somniferum, Sanguinaria, Canadensis C Papaveraceae Acacia, Glycyrrhiza, Senna, Cassia, Tamarind D. Leguminosae Rauwolfia, Catharanthus E Apocynaceae Belladonna, Hyoscyamus, Stramonium, Capsicum F Solanaceae Digitalis, Verbascum (Mullien). G Scrophulariaceae Garlic, Colchicum, Aloe H Liliaceae Ginger, Curcuma I Zingiberaceae Peppermint, Thyme, Spearmint, Salvia, Ocimum J Labiatae K Artemisia, Silybum marianum, Echinaceae, Compositae Gymnema sylvestre, Calotropis gigantean L Asclepiadaceae Arctium lappa  A.FAMILY RANUNCULACEAE:  Ranunculaceae (buttercup or crowfoot family) are a family of about 1700 species of flowering plants in about 60 genera, distributed worldwide.  The largest genera are  Ranunculus (600 species),  Delphinium (365),  Thalictrum (330),  Clematis (325), and  Aconitum (300). Some Genera of Ranunculaceae:  1.Aconitum  2.Larkspur (Delphinium/ Consolida)  3.Pulsatilla  4.Hydrastis 1. Aconitum Aka: Aconite, monkshood, wolf's bane, devil's helmet, Queen of all Poisons.  Plant Name: Aconite  Scientific Name: Aconitum napellus  Common Name: Zarmora (Pushto); Meetha Zehar (Urdu); Monkshood; Wolfsbane, Blue Rocket, Friar's Cap.  Family: Ranunculaceae  Genus of over 250 species.  E.g., A. napellus, A. luridum, A. ferox. A. lycoctonum.  Geographical Source: Cultivated plants – Great Britain ; wild plants growing on the lower mountain slopes – Central & Northern Europe. Exported chiefly from Germany. (Endemic to Western & Central Europe).  Plant Description: The plant is perennial, with a fleshy, Spindle- shaped root, pale colored when young, but subsequently acquiring a dark  brown skin. The stem is about 3 feet high, with dark green, glossy leaves, deeply divided in palmate manner and dark blue flowers in erect clusters.  The dark green leaves of Aconitum species lack stipules. They are palmate or deeply palmately lobed with 5–7 segments. Each segment again is 3-lobed with coarse sharp teeth. The leaves have a spiral (alternate) arrangement. The lower leaves have long petioles.  The tall, erect stem is crowned by racemes of large blue, purple, white, yellow or pink zygomorphic flowers with numerous stamens.  One of the five petaloid sepals (the posterior one), called the galea, is in the form of a cylindrical helmet. There are 2–10 petals. The two upper petals are large and are placed under the hood of the calyx and are supported on long stalks. They have a hollow spur at their apex, containing the nectar.  The fruit is an aggregate of follicles, a follicle being a dry many-seeded structure. Cultivation:  Several species of Aconitum are cultivated in gardens, having either blue or yellow flowers.  They are easily propagated by divisions of the root or by seeds; care should be taken not to leave pieces of the root where livestock might be poisoned.  Aconite prefers a soil slightly retentive of moisture and flourishes best in shades.  PART USED: The leaves, stem, flowering tops and root.  The root contains:  0.3 to 1% alkaloid matter consisting of Aconitine, Benzaconine and Aconine.  Collection :  The leaves and flowering tops are of less important, they are employed for preparing Extract of Aconitum. Flowers are cut when they’re just breaking into blossom and leaves are in their best condition in June.  The roots are collected in the autumn, after the stem dies down but before the bud that is to produce the next year’s stem has begun to develop. The proportion of starch and alkaloids is maximum at this stage.  DRYING:  Drying may at first be done in the open air, spread thinly or spread on clean floors or on shelves in a warm place for about ten days, turning frequently.  When somewhat shrunken, they should be dried quickly by artificial heat.  The root is liable to attack by insects and after being well dried should be kept in securely closed vessels.  Description of Part Used: Dried roots are about 4 – 10 cm long, conical in shape, 2 – 3 cm wide at the crown and tapering to a point at the lower end. Externally they are dark brown, and bear numerous small circular scars where the fibrous lateral roots have been removed. In some English drugs these fibrous roots are present and contain proportion of alkaloid as the main tap- root. At the widest part of the crown there is one or more scars left by the removal of ‘daughter’ roots from ‘parent’ roots. The fracture is short, exposed surface being either white or brown. Constituents:  Contains 3 closely allied alkaloids:  aconitine, picraconitine & aconine.  Also very small amount of 5 other alkaloids are present, viz.  mesaconitine, hypaconitine, neopelline, napelline and nealline.  Other constituents are starch and aconitic acid.  Total amount of alkaloids present is 0.2-1.5 % but up to 2.9 % has also been recorded.  Uses:  Anodyne, diuretic and diaphoretic.  The value of aconite as a medicine has been more fully realized in modern times, and It is now ranked as one of our most useful drugs. It is much used in homeopathy.  All medicines obtained from it come under table 1 of the poison schedule. Aconite is a deadly poison.  Tincture, liniment and ointment of Aconite are used. Sometimes given as hypodermic injection.  Most preparations are employed for outward application locally to the skin to diminish pain of neuralgia, lumbago and rheumatism.  The official tincture (BP) taken internally diminishes the rate of force of the pulse in early stages od fevers and slight local inflammation.  Aconitine was previously used as an antipyretic and analgesic and still has some limited application in herbal medicine although the narrow therapeutic index makes calculating appropriate dosage difficult.  Preparations of Aconite and its principal alkaloid aconitine, when applied to skin/ mouth, produces tingling followed by numbness.  Aconitum napellus is grown in gardens for its attractive spike like inflorescences and showy blue flowers.  A. napellus contains several poisonous compounds, including enough cardiac poison that it was used on spears and arrows for hunting and battle in ancient times.  Used in certain forms of neuralgia and rheumatism. If administered internally, aconite produces steady fall of temperature, moistening of skin, increased amount of urine and lowering of sensibility.  Extremely poisonous, (roots possess depressant activity, but after mitigation in cow’s milk for 2–3 days, they exhibit stimulant activity.)  It is used ethnomedically in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), to treat coldness & general debility. Toxicology:  All the species contain an active poison Aconitine, it exists in all parts of the plant, but especially in the root.  The smallest portion of either root or leaves, when first put into the mouth, occasions burning and tingling, and a sense of numbness immediately follows its continuance.  According to a review of different reports of aconite poisoning in humans the following clinical features were observed: 1. Neurological: paresthesia and numbness of face, muscle weakness in limbs; 2. Cardiovascular: hypotension, palpitations, chest pain, bradycardia, sinus tachycardia, ventricular ectopics, ventricular arrhythmias, and junctional rhythm; 3. Gastrointestinal: nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea; 4. Others: dizziness, hyperventilation, sweating, difficulty breathing, confusion, headache, and lacrimation  The estimated lethal dose of pure aconitine can be as low as 2 mg.  2.Larkspur (Delphinium)  Delphinium is a genus of about 300 species.  Plant Name: Larkspur  Scientific Name: Consolida ajacis, Delphinium ajacis  Common Name: Gul e nafarmaan, Zuban dar qafa, Rocket larkspur, doubtful knight's spur. (syn. Consolida ambigua, Delphinium ambiguum)  Family: Ranunculaceae  Part Used: Seeds  Geographical Source: Indigenous To Europe and cultivated in all regions of North America  Description of Part Used: The leaves are alternate, the lower ones with petioles 1/2 inch long, the upper ones sessile, or nearly so.  Flowers are blue to purple, pink and white followed by glabrous follicles containing black, flattened seeds with acute edges and pitted surfaces. The seeds are poisonous having an acrid and bitter taste without any odor.  Constituents:  The chief constituents of seeds are from 20 – 25 % of alkaloidal matter, which consists chiefly of the bitter, crystalline alkaloid – Delphinine (an irritant poison),  a second crystalline alkaloid named Delphisine, and  the amorphous alkaloid Delphinoidine.  Plant Description: It is an annual herb with upright & round stems reaching a heiht of one foot or more high , pubescent and divided into alternate, dividing branches.  Perennial flowering plants. (life cycle lasts for more than 2 years)  The leaves are deeply lobed with three to seven toothed, pointed lobes in a palmate shape. The main flowering stem is erect, and varies greatly in size between the species, from 10 centimetres up to 2 m tall.  In June and July (Northern Hemisphere), the plant is topped with a raceme of many flowers, varying in color from purple and blue, to red, yellow, or white.  In most species each flower consists of five petal-like sepals which grow together to form a hollow pocket with a spur (calyx) at the end. Within the sepals are four true petals, small, inconspicuous, and commonly colored similarly to the sepals.  The seeds are small and often shiny black. They are poisonous, have an acrid and bitter taste, but are inodorous. The plants flower from late spring to late summer, and are pollinated by butterflies and bumble bees.  Toxicology:  All parts of these plants are considered toxic to humans, especially the younger parts, causing severe digestive discomfort if ingested, and skin irritation.  A significant cause of cattle poisoning on rangelands in the western United States.  Death is through cardiotoxic and neuromuscular blocking effects, and can occur within a few hours of ingestion.  All parts of the plant contain various diterpenoid alkaloids, typified by methyllycaconitine, so are very poisonous.  Delphinine a toxic diterpenoid alkaloid acting as an allosteric modulator of voltage gated sodium channels,and producing low blood pressure, slowed heart rate and abnormal heart rhythms.  These effects make it highly poisonous (LD50 1.5–3.0 mg/kg in rabbit and dog) but in very small doses it has some uses in herbal medicine. Medicinal Uses:  The part used medicinally is the seed, a tincture of which acts as a parasiticide and insecticide, being used to destroy lice and nits in the hair. (During the Great War, when the men in the trenches took the trouble to use it, the results were said to be quite successful.)  Tincture of seed acts as a parasiticide and insecticide, being used to destroy lice in the hair. The tincture, given in 10-drop doses, gradually increased, is also employed in spasmodic asthma and dropsy (edema).  The expressed juice of the leaves is considered good as an application to bleeding piles, and a conserve made of the flowers was formerly held to be an excellent medicine for children when subject to violent purging.  The juice of the flowers and an infusion of the whole plant was also prescribed against colic.  The expressed juice of the petals with the addition of a little alum makes a good blue ink.  The name Delphinium, from Delphin (a dolphin), was given to this genus because the buds were held to resemble a dolphin. Shakespeare mentions the plant under the name of Lark's Heel.  The name Consolida refers to the plant's power of consolidating wounds.  3.Pulsatilla: Pasque flower, wind flower, prairie crocus, Easter Flower, meadow anemone.  Plant Name: Pulsatilla  Scientific Name: Anemone Pulsatilla  Common Name: Pasque Flower, Wind Flower, Meadow Anemone, Passe Flower, Easter Flower, Shaqaiq nomani.  Family: Ranunculaceae  Part Used: Whole herb  Geographical Source:  It grows wild in the dry soils of almost every Central and Northern country of Europe, but in England is rather a local plant.  Plant Description:  The whole plant, especially the bases of the foot-stalks, is covered with silky hairs. It is odorless, but possesses at first a very acrid taste, which is less conspicuous in the dried herb and gradually diminishes on keeping. The majority of the leaves develop after the flowers.  Description of Part Used:  It has a thick and somewhat woody root-stock, from which arises a rosette of finely-divided, stalked leaves which are covered with silky hairs, especially when young. The flowers, which are about 1½ inches across, are born singly on stalks 5 – 8 inches in height.  Constituents:  The fresh plant yields Oil of Anemone by distillation with water which has burning, peppery taste.  When kept for some time, this oily substance becomes decomposed into Anemonic acid and Anemonin.  Contains about 33 species of herbaceous perennials.  Native to meadows and prairies of North America Europe, and Asia.  DESCRIPTION  It has a thick and somewhat woody root-stock, from which arises a rosette of stalked, finely-divided leaves, covered with silky hairs, especially when young.  Solitary bell-shaped flowers, and plumed seed heads. The showy part of the flower consists of sepals, not petals.  It is odourless, but possesses at first a very acrid taste, which is less conspicuous in the dried herb and gradually diminishes on keeping.   PART USED: The whole herb is collected, soon after flowering, and should be carefully preserved when dried; it deteriorates if kept longer than one year Main chemical constituent:  The fresh plant yields by distillation with water an acrid, oily principle, with a burning, peppery taste, Oil of Anemone.  When kept for some time,this oily substance becomes decomposed into Anemonic acid and Anemonin.  The action of Pulsatilla is virtually that of this crystalline substance Anemonin, which is a powerful irritant, like cantharides, in overdoses causing violent gastro-enteritis. Anemonin sometimes causes local inflammation and gangrene when subcutaneously injected, vomiting and purging when given internally. Anemonicacid appears to be inert. Medicinal Uses & Toxicity:  Pulsatilla is highly toxic, and produces cardiogenic toxins and oxytoxins which slow the heart in humans. Excess use can lead to diarrhea, vomiting and convulsions, hypotension and coma.  It has been used as a medicine by Native Americans for centuries. Blackfoot Indians used it to induce abortions and childbirth. Pulsatilla should not be taken during pregnancy nor during lactation.  Extracts of Pulsatilla have been used to treat reproductive problems.  Additional applications of plant extracts include uses as a sedative and for treating coughs.  Pulsatilla koreana is a traditional Korean herbal medicine. The rhizomes of. P. koreana have been used as a traditional Korean medicine for amoebic dysentery,malaria, epistaxis, leucorrhoea, scrofula, internal hemorrhoids and also as a contraceptive. The root is antiinflammatory and antiparasitic.  In homoeopathy it is considered very efficacious and even a specific in measles. It is prescribed as a good remedy for nettlerash and also for neuralgic toothache and earache, and is administered in indigestion and bilious attacks.  Its nervine stimulant, antispasmodic and diaphoretic.   The tincture of Pulsatilla is beneficial in disorders of the mucous membrane of the respiratory and digestive passages.  Doses of 2 – 3 drops in a spoonful of water will relieve the spasmodic cough of asthma, whooping-cough and bronchitis.  The tincture is given for catarrhal affection of the eyes, as well as for catarrhal diarrhea.  It is also a remedy for nerve exhaustion in women. 4.Hydrastis Hydrastis candensis aka Goldenseal, yellow root, orange root, yellow puccoon. Plant Name: Hydrastis Scientific Name: Hydrastis canadensis Common Name: Golden seal, orange root. Family: Ranunculaceae Part Used: Rhizome Geographical Source: Widely distributed in woods in Canada and Eastern U.S. Plant Description: Small herbacious plant with perennial rhizome which is collected in autumn and dried. The stem is purplish and hairy above ground and yellow below ground where it connects to the yellow rhizome. Description of Part Used: Rhizome grows either horizontally or in an oblique direction in ground; it is convoluted and sub – cylindrical about 1 – 6 cm long & 3 – 10 mm thick. The surface is yellowish brown markedly rough from the presence of numerous remains of the slim, wiry roots, arising from all parts of the rhizome. Roughness is also due to numerous stem bases and scale leaves on the upper surface. Fracture is short & resinous. Fractured surface fluoresces brilliant yellow in UV light. Drug has faint, characteristic odour and a bitter taste. It gives yellow colour to saliva upon chewing. Constituents: Principal constituents are alkaloids Hydrastin 1.5 – 3.5 %, berberin about 2.5 % and canadine. In addition resin, starch and a trace of volatile oil is present.  Habitat The plant is a native of Canada and the eastern United States. It is found in the rich soil of shady woods and moist places at the edge of wooded lands.  DESCRIPTION It is a perennial herb. It may be distinguished by its thick, yellow knotted rootstock. The stem is purplish and hairy above ground and yellow below ground where it connects to the yellow rhizome. The plant bears two palmate, hairy leaves with 5–7 double-toothed lobes and single, small, inconspicuous flowers with greenish white stamens in the late spring. It bears a single berry like a large raspberry with 10–30 seeds in the summer. Cultivation:  The best conditions for the cultivation of Golden Seal are said to be a well-drained soil, rich in humus, in a partially shaded situation.  The root-stocks are divided into small pieces and then planted about 8 inches apart in rows. Seeds are not considered reliable.  Plantations thus formed take two or three years to grow to marketable size, the rhizomes deteriorating in their fourth year.  The fresh rhizome is juicy and loses much of its weight in drying. When fresh, it has a well-marked, narcotic odour, which is lost in a great measure by age, when it acquires a peculiar sweetish smell, somewhat resembling liquorice root. It has a very bitter, feebly opiate taste, more especially when freshly dried. Constituents:  Goldenseal contains the isoquinoline alkaloids: Hydrastine, berberine, berberastine, hydrastinine, tetrahydroberberastine, canadine, and canalidine.  One study analyzed the hydrastine and berberine contents of twenty commercial goldenseal and goldenseal-containing products and found they contained variously 0%-2.93% hydrastine and 0.82%-5.86% berberine.  The lethal dose (LD50) of berberine isolates in humans is thought to be 27.5 mg/kg  SIDE EFFECTS of goldenseal may include "digestive complaints, nervousness, depression, constipation, rapid heartbeat, diarrhea, stomach cramps and pain, mouth ulcers, nausea, seizures, vomiting, and central nervous system depression. High doses may cause breathing problems, paralysis, and even death. Long-term use may lead to vitamin B deficiency, hallucinations, and delirium. Medicinal Uses:  In herbal medicine, goldenseal is often used as a multi-purpose remedy, and is thought to possess many different medicinal properties.  In addition to being used as a topical antimicrobial.  Goldenseal is very bitter, which stimulates the appetite and aids digestion, and often stimulates bile secretion  Goldenseal has been ascribed the following herbal properties (whole herb): hepatic, alterative(restorative), anticatarrhal, anti- inflammatory, antimicrobial, laxative, anti-diabetic, muscle stimulant, and oxytocic.  Goldenseal may be purchased in salve, tablet, tincture form, or as a bulk powder. Goldenseal is often used to boost the medicinal effects of other herbs with which it is blended or formulated.  Rhizome is a bitter tonic.  It is used in chronic gastrointestinal catarrh and nasal inflammation.  Also used as stomachic and nervine stimulant.  In menorrhagia & inflammation of uterine mucus membrane.  Employed locally in various kinds of ulceration and hemorrhage.  B.FAMILY UMBELLIFERAE:  The Apiaceae or Umbelliferae, commonly known as the celery, carrot or parsley family,  Apiaceae or Umbelliferae family of mostly aromatic plants with hollow stems.  The family, which is named after the type genus Apium, is large, with more than 3,700 species spread across 434 genera  it is the 16th-largest family of flowering plants.  Most Apiaceae are annual, biennial or perennial herbs (frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base), though a minority are shrubs or trees.  Their leaves are of variable size and alternately arranged, or alternate with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite.  In some taxa, the texture is leathery, fleshy, or even rigid, but always with stomata.  They are petiolate or perfoliate and more or less sheathing, the blade usually dissected and pinnatifid, but entire in some genera  Most commonly, crushing their leaves emits a marked smell, aromatic to foetid, but absent in some members.  The flowers are nearly always aggregated in terminal umbels, simple or compound, often umbelliform cymes, rarely in heads.  The defining characteristic of this family is the inflorescence: a simple or compound umbel.  Flowers across the Apiaceae are fairly uniform and are usually perfect (hermaphroditic) and actinomorphic,  but some are andromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or even dioecious (as in Acronema), with a distinct calyx and corolla,  but the calyx is often highly reduced, to the point of being undetectable in many species,  while the corolla can be white, yellow, pink or purple.  The flowers are nearly perfectly pentamerous, with five petals, sepals, and stamens.  The androecium consists of five stamens, but there is often variation in the functionality of the stamens even within a single inflorescence.  Some flowers are functionally staminate (where a pistil may be present but has no ovules capable of being fertilized)  while others are functionally pistillate (where stamens are present but their anthers do not produce viable pollen).  Pollination of one flower by the pollen of a different flower of the same plant (geitonogamy) is common  The gynoecium consists of two carpels fused into a single, bicarpellate pistil with an inferior ovary.  When mature, the fused carpels separate into two mericarps.  Stylopodiums secrete nectar, attracting pollinators like flies, mosquitoes, gnats, beetles, moths, and bees.  The fruits are nonfleshy schizocarp of two mericarps, each with a single seed; they separate at maturity and are dispersed by wind. Some fruit segments, like those in Daucusspp., are covered in bristles and spread via external transport.  The seeds have an oily endosperm  and generally contain large quantities of fatty oils, with the fatty acid petroselinic acid occurring universally throughout the family while rarely being found outside of the Apiaceae. Systematics  Apiaceae was first described by John Lindley in 1836.  The name is derived from the type genus Apium, which was originally used by Pliny the Elder circa 50 AD for a celery-like plant.  The alternative name for the family, Umbelliferae, derives from the inflorescence being generally in the form of a compound umbel.  The family was one of the first to be recognized as a distinct group in Jacques Daleschamps' 1586 Historia generalis plantarum. With Robert Morison’s 1672 Plantarum umbelilliferarum distribution nova it became the first group of plants for which a systematic study was published.  The family is solidly placed within the Apiales order in the APG III classification system.  It is closely related to Araliaceae and the boundaries between these families remain unclear.  Traditionally groups within the family have been delimited largely based on fruit morphology, and the results from this have not been congruent with the more recent molecular phylogenetic analyses.  The subfamilial and tribal classification for the family is currently in a state of flux, with many of the groups being found to be grosslyparaphyletic or polyphyletic. Ecology  The black swallowtail butterfly, Papilio polyxenes, uses the Apiaceae family for food and host plants for oviposition.[ Uses  Many members of this family are cultivated for various purposes.  The plant structure includes a tap root, which can be large enough to be useful in food, as with parsnips(Pastinaca sativa), carrots (Daucus carota), and Hamburg parsley (Petroselinum crispum).  Many plants of this group are also adapted to conditions that encourage heavy concentrations of essential oils, and as a result some are flavourful aromatic herbs. Examples are parsley (Petroselinum crispum), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), culantro, anddill (Anethum graveolens).  The plentiful seeds of the umbels, likewise, are sometimes used in cuisine, as with, coriander (Coriandrum sativum), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare),cumin (Cuminum cyminum), and caraway (Carum carvi). Cultivation  Generally, all members of this family are best cultivated in the cool- season garden; indeed, they may not grow at all if the soils are too warm.  Almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a considered useful as a companion plant.  One reason is because the tiny flowers clustered into umbels, are well suited for ladybugs, parasitic wasps, and predatory flies, which actually drink nectar when not reproducing.  They then prey upon insect pests on nearby plants.  Some of the members of this family considered "herbs" produce scents that are believed to mask the odours of nearby plants, thus making them harder for insect pests to find. The poisonous members of the Apiaceae have been used for a variety of purposes globally.  The poisonous Oenanthe crocata has been used to stupefy fish, Cicuta douglasii has been used as an aid in suicides, and arrow poisons have been made from various other family species.  Daucus carota has been used as coloring for butter and its roots used as a coffee substitute.  Dorema ammoniacum, Ferula galbaniflua, and Ferula sumbul are sources of incense.  The woody Azorella compacta Phil. has been used in South America for fuel.  Chemistry.  Apiaceae vegetables including carrot, celery, fennel, parsley and parsnip, contain polyynes, an unusual class of organic compounds that show cytotoxic activities.  Many species contain coumarins or coumarin derivatives, such as furanocoumarins. Some Genera of umbelliferae:  1.FENNEL  2.CARUM  3.CORIANDER  4.CONIUM  5.ASAFOETIDA  1.Fennel:  Plant Name: Fennel fruits, Fructus Foeniculi.  Scientific Name: Foeniculum vulgare  Common Name: Saunf, Badiyan, Bari saunf, Raziana, Kaga.  Family: Umbelliferae  Part Used: Dried ripe fruit  Geographical Source: Indigenous to shores of the Mediterranean. Several varieties of plant are cultivated in Saxony, Russia, Galicia, Romania etc. Also cultivated in India, Pakistan, Japan and other countries.  Plant Description: Perennial aromatic herbaceous plant. The flowers are produced in terminal compound umbels having 20–50 tiny yellow flowers on short pedicels.  Description of Part Used: Fruits are oval – oblong, about 6 – 10 mm long & 3 – 4 mm wide and are greenish brown to yellowish brown. They have an agreeable and aromatic odour and taste somewhat resembling that of anise. Cultivation:  Fennel is widely cultivated, both in its native range and elsewhere, for its edible,